Chapter 11 Exploring Our Geographic World * DistanceTime and distance are very important concepts in the social studies curriculum.Children’s sense of time develops gradually.Maps and globes help children understand distance, direction, and location. * MapsMaps show portions of the earth, which is a sphere, on a flat surface.Maps must compromise size, distance, and proportion.Maps are abstract representations of reality.Maps do not show everything, but only what is important to a researcher.Maps are resources used to communicate reality in a selective way. * Experiential Approaches to TeachingTraditional textbook approaches are less effective than experiential approaches.Hands on experiences are very important for young children to make connections between the landscape and its graphic representation.Children begin making maps at a very young age when they draw pictures. * The Five Themes of GeographyThe five themes of geography can provide points of reference for activities related to geography and include: Location Place Interaction Movement Region * Location & PlaceTeachers can introduce the concept of location by discussing absolute location.The absolute location is at a particular intersect of longitude and latitude or the address that locates a place within a city or town.Relative location involves how near or far a place is to other places.A place has certain characteristics such as whether it is cold, dry, humid, flat or hilly. * Interaction, Movement & RegionThe concept of interaction focuses on the way people change and use their environment.Movement is a concept which explains the way people move from location to location. For example, children go to school each morning and leave in the afternoon.A region describes aspects such as suburban, rural, middle class, and so forth. * Helping Students Learn to Make and Read MapsStudents need to observe and record in order to make maps.Teachers can help students develop these skills by including a number of activities.An ideal starting point is the school. * Mental MapsA mental map refers to images of places in our heads.All of us have been to many places and can also imagine images of places we have never been to.Mental maps are useful because people like to think about places they have been to and places they’ve never visited.Mental maps are not necessarily accurate. * Traverse MapsA traverse map represents a line through an area such as a river, street or boundary.Children can make such a map by walking through a block and observing and recording what is on the two sides of the street.When children do observe and record to gather information, they are doing fieldwork. * Visualizing SpaceVisualizing space involves the ability to give directions from familiar places such as how to go home from school.Children also tend to enjoy this process and teachers can take advantage of this by offering students activities that allow the ...

1. Chapter 11
Exploring Our Geographic World
*
DistanceTime and distance are very important concepts in the
social studies curriculum.Children’s sense of time develops
gradually.Maps and globes help children understand distance,
direction, and location.
*
MapsMaps show portions of the earth, which is a sphere, on a
flat surface.Maps must compromise size, distance, and
proportion.Maps are abstract representations of reality.Maps do
not show everything, but only what is important to a
researcher.Maps are resources used to communicate reality in a
selective way.

2. *
Experiential Approaches to TeachingTraditional textbook
approaches are less effective than experiential
approaches.Hands on experiences are very important for young
children to make connections between the landscape and its
graphic representation.Children begin making maps at a very
young age when they draw pictures.
*
The Five Themes of GeographyThe five themes of geography
can provide points of reference for activities related to
geography and include:
Location
Place
Interaction
Movement
Region
*
Location & PlaceTeachers can introduce the concept of location
by discussing absolute location.The absolute location is at a

3. particular intersect of longitude and latitude or the address that
locates a place within a city or town.Relative location involves
how near or far a place is to other places.A place has certain
characteristics such as whether it is cold, dry, humid, flat or
hilly.
*
Interaction, Movement & RegionThe concept of interaction
focuses on the way people change and use their
environment.Movement is a concept which explains the way
people move from location to location. For example, children go
to school each morning and leave in the afternoon.A region
describes aspects such as suburban, rural, middle class, and so
forth.
*
Helping Students Learn to Make and Read MapsStudents need
to observe and record in order to make maps.Teachers can help
students develop these skills by including a number of
activities.An ideal starting point is the school.
*

4. Mental MapsA mental map refers to images of places in our
heads.All of us have been to many places and can also imagine
images of places we have never been to.Mental maps are useful
because people like to think about places they have been to and
places they’ve never visited.Mental maps are not necessarily
accurate.
*
Traverse MapsA traverse map represents a line through an area
such as a river, street or boundary.Children can make such a
map by walking through a block and observing and recording
what is on the two sides of the street.When children do observe
and record to gather information, they are doing fieldwork.
*
Visualizing SpaceVisualizing space involves the ability to give
directions from familiar places such as how to go home from
school.Children also tend to enjoy this process and teachers can
take advantage of this by offering students activities that allow
them to this.An example of such an activity is to assign students
to map places mentioned in a story they read.

5. *
Aerial Maps & PhotographsThe physical perspective of a map
maker is often referred to as a bird’s-eye view.To help students
understand this perspective teachers can have them photograph
blocks that are laid out that represent a village.Aerial
photographs are widely available and can help students make
their own maps.
*
Changing the Scale of a Map3 techniques are typically used to
change the scale of a map:
The mechanical methodThe optical methodThe mathematical
method
*
The mechanical methodThe mechanical method utilizes a
pantograph.This is an instrument which has the shape of a
parallelogram which can be set to different scales allowing
students to enlarge or reduce a map accurately.This instrument
is inexpensive and can be ordered from school supply stores.
A pantograph

6. *
The Optical MethodTeachers who use this method often use an
opaque projector to project a map on a wall and have students
trace an enlarged map from the wall.This is a very popular
method but very often leads to problems.
Students cannot reduce a map.
Students do not know the change of scale.
Distortions can occur if a book page is not lying flat on the
projector.
*
The Mathematical MethodThis method is also referred to as the
method of similar squares and can be used to enlarge and
reduce.Students use a grid which is larger or smaller than the
grid on an existing map and then connect points on a line to
construct a new line.
*
Key Map TermsAbsolute and relative
locationSymbolsProjectionScaleDirectionLines and
spaceElevationAreal association

7. *
SymbolsSymbols allow map makers to display natural and man
made features.Maps are likely to have a key which explains
what each symbol represents.
*
ProjectionProjection refers to representing the earth’s surface
on a flat map.When this happens distortions occur.Many people
think Greenland is larger than it really is for this reason.
*
ScaleScale is what determines the size of a map and also the
distance from place to place.Large scale maps represent areas
like a neighborhood close up, and small scale maps often show
the entire earth.A map’s key indicates a scale in miles,
kilometers and so forth.The scale allows students to determine
distances from place to place.
*

8. DirectionMap directions are usually set according to the points
of the compass.The cardinal directions of the compass are north,
south, east, and west.A compass rose is the map symbol that
shows direction and can indicate as many as 32 direction
*
Lines and SpaceLines on a map are used to represent the
boundaries of space.They are political and physical
boundaries.Rivers can form political and physical boundaries.
*
ElevationElevation refers to how high or low a particular pl ace
is.Nepal is where the world’s highest mountains are
located.Elevation is usually shown by color gradations or
shading.
*
Areal AssociationAreal association refers to the relationship

9. between one area and another.An example is that cities are often
located on major rivers and harbors.It can refer to both
manmade natural associations.
*
Understanding Map Projections and GlobesEllis (2007) believes
that it is difficult for children to comprehend that maps are
projections of the earth’s surface.This is why the constructivity
principle is so important.This principle states that activity must
precede analysis, and students should draw maps before
studying maps.
*
Three Common Projections of Round Earth The most common
projections of the round earth are:
The cylindrical projection
The conic projection
The plane surface projection
*

10. Helping Students Learn to Use MapsChildren learn from
educational games in which they have to go from point to
another.Teachers can give students maps and ask them to
explain how to go from one point to another.
*
Mapping DirectionsHelping students to spatially visualize oral
or written information is important.One way teachers can do
this is to read students stories involving details about places and
directions and have them draw maps of places described.
*
Mapping VariablesStudents can also do map work involving
problem solving skills.They can find different routes between
two points.For example, they can pick the most scenic route, the
fastest route, and the safest route.This type of activity not only
encourages careful observation but also promotes critical
thinking.
*

11. Studying Changes in Land UseMaps and photographs can help
students to see changes that people and nature have made over
time.In the photographs on the right, the two pictures taken
about 130 years apart show the effects of global warming.
*
Using Food to Teach GeographyA motivating way to teach
students geography is to give the ingredients of a food they
might eat such as a chocolate bar and to ask them where in the
world they could find its ingredients.A chocolate bar contains
some ingredients that do not come from the U.S.
*
Understanding PerspectiveStudents need to understand how
things appear from above the way a bird would see
something.Teachers can ask students what a bird would see and
then request students to draw a map using a bird’s eye
view.This can be done by asking students to make a village
using construction paper and then placing it on the floor so they
can look directly down on it.Students can then sketch what they
see.

12. *
Four-Color Mapping TheoryFour-color map theory emphasizes
the use of four colors without using the same colors along any
given border.Teachers can ask students to color a map of the
U.S. using this theory.This will not only engage students; it will
help them understand the concepts of space and place.
*
Estimating DistancesThere are some activities that develop
student ability to estimate distances.Teachers can set tw o
objects a certain distance apart and ask students to estimate the
distance between them.Students can then measure the distance
between them.The more students practice estimating and
measuring the more skilled they will become.
*
QuestionsWhat can teachers do to make geography motivating
and relevant to students’ lives?
Explain why maps can cause distortions?

13. *
Chapter 12
Making History Come Alive
What is History?History as defined by Ellis is a record of the
past.Old books, exhibits, and ancient maps can stimulate
children’s imaginations.Teachers can take advantage of using
oral history in the elementary grades because students relate
well to the concept of the family.Local studies often provide the
best opportunities for researching historical topics.
Stearns Offers 6 Reasons Explaining Why Young People
Should Study HistoryHistory helps students understand
societies and people.History helps people understand change
and how societies started.It is important in our lives.History
increases our moral understanding.It gives us a sense of
identity.It is essential for good citizenship.
The Power of StorytellingStorytelling is a very good way to
teach history.Some of the best historians are story tellers.Some
of the best sources to use for elementary social studies teaching
are children’s trade books.The NCSS provides a list of notable
children’s book on this webpage:

14. http://www.socialstudies.org/notableThese can be biographies
or historical fiction.Primary sources are very useful and consi st
of images, texts, and artifacts that were created at the same time
events took place.The most common resource of course is the
social studies textbook.Although many textbooks can be
motivating using primary sources and trade books will make
teaching more exiting.
Biographies Biographies describe someone’s life.The life and
times of people like Abraham Lincoln, Jane Adams, and Marie
Curie can be very motivating for young readers.Primary-age
children rely more on oral forms of learning than older
children.Teachers can bring life when they use biographies by
wearing costumes and becoming that person as they read to
children.This technique is also useful for older children.
5.bmp
Historical FictionHistorical fiction works are an important
resource for teachers because they can be used to help children
learn the difference between fact and fiction.Good historical
fiction includes real settings which helps students understand
ways of life during a particular time such as the suffering
American soldiers had to endure during the American
revolution.

15. Historical SourcesSecondary sources include textbooks,
encyclopedias, and workbooks.The main weakness with these
sources are that they include conclusions that are already
formed, but they are important because they prepare children to
use primary sources.Primary sources do not offer conclusions
and include artifacts and original texts.Children need to use
both types of sources.
Active, Hands-On, Experiential ActivitiesEllis encourages the
use of active, hands-on, experiential activities and classifies the
following activities as such:
Oral Histories
Personal Histories
Time Lines
Experiential History Activities
Oral Histories
Oral histories are especially suited to young students because
they emphasize interviews. Children can interview a number of
people including older family members, students at their school,
or with members of certain cultural groups.
Personal HistoriesPersonal histories are very motivating and
allow children to learn about the structure of historical

16. documentation.Students need to gather data and may need to
interview family members.Personal histories can involve
specific aspects of students’ lives.There are many possibilities
for using this strategy:
Students can investigate the day they were born.
They can keep journals that document events over one year.
They can pretend to be television reporters and ask other
students about a particular period.
Time LinesTime lines provide a graphic aid allowing students to
think about the difficult topic of chronology in a more concrete
way.An effective strategy for elementary students is to have
them create a personal time line consisting of a few significant
events from each year of their life.Another strategy can consist
of assigning students to create time lines including people and
events from different eras.
Experiential History ActivitiesTesting possibilities or
replicating inquiries from the past helps students feel history
come to life.Ellis (2007) offers several examples of teaching
that fulfills this goal.For example Thales traveled to Egypt
where he measured the Pyramids.Students can replicate what
Thales did by measuring things at school.Another activity
teachers can use is to give students activities which ask them to
solve riddles or interpret myths from the past.
ConclusionThe major theme of this chapter is making history
come to life.In order to do this, teachers can use the family for
student investigations on their own pasts and their ancestor’s
pasts.An easy way to start is to have students explore the day

17. they were born and relate that to what was happening in the
world at that time.Timelines of events in children’s lives and
storytelling are other useful strategies that make history come
to life.Ellis mentions that classrooms should have bulletin
boards, time lines, photographs, maps, music, art, and
drama.Finally, teachers need to be excited and enthusiastic
because these attitudes are contagious.
Chapter 9
Inquiry, Discovery, and Problem Solving
InductionSocial science research and inquiry are based on
inductive reasoning.Induction is a process which involves
gathering information, data, and evidence and putting these
together to make reasonable conclusions.The conclusions are
used in making inferences about a time, place, or event.
InquiryInquiry is a process that involves gathering data and
hypothesis testing.It is the primary method historians
use.Inquiry leads to conclusions which are hesitantly accepted
and open to further investigation.
Discovery Learning and Problem SolvingDiscovery learning
involves a search for something and is based on the idea that
new information of some kind will be found.Problem solving
involves the process of getting answers and is closely related

18. with inquiry and discovery in the sense that it aims to enable
students to know more.
The Tradition of InquiryAncient philosophers like Aristotle are
credited with doing inquiry.Aristotle, for example, emphasized
that we use the five senses in learning and wrote, “It is in doing
that we learn best.”Ellis (2007) mentions that teachers need to
provide students with sensory experiences and should help
children develop skills of systematic inquiry.Ellis (2007)
recommends the use of parables, stories, and fables to help
children think about problems, right actions, and moral issues.
Real and Contrived ProblemsReal problems happen in school
and in student’s lives.Contrived problems are beneficial to the
development of students but are not directly part of student’s
lives.
Proponents of Real and Contrived Problem SolvingProponents
of real problem solving argue that the learning process has more
meaning when it deals with an issue that is part of their every
day lives.Proponents of contrived problem solving point out that
many historical, economic, and anthropological topics requiring
inquiry are important and students may not learn about these
topics without a knowledgeable teacher.
Descriptive ResearchWhen researchers use descriptive research,
they observe human behavior and describe it through

19. observation.When anthropologists live with groups of people,
they use participant observation because they take part in the
activities of a group and also observe the group.When direct
observation is used, researchers observe without becoming
involved in a situation.
Descriptive ResearchWhen researchers use photographs,
artifacts, books, and maps, they are using indirect
observation.Another for descriptive research is interviewing
informants. This involves asking people questions about their
culture, customs, and so forth.
Activities for StudentsElementary students can do various
activities to enhance their observation and interviewing
skills.Teachers can take their students out to the playground and
ask the students to sketch a map of what they see.An alternative
is to have them make a drawing of an object they see.
Survey ResearchSometimes it is difficult or even impossible to
observe large numbers of people.In addition, it can be difficult
to observe people’s attitudes.In this case, surveys can be used to
gather information about people’s attitudes and opinions.
Important Considerations for Survey ResearchWhen conducting
surveys student researchers need to consider what to measure,
how to measure, and whom to measure.When students decide
what to measure, it is important for students to avoid writing
vague questions.

20. Important Considerations for Survey ResearchWhen deciding
how to measure, students need explore the idea of sampling.Not
everyone in an institution needs to participate in a survey in
order to make valid inferences about the feelings of the
institution’s employees.An effective alternative that leads to
valid results is to sample employee responses.
Three Different Sampling Techniques1. Simple random
selection is when participants in a survey are selected by pure
chance.2. Stratified random selection occurs when random
selection is used on two or more groups in order to get equal
representation from each group.3. Stratified selection occurs
when researchers, for example, take every tenth name from a
list.
Important Considerations for Survey ResearchWhen deciding
whom to measure, it is important that samples represent various
groups in the population.For example, if elementary student
attitudes are going to be investigated, it is important to include
students who represent various groups in the elementary grades
and to exclude all children and adults who do not fit in this
category.
Benefits of SurveysIn addition to gathering information,
surveys often lead students to take positive action.If students
are exploring their school environment, for example, to find
problems, they can late take action to help solve some of the

21. serious concerns that members of the school community feel are
most serious after data has been gathered.
Experimental ResearchExperimentation in the social sciences
often manipulates variables to determine whether a treatment
has an effect.This process generally requires an experimental
and a control group.The experimental group typically receives
an “experimental” treatment, and the control group receives
traditional treatment.
Assessment and InquiryStudents need the ability to analyze
research.Assessments are beginning to evaluate students’ ability
to analyze and apply survey results more often.Standardized
tests can require that students comprehend results and
understand the process of inquiry.
Metacognition and InquiryMetacognition is the process of
thinking about one’s own learning, and students need to explore
this process.Ellis (2007) uses an example involving observation
in which students compare the difference between observing
something alone and the difference in observing the same object
with a partner.
Chapter 8
Assessing Social Studies
Learning

22. *
Why is Assessment Important?Assessment is important for
many reasons.Most students, parents, and teachers have a desire
to make progress.In order for people to improve they need
information on how they are doing.Assessment is a way to lead
students to take learning seriously and to hold them
accountable.In this chapter, Ellis focuses on authentic,
integrated assessment strategies.
*
Assessment is Sometimes CriticizedMany teachers do not enjoy
assigning grades to students.Some teachers feel it takes the joy
out of teaching.Some teachers feel hurt when giving report
cards out to certain students.Some children find testing
traumatic.Other children are not good at taking tests.Although
many teachers feel this way, there are also times when children
feel very happy after finding out they did something very well.
*
How Should We Assess?Ellis (2007) uses an objective which

23. states: “students will develop a sense of chronology or time
order”.He then explains how teachers have to find activities that
help students have opportunities to develop their sense of
time.An example would be assigning students to make a time
line of their lives and to speculate about the future.When
students have had enough time to finish this activity, an
appropriate assessment might include writing or explaining how
a time line works.Assessments need to be valid, which means
they must be representative of the material taught.
*
Integrated Assessment StrategiesEllis (2007) mentions that
when teaching elementary social studies integrated assessment
strategies are absolutely necessary because they help teachers
have a clearer picture of their teaching, provide information
about student learning, and promote a reflective atmosphere.He
mentions three kinds of integrated assessment strategies:
Writing about learning
Talking about learning
Illustrating Learning
*
Writing about Learning“I learned” statements involve students
writing down what they have learned at the end of a lesson.Key

24. idea identification is used at the end of a lesson when students
are asked to identify a key idea.This week in review is a group
assessment used with students to reflect back over a week to
identify the most important things covered.Search for meaning
is a very useful strategy and occurs when teachers ask students
to write what is meaningful to them.
*
Writing about LearningClear and unclear windows is a strategy
in which students are required to write down how clear topics
are in two windows. Record keeping is a strategy which requires
students to keep records of the assignments they have
completed, the grades they received, the pages they read, and so
forth. This strategy helps students to be responsible and to keep
track of their work.Self-reporting occurs when students assess
their own progress.Question authoring is a strategy in which
teachers ask students to write down any questions they would
like to ask about a topic.
*
Writing about Learning
Journal entries encourage students to write about the subjects
they are studying and should be collected and returned with

25. teacher comments.Spot-check inventories allow teachers to find
out how much students have learned in a particular time period
and occur when teachers pause and ask students to write down
what they have learned. Thank-you is based on the idea that if
someone does something kind the student receiving the kind act
needs to pass it to others.
*
Talking about LearningPyramid discussions start by asking one
or two questions. Students then discuss the questions in groups
of two, then groups of four, then groups of eight, and then with
the whole class. This allows all students a chance to talk and to
think about important concepts.I can teach occurs when teachers
ask a student to teach a social studies concept to a parent or a
brother or sister. The concept behind this approach is that
students have to learn something well when they have to teach
it.Choices and feelings is based on the importance of knowing
how students feel about a lesson and happens when students are
allowed a few minutes after a lesson to write or say their
feelings.
*
Talking about LearningCircle Meetings are a good way to find
out a class’s feelings and last from 10 minutes to 1 hour. The
class sits in a circle. The meeting starts when one student tel ls
how he/she feels about how things are going. The next student

26. in the circle then goes.Thinking aloud is a 5 to 10 minute
activity in which a student discusses what he or she is learning
with a partner.
*
Illustrated LearningLearning illustrated is a process on which
students draw pictures of concepts they learned in social studies
class.Displays are important because they makes parents and
children proud of their students’ work.
*
Formal Testing
Ellis (2007) states that formal tests should be used
sparingly.They should be used to find out which areas students
need improvement on.Some teachers feel that tests leads to
problems in trust because they feel children do not always
understand the world of adults.A social studies teacher needs to
communicate the importance of test taking and
accountability.Teachers need to do all they can to make testing
humane.
*

27. Essay TestsAn extended-response question requires a student to
reason and explain.These types of questions help teachers find
out how much students know and help students learn to present
concepts in a coherent manner.Extended-response questions
should
Focus on main ideas
Elicit higher-level thinking
Be written clearly
*
Objective TestsObjective tests can include true false, multiple
choice, and matching sections.These kind of questions are
easily scored.Many of these questions can be included on a test
and as a result, they are likely to represent topics
adequately.Students who do not write good essays may be able
to demonstrate their knowledge in other ways through these
tests.These tests can also be fairer than essay tests because
teachers sometimes favor penmanship and other variables that
should not be used to assess a student.A weakness with these
tests is that teachers tend to use too many lower level questions.
*
Portfolio AssessmentPortfolio assessment is one of the most
well known approaches to authentic assessment.The term

28. authentic assessment suggests that an assessment is reality
based.These types of assessments are less threatening to
children.In a social studies class, children can build a portfolio
by adding a variety of entries.Children are responsible for
building their portfolio but support from the teacher is needed
especially with younger children.
*
Assessing your Own EffectivenessTeachers need to assess their
own teaching and reflect about their work.Ellis (2007)
recommends the use of metacognitive strategies, which help
teachers think about their effectiveness.Teachers need to ask
questions such asAre my lessons organized?Do I attempt to
make connections?Am I using activities that allow various ways
of learning?
*
Standards and AchievementEllis (2007) mentions that schools
today are in an age of standards and assessments.Child centered
teachers have argued that children do not have enough time to
explore and that teachers “teach to the test”.Ellis (2007)
suggests that the 20 integrated assessment strategies will help in
ensuring that children learn and enjoy this process.Standards
and assessments are based on three levels: knowledge,
understanding, and application.

29. *
Knowledge, Understanding, and Application.Knowledge is
based on what students can recall and usually includes what,
when and where questions.Understanding often requires
students to answer questions as to why something
happened.Application requires students to reason, support a
conclusion, and to make comparisons.
*