Volunteers at the 2013 indoor athletic...

2013
Rapporter
IDROTTSVETENSKAP Nr.7
GÖTEBORGS UNIVERSITET
Institutionen för kost- och idrottsvetenskap
Volunteers at the 2013 European
Indoor Athletics Championships –
a study on volunteerism in sport events
Owe Stråhlman
Sarah Marting
EVINN-project

Volunteers at the 2013 European Indoor Athletics
Championships –
a study on volunteerism in sport events

2
Abstract
Title: Volunteers at the 2013 European Indoor Athletics Championships –
a study on volunteerism in sport events.
Authors: Owe Stråhlman and Sarah Marting
Departments: Gothenburg University and Gothenburg Co.’s.
Pages: 28
Date: November, 2013
Keywords: Volunteer, event, motivation, Athletics, Gothenburg
Background:
The European Indoor Athletics Championships (iEM) were accomplished in early March
2013 at the Scandinavium Arena in Gothenburg, Sweden. About 600 top athletes participated
and around 23.000 spectators watched the championship live at the Scandinavium Arena. To
accomplish the championships, the organisers had to procure about 800 volunteers to carry
out important duties at the Göteborg 2013 European Athletics Indoor Championships (iEM).
These individuals had assignments to work with competition, accreditation, security,
transportation, media, communications, hosting, and support areas.
Aims:
The aims of the volunteer study in the European Indoor Athletics Championships (iEM) are to
describe (1) the respondents’ opinions about the organisation of the event and (2) what kind
of individual rewards volunteering in a sport event provides.
Method:
In early April (2013) a questionnaire was sent out to the volunteers (750 e-mail addresses
were used). The questionnaire in the study of the volunteers had questions about two other
major areas of interest; (1) the respondent’s opinions about the organisation of the event and
(2) what kind of individual benefits volunteering provides. In all, 411 respondents (54,8%)
answered the questionnaire. Of those, 234 were women and 177 were men. The mean age for
women was 39 years (SD = 16) and for men 47 years (SD = 16).
Results:
To summarise the results, it seems that the same behavioural factors such as motivational lure
for volunteer work appear regardless of gender and participation level. In general the results
in this study share in many aspects the same character as other quoted researchers in this
study have found. The first conclusion is that volunteer work has a general impact in most
countries and cultures in the world . The second conclusion is that volunteering is a give-and-take
relation between organisers and volunteers and especially the organisers have to ensure
that it is a win - win situation. To retain volunteers to assign for further jobs requires matching
between duty and personal motivation. The third conclusion is that there has to be both
intrinsic and extrinsic gains that motivate volunteer work and that motivation theory is an
important foundation to explain and understand volunteering. Knowledge about developing
and rewarding factors is essential for recruiting and retaining volunteers.

Content
Abstract
2
Foreword
4
1.
Background
5
The
assignments
for
the
volunteers
5
Aims
with
the
study
6
2.
Earlier
research
7
3.
Theory
9
4.
Method
10
Validity
and
reliability
10
Ethics
11
4.
Results
12
Opinions
about
the
organisation
of
the
event
14
Individual
benefits
of
volunteering
17
Motivation
and
volunteering
19
5.
Discussion
24
Method
discussion
24
Result
discussion
24
Some
final
words
25
3

4
Foreword
The Event Based Innovation Project (EVINN) started in the year 2011 and is funded by the
European Union, together with participating partners in Denmark (Aarhus), Norway (Oslo),
and Sweden (Gothenburg). The idea of the project is to develop sport events as a generator for
economic growth with an emphasis on the importance to build, develop and disseminate
technological solutions that will ensure the region's current leadership position as an event
organizer.1 The goal of the project is to attract major events to the region by linking
technology development projects and major events.
The EVINN project contains the following six thematic projects:
1. Tourist information
2. Sports gear
3. Public gaming
4. Sport casting
5. Event organisation
6. Impact and innovation process analysis.
The overall target of the project is to create a new competence cluster within the region for
event industry and sports events. Utilising transnational cooperation, the EVINN project will
contribute to development and growth in the region through knowledge transfer, innovation,
and product development. The project is expected to result in improved conditions for
knowledge transfer and matchmaking between researchers and research clusters.
This report is carried out in area 5 – Event organisation. It is a report from a survey with the
volunteer officials at the European Indoor Athletics Championship in March 2013 about their
opinions and experiences of being a volunteer.
We will take the opportunity to thank Hedvig Adolfsson and Elina Söderberg for their work
in the project and Bo Nielsén at the Faculty of Education, Gothenburg University for his work
with the data collection.
Gothenburg in November 2013-10-27
The authors
1 http://www.interregoks.eu/en/Menu/Projects/Project+List+Kattegat/EVINN+Eventbased+Innovation

5
1. Background
The European Indoor Athletics Championships (iEM) were accomplished in early March
2013 at the Scandinavium Arena in Gothenburg, Sweden. These championships were only
one of a number of major sport events held in Gothenburg during 2013. The city of
Gothenburg also hosted UEFA Women's EURO 2013 in soccer, and such popular annual
events as Gothia Cup in soccer, Partille Cup in handball, the GöteborgsVarvet Half Marathon
(running), and Gothenburg Youth games in athletics, all sport events for children, youth, and
adults alike and attended by many spectators.
The European Indoor Athletics Championships (iEM) was a three-day indoor event between
the first and the third of March 2013. About 600 top athletes participated, around 23.000
spectators watched the championship live at the Scandinavium Arena and calculations
afterwards indicate that about 66 million spectators watched it on TV2. The event organisation
included a large exhibition area close to the event, “Market Square”, where attendees could
meet athletes and obtain information about activities and merchandise connected to track and
field sport. Digital assets such as applications for smart phones were also available to
facilitate information concerning the competition.
The organiser of the event was the European Athletics Confederation together with the
Swedish Athletic Association, the Gothenburg Track and Field Federation and the city of
Gothenburg (Göteborg & Co and Got Event). About 800 volunteers3 were required to
organise all necessary functions and the officials in the event were mainly volunteers with no
personal repayment. To assist in developing similar future events, the organisers together with
Department of Food, Nutrition and Sport Science at Gothenburg University carried out an
investigation to gain experiences and increase knowledge that would serve to inform and
educate volunteers. Consequently, a sample of volunteers was asked to take part in an
evaluation study that was launched in April 2013. The main results are presented in this report.
The assignments for the volunteers
To accomplish the championships, the organisers had to procure about 800 volunteers to carry
out important duties at the Göteborg 2013 European Athletics Indoor Championships (iEM).
These individuals had assignments to work with competition, accreditation, security,
transportation, media, communications, hosting, and support areas. The volunteers were
primarily from Sweden, between the ages of 18 to 79 years, but people from five other
countries were also assigned. Analysis showed that for many of the volunteers, this was their
2 http://www.european-athletics.org/
3 In the Swedish language a person who works as a volunteer in an event usually is called functionary
(official). In this text we will use the word volunteer in that sense of a person who works in an
organization for free.

first volunteer appearance in this connection, while some also were volunteers during both the
1995 World Athletics Championships and 2006 European Athletics Championships hosted at
the outdoor Ullevi Arena in Gothenburg. The volunteers were recruited and assigned by
sending in an application showing their interest and were then given appropriate assignments
according to their background and qualifications. The volunteers also had the opportunity to
request their favourite assignments.
6
Aims with the study
The aims of the volunteer study in the European Indoor Athletics Championships (iEM) are to
describe (1) the respondents’ opinions about the organisation of the event and (2) what kind
of individual rewards volunteering in a sport event provides.
The results are foremost addressed to the organisers of the European Indoor Athletics
Championships (iEM) to use in their work to develop an event’s organisation, especially in
the area of volunteering. The pertinent questions in the study that focus on the aims are what
kinds of background the respondents have, and if there are patterns related to their
background and experiences of being a volunteer, and questions related to the management of
the event and the respondents’ degree of satisfaction with the organisation. These questions
are mainly related to aspects of gender and to theoretical standpoints, preferably motivation
theory.

7
2. Earlier research
Lockstone and Baum (2009) stated in an article that volunteers play a major role in mega and
major events, both cultural and sporting, contributing invaluable human resources. In their
study, they focus on media coverage and the perceptions related to volunteering at the 2006
Commonwealth Games in Melbourne. The findings highlight various positive and negative
aspects of the media’s coverage of volunteering, and Lockstone and Baum note the
importance of focusing attention on volunteerism. Likewise Gallarza, Arteaga and Gil-Saura
(2013) underline the importance of volunteer work in events. In a longitudinal study (n = 711
volunteers) with data collection both before and after the event, they concluded that
volunteering is a highly emotional experience. They refer to volunteering as a give-and-take
experience. Clary et al. (1996), Clary and Snyder (1999), and Papadakis et al. (2004) have
through the Volunteer Functions Inventory conducted research on volunteers to find the
motivation factors that are most abundant to understand the reasons behind the choice to
volunteer. The results show that individuals who have chosen to participate as volunteers have
a higher motivation to do a good job. Solberg (2003) concluded in his study that a large
number of people enjoy volunteering and receive psychological rewards from their
participation. People also volunteer because of their own intrinsic values (Clary & Snyder,
1999; Papadakis, et al. 2004), through the conception that it´s important to help others
(Grassman, 1994), for their own career development (Papadakis, 2004), to be part of a social
context (Clary, et al., 1996), gain new skills and experiences (Jarvis & Blank, 2011; Solberg,
2003), and their engagement in sport (Clary et al., 1996; Coyne & Coyne, 2001; Costa et al.,
2006). In an article by Love, Hardin, Koo and Morse (2011), the authors discuss the
relationship between volunteer motivation and volunteer satisfaction at a major golf tour
event. They stress the importance of an adjusted organisation of volunteers for successful
management in sports events. In the study, they extracted latent motivational factors that
made it important for volunteers to participate; these were personal enrichment, prestige, and
career enhancement. Surujlal (2010) points out the understanding of the underlying motives
for volunteers to participate. He investigated three major sports events for people with
disabilities in South Africa and conducted a principal component analysis (PCA). The PCA
produced a 4-factor model: external influence and free time, interaction and achievement,
altruism, and diversion (change). The respondents’ main reasons for volunteering were to
make a contribution to the community and to help make the event a success. May, Zhang, and
Connaughton (2010) also emphasise that volunteers are important agents in the sports
industry. Understanding the factors that explain sports volunteerism is, according to May et
al., essential for recruiting and retaining volunteers. They examined motivation among
volunteers (n = 1099) at different youth sports events, and a factor analysis revealed six latent
factors: values, understanding, social, career, enhancement (improvement), and protective. A
factorial MANOVA analysis revealed that volunteers working with large international and
special-needs sports events displayed higher motivations in all six factor areas than volunteers

at smaller national and local events. Female volunteers displayed higher motivations in values
and understanding factors.
To summarise, it seems that the same behavioural factors as motivational lure for volunteer
work appear regardless of age, gender, and participation level. Grassman (1994) interprets
this as demonstrating that it is people’s own interest in the sport and being part of a social
context that motivates most. Mega events are relying on volunteer workers to cope with the
financial burden that a large arrangement requires. Therefore, it is important to develop the
voluntary work by continuously improving the organisation of the event (Clary et al., 1996;
Solberg, 2003). Clary et al. (1996), Clary and Snyder (1999), and Papadakis et al. (2004)
demonstrate that there are personal reasons for participation, but it is the task-motivation that
is the most important motivation factor. To retain volunteers to assign for further jobs requires
coordination between duty and personal motivation. In conclusion, (1) people who do not feel
that they are given the choice to volunteer feel less motivated and (2) to retain volunteers the
work has to be voluntary and attract different people with different reasons for the task (Clary
& Snyder, 1999).
8

9
3. Theory
Earlier research in the area of voluntarism shows that motivation aspects play a significant
role in the decision to serve as a volunteer in an event (Grassman, 1994; Clary, et al., 1996;
Clary & Snyder, 1999; Coyne & Coyne, 2001; Solberg, 2003; Papadakis, et al. 2004; Costa et
al., 2006; Jarvis & Blank, 2011; Love, Hardin, Koo and Morse, 2011). This fact also
emphasises motivation theory as an important foundation to explain and understand processes
in preferred behaviour (Mannell & Kleiber, 1997, Weinberg & Gould, 2011). Generally
speaking, Mannell and Kleiber (1997) define motivation as factors that impel a person to
action, and these factors occur in two stages. They describe the starting point as a person’s
desire to correct a conscious imbalance, and the first step is the detection of absent needs that
cause a stated imbalance; and the second is the preferred action to correct this disequilibrium.
Only when the individual finds it possible to fulfil his or her beliefs, is it possible for a person
to take action towards unsatisfied needs. Weinberg and Gould (2011) also underpin a two-factor
definition of motivation, and stress two aspects as explanatory: the direction and the
intensity of action (Adolfsson & Söderberg, 2013). The origin of motivational behaviours is
also two-fold, the personal factors and the situational factors (or interior and exterior
motivation). The personal factors include fulfilling different goals, needs or interests that
create motivation to perform a specific task and the situational factors occur specific to each
person, such as personal gains or losses, or what the person sees as motivating in a specific
situation. Weinberg and Gould (2011) also write that an analysis of motivation has to consider
both situational factors and personal factors. Gagné and Deci (2005) highlight the motivation
from a similar governing perspective and they also assert internal (intrinsic) and external
(extrinsic) motivation (or no motivation at all). These motivators strive for mindfulness and
balance to guide decision-making and behaviour. The concept is known as Self-Determination
Theory (SDT). The internal motivation has its origin in an autonomous concept (or self-concept)
and gives an opportunity to individuals to express their own will to perform work for
their own interests (as volunteers or voluntary workers). The extrinsic (controlling)
motivation is defined as controlled and guided by someone or something else and is
performed as a “must”, which is linked to the external motivation (Gagné & Deci, 2005).
Self-sustaining, to be governed by the internal motivation, is a way for volunteers to feel part
of the work being done. Their perceived feeling of being a part of a sport event could be
linked to their motivation. Is there a possibility for officials to improve the direction and
intensity of the volunteers’ motivation? And can the organisation acquire a better overall
perspective on preferred work-tasks and volunteers keeping in mind that they do not receive
any financial compensation for the work they perform?

10
4. Method
The questionnaire in the study of the volunteers at European Athletics Championships (iEM)
is developed by Hanstad et al. (2011). The language of the original questionnaire was
Norwegian, as it was used in Norwegian volunteer surveys at Holmenkollen Ski World Cup
(Oslo 2010–2011), the World Ski Flying Championships in Vikersund, and the Birkebeiner-rittet
(cycling). The questions and response alternatives have since been translated to Swedish
and also been slightly changed. The Swedish and Norwegian languages have similarities since
they are in the same language family, so there were no major translation obstacles to
overcome.
The questions in the survey began with background questions (for example, gender, age,
education, residence) and questions about the respondent’s own athletic background, earlier
experiences of being a volunteer, his or her assignments, and time spent in connection with
the event. Two other major areas of interest were (1) the respondent’s opinions about the
organisation of the event (information, work assignments, feedback, relations with persons
responsible for the event, and also views about the individual’s attention to his or her work),
and (2) what kind of individual benefits volunteering provides.
In early April (2013) the questionnaire was sent out to the volunteers. The survey was online
where the respondents provided their answers on a web page. The e-mail addresses used for
the respondents were provided by the Göteborg & Co organisation. There were 750 e-mail
addresses captured. Of those a total of 411 (54,8 %) respondents answered the questionnaire.
Concerning the decline in the survey, we could cross-check for age and gender. There was a
slight overrepresentation of women and elderly people in the sample. Otherwise no distortion
was found in control items.
Validity and reliability
In order to justify the arguments presented in this methodological discussion it is necessary to
provide a discussion on validity and reliability, and accurately conveyed, the discussion about
measurement theory outcomes gives the chosen methods a certain degree of legitimacy. A
measurement theory approach is important in order to improve both validity and reliability
and is in this respect fundamental. In this study a nomothetic4 approach is used and that
4 Nomothetic and idiographic are terms coined by the Kantian philosopher Wilhelm Windelband to
describe two distinct approaches to knowledge, each corresponding to a different intellectual tendency.
Nomothetic is based on what Kant described as a tendency to generalise and find expression in the
natural sciences. It describes the effort to derive laws that explain objective phenomena. Idiographic is
based on what Kant described as a tendency to specify and find expression in the humanities. It
describes the effort to understand the meaning of contingent, accidental, and often subjective
phenomena (Stråhlman, 2006).

distinguishes specially adapted methodology to be used, providing appropriate tools from the
methodological toolbox. According to Cohen and Manion (2011) challenging data by means
of different methods and instruments of analysis also challenges the researcher to move away
from his/her favourite methods. Nevertheless, different methodological equations are best
solved with specially adapted methods. The validity in this study is strengthened by the fact
that Hanstad et al. (2011) used the questionnaire with good results and that the Swedish
version has been tested in events similar to the iEM and has also been discussed with
responsible employees in the current event.
11
Ethics
Concerning the ethical considerations, the necessary requirements have been fulfilled as well
for dissemination (the obligation to inform the respondents about the aims of the study),
request for approval (agreement to participate in the study), confidentiality (that the
information gathered will be handled in confidence), and professional security (that the
collected data are used only for scientific purposes).

12
4. Results
In all, 411 respondents (54,8%) answered the questionnaire. Of those, 234 were women and
177 were men. The mean age for women was 39 years (SD = 16) and for men 47 years (SD =
16). The oldest person who responded was 85 years old and the youngest was 13 years old.
The respondents’ educational levels were relatively high; slightly more than 50% of both
women and men noted university studies as their highest educational level. Most of the
respondents had full-time occupations (women - 44% full-time and men - 54%). Women were
overrepresented in part-time jobs and by respondents that were studying, while men were
overrepresented in the group retired people.
Table 1: Respondents’ present work situation (several response alternatives possible).
Sex
Men Women
Count % Count %
How do you look upon your
present work situation?
Full-time job 96 50,5 104 40,2
Part-time job 13 6,8 33 12,7
Looking for job 9 4,7 14 5,4
Studies 24 12,6 78 30,1
Retired 38 20,0 14 5,4
Sick-listed 1 0,5 1 0,4
Other 9 4,7 15 5,8
The distribution of income shows that the respondents are relatively well-paid in their daily
work. About 46% of the full-time workingmen and 25% of the full-time workingwomen
earned more than 400.000 SEK (about 50.000 EURO) per year. Among part-time workers
23% of the men and 10% of the women earned more than 400.000 SEK per year.
The majority of the respondents had their residences close to the event. Only 67 out of 411
respondents had their residences more than 50 kilometres from Gothenburg (most often in
cities like Trollhättan, Uddevalla, Varberg, and Borås). Only five persons had their residence
in another country than Sweden.
Gothenburg is the second largest city in Sweden and is, as many other major cities, divided
into minor districts (Swedish: stadsdelar). It is a well-known and internationally recognised
fact that geographic housing has socio- and economically influenced incentives. People with
high incomes are often living in areas where houses are more expensive and this leads to
socioeconomic segregation.

Table 2: The respondents’ residences divided into districts in greater Gothenburg area by sex (N =
231)
13
Sex
Men Women Total
Count % Count % Count %
If you live in the city of
Gothenburg, what is the
name of the local district?
Angered 2 2,2 8 5,8 10 4,3
Askim-Frölunda-Högsbo 15 16,3 18 12,9 33 14,3
Centrum 12 13,0 28 20,1 40 17,3
Lundby 13 14,1 10 7,2 23 10,0
Majorna-Linné 7 7,6 12 8,6 19 8,2
Norra Hisingen 3 3,3 13 9,4 16 6,9
Västra Göteborg 8 8,7 6 4,3 14 6,1
Västra Hisingen 8 8,7 11 7,9 19 8,2
Örgryte Härlanda 18 19,6 20 14,4 38 16,5
Östra Göteborg 6 6,5 13 9,4 19 8,2
Chi2= 12,63, p=*
The table above shows that there is a great proportion of socioeconomic influence in the
recruitment of volunteers. The districts with over 14% recruited respondents are areas with
higher socioeconomic index and status, in comparison with those having a low proportion of
volunteers. The differences cannot be explained by variations in inhabitant numbers. Earlier
research by Patriksson (1995) and Stråhlman (2006) shows that athletes in Track and Field
recruit from higher socioeconomic groups, than for example different team sports. The
respondents’ proportions of memberships in sport clubs and especially in Track and Field
clubs clearly show that memberships are an important agent in volunteer socialisation. About
44% of the men were members in Track and Field clubs and 22% of the women. Utterly 20%
of the men and 19% of the women were members in some kind of other sport club and 31%
of the men and 5% of women had previously been members in a sport club. This explains a
considerable portion of the residence distribution and the fundaments of recruitment.
Socioeconomic distribution and residence areas are a well-known correlation and when we
add the knowledge about socioeconomic patterns in sport recruitment, we capture a lot of the
explained variance. These three factors’ covariance is an important key to understand
recruitment patterns and knowledge about future recruitment strategies. The respondents also,
in a relatively large proportion, activate themselves in (leisure time) sport activities
(particularly the younger respondents). Many of the respondents have also been volunteers in
other sport events. More than 50% of men and 40% of women who responded were
volunteers either in Outdoor World Championships 1995 or/and Outdoor European
Championships 2006 and in earlier athletic indoor championships events in Gothenburg.

Sport and sport events are often discussed in relation to internationalisation and integration,
and how sport can contribute to extended socialisation. Attention has been given to these
questions, especially by Swedish governments. Examples are government-funded projects as
“the Handshake Project” (ended 2006) and “the Sports Lifts Project” (still in progress), both
huge governmental projects to develop sport in society. The idea is that sport clubs can apply
for funding to launch projects that make sports and the sports movement more attractive for
different groups in the Swedish society. Implementing sport on a large scale can be an
important catalyst for integration matters, in order to open up society for people with
immigrant background to join the sports movements and use sport as a socialisation aspect.
Together these governmental projects, so far, have been funded with about 3 billion crowns
(310 million Euro) over a period of 12 years.
Volunteering in large sports events is also an aspect of integration, so how are people with an
immigration background represented among the volunteers in iEM?
Table 3: The respondents’ country of origin and parents’ country of origin by sex (N =244)
14
Sex
Men Women
Count Total Count Total
Respondents born in another
country than Sweden?
Respondents 16 177 28 244
Respondent’s father 29 177 43 244
Respondent’s mother 34 177 48 244
The vast majority of the volunteers were born in Sweden, as were their parents. A total of 44
respondents (10%) were born in a country other than Sweden. The majority of these were
born in the same country as both their parents. Only one person that was born abroad had both
her parents born in Sweden. Finland and Germany were the two countries where most of the
respondents had their origin. There are about 1.4 million people in Sweden (of the 9 million
population) who are born in another country, which is more than 10% of the whole population.
In this inquiry, 10% have a background of immigration, and in this case there were no gender
differences.
Opinions about the organisation of the event
As mentioned in the earlier objectives/aims of this report the results in this study are foremost
addressed to the organisers of the European Indoor Athletics Championships (iEM) to use in
their work to develop the event’s organisation, especially in the area of volunteering. To
contribute to knowledge development in the field, we have first and above all, concentrated
on what kind of background the respondents had. This helps to establish causal correlations to

facilitate the understanding of other results in the study, because it´s vital in all forms of
development work to give target groups (the iEM organisation) as much information as
possible to increase their courses of action.
A fundamental aspect of people’s willingness to participate in volunteer work is that they
receive information on how to apply to be a volunteer and what the forms and the content of
the assignments are. The most common ways to receive information about how to apply as a
volunteer are presented below.
Table 4: The respondents’ alternatives to obtain information about how to work as a volunteer at iEM
2013.
15
How did you get information about the possibility
to work as a volunteer at the iEM 2013?
(several answering alternatives possible)
Sex
Men Women
Count Count
From the event management 60 48
From my club 28 28
Via my school 10 38
Via homepages 32 56
Via Facebook 6 14
Via family and friends 33 54
Other 36 33
Common ways to receive information were foremost from the event management (the
organisers) and from different and available digital resources such as different clubs’
homepages and also information meetings with the iEM management. Facebook and other
social media had less importance in this respect. It is interesting to look upon the gender
distribution and the fact that men and women have different preferences for information
feedback. Also interesting is the age distribution and that the older respondents receive
information more often from the event management and from their clubs, while the younger
respondents to a larger extent obtained information from their school and 15-25
Värdskapet/Team Gothenburg 5 or different digital media. A majority of the respondents
experienced that they had received good or very good information about the arrangement
before the event and also clear instructions about work tasks.
5 The organisation of the championships visited different schools and marketed the opportunity to
volunteer. This means that the volunteers got the info from their education school. By15-25
Värdskapet/Team Gothenburg marked the opportunity to volunteer in the volunteer pool (called Team
Gothenburg). The volunteers were then advised of the possibility to be a volunteer.

Table 5: Comprehension about management aspects of the event on a 5-item Rating Scale, item one
(1) representing disagree and item five (5) representing agree (N=409).
Mean SD Mean SD
2,34 1,33 2,37 1,34
3,73 1,21 3,67 1,16
16
Do you agree or disagree in the following
statements:
I did not receive sufficient information
about the event before it started!
I had been given clear instructions on my
tasks before the event!
Diff. not sig.
Sex
Men Women
The mean values indicate that the majority of the respondents felt satisfied with the
information both before and after the event. One has to acknowledge the dispersion (the
Standard Deviation) in the table, which indicates heterogeneous conceptions. The correlation
between the two items is also quite low (rho= -0,3).
The respondents were, as mentioned, given certain assignments in the event. The organisers
had the ambition to assign persons that were suitable for the tasks, but volunteers could
request certain work tasks to fulfil.
Table 6: The respondents’ assignments divided by task and sex (N =411).
What kind of assignment did you have during iEM 2013?
(several answers allowed)
Men % Women %
Welcome host 2 1,0 14 5,6
Security 34 17,3 50 20,1
Transport 26 13,2 13 5,2
Hotel host 1 0,5 15 6,0
Team attaché 7 3,6 14 5,6
Accreditation 8 4,1 19 7,6
VIP-host 3 1,5 12 4,8
Media 11 5,6 20 8,0
Support service 9 4,6 12 4,8
Competition 50 25,4 30 12,0
Ceremonies 11 5,6 4 1,6
Doping control 6 3,0 13 5,2
Health care 10 5,1 7 2,8
Other 19 9,6 26 10,4
In regard to the distribution of tasks between sexes in certain assignments it is more or less
randomised. Whether or not this distribution is typical for events like this is hard to say. One
can draw the conclusion that gender patterns are present in some of the assignment groups.

Women are overrepresented in work tasks that are connected with indirect services (host,
accreditation), while men are overrepresented in the direct competition matters. If we look at
the age distribution we find the young female volunteers (generally speaking) in media and
competition, and young men in doping control. The older women worked with doping control
and accreditation as well as the men.
It is important in all organisations, especially for people in leadership positions, that they
manage their tasks in ways that make all volunteers feel comfortable in their work groups.
Some questions in the survey were put to the respondents about their experiences in the
working/volunteering situation. Most of the respondents were assigned as volunteers with
certain work tasks (77% of the men and 87% of the women), while a smaller proportion of
volunteers were assigned as supervisors for different work groups (men - 16%, women - 9%)
and men were in that respect overrepresented. The respondents also felt that there was a good
or very good work climate in the work groups, with certain differences. Over 80% of the
respondents, both men and women experienced a good or even very good work climate in
their work groups, and also with the supervisors for the work groups. The respondents were
quite satisfied with how people in top management positions (in the organisation) fulfilled
their obligations. They also found the climate of cooperation as constructive, both in the work
groups and in the overall management of the event. There were only minor differences
between men and women, and they were not statistically significant.
17
Individual benefits of volunteering
Lockstone and Baum (2009) state that volunteers play a major role in event organisation and
recommend they be officially recognised by, for example, media coverage with attention
given to volunteerism as such and to the volunteers’ different assignments (Gallarza, Arteaga
& Gil-Saura, 2013). How the volunteer comprehends the individual benefits of volunteering
might depend on what kind of event and/or assignment the respondents have. The
assignments for volunteers in iEM were divided into many different tasks, such as
competition, accreditation, security, transportation, media, communications, and hosting and
support areas. The volunteers in iEM were as mentioned above, also organised into work
groups and the respondent’s personal assignments were basically related to their previous
experience and knowledge about the management of the event. The fundamental question is
how the volunteers understand the different tasks and the resources they were given to fulfil
their tasks.
In the table below the respondents, irrespective of gender, true and true, have positive
attitudes towards volunteering.

Table 7: Comprehension about management aspects of the event (N = 490) on a 5-item Rating Scale,
item one (1) representing disagree and item five (5) representing agree (N= between 400 – 407).
Do you agree or disagree in the following statements:
The items above are correlated to each other in a relatively high proportion (rho not smaller
than 0,5). Therefore we might cluster the three items together to a latent expression where
satisfactory - desirable aspects are prominent, and the respondents were pleased by the fact
that they volunteered. It is important when a person looks back on the management
assignments, that the expectations the person had before the event are fulfilled (or better – “it
was more challenging than I thought it would be”). If the expectations are suppressed, there is
a fundamental risk that the person never shows up again to volunteer. Solberg (2003) saw in
his study that a large number of people enjoyed volunteering and received psychological
rewards from their participation, which underlines the importance of intrinsic motivation.
The conditions under which the volunteers work are another important factor. Even if
volunteers are assigned to provide service to other people, it is also important that they
themselves are served. Reasonable possibilities to rest, opportunities to be served good food,
and receive praise from others, will probably enhance their work. The table below shows
aspects that are important in that respect and the respondents were positive about the service
they received.
Table 8: Understanding about management aspects of the event (N = 490) on a 5-item Rating Scale:
item one (1) representing disagree and item five (5) representing agree (N= between 400 – 407).
These items are also correlated to each other (rho not smaller than 0,4) with some variation,
and we have to acknowledge that possession aspects (I´m one in the team and I´m treated
18
Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD
The work as volunteer was in line with my expectations! 4,09 0,95 3,99 1,09
In the future I will say no to all kinds of voluntary work! 1,35 0,89 1,38 0,91
I have received increased desire to be official/volunteer! 3,91 1,03 3,95 1,13
Do you agree or disagree in the following statements:
Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD
We got good food during the event! 4,42 0,88 4,39 1,01
The workload was quite enough! 3,87 1,16 3,86 1,25
The official clothing was functional! 3,85 1,10 3,98 1,14
The official’s costumes were fashionable! 3,49 1,11 3,51 1,17

well) are important for volunteering and the willingness for future assignments. The right
proportions of good food - at the right time − and an individually adopted workload seem to
be a successful prescription. The respondents also stress that the official clothing has to be
appropriate for work tasks (adopted to individual work situations) and something the
volunteers would proudly wear, in other words - practically fashionable, without disregarding
functionality.
19
Motivation and volunteering
How do volunteers perceive the different values of being assigned certain tasks? And are the
qualities and experiences that they gain by volunteer work transferable to everyday life
situations or perhaps related to the labour market? Answers to these questions summarise, to a
large extent, how a high motivation creates participation in volunteer work. Clary et al. (1996),
Clary and Snyder (1999) and Papadakis et al. (2004) found motivation factors behind the
choice to volunteer that are abundant and important to understand. Love, Hardin, Koo and
Morse (2011) and Surujlal (2010) as well as May et al. (2010) have all extracted latent factors
and answers to the question above seem to be found in a data reduction procedure.
Different questions about understanding motivating tasks in the assignments were asked, and
answers were given on a 5-item Rating Scale.
(1) representing not at all important and item five (5) representing very much (N= between 400 – 407).
How important is the following statement for your
motivation to work as a volunteer?
Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD
I feel important when I make a contribution as a volunteer! 4,33 0,83 4,41 0,79
When I work as a volunteer, I feel happy with myself! 4,21 0,87 4,25 0,88
I can make a tangible impact on something that interests me! 4,33 0,92 4,23 0,91
Relating the results of the table above to Weinberg and Gould (2011) shows that these three
items underline the personal or intrinsic values/aspects. The personal aspects include
fulfilling different goals, needs or interests and create motivation to perform a specific task.
The respondents are of the opinion that there are important intrinsic values that motivate
volunteering that have little to do with material rewards. Solberg (2003) found in his study
that people enjoyed volunteering and received psychological rewards.

The respondents also acknowledge extrinsic rewards with volunteer work. Motivation in this
case has its origin in the fact that volunteering contributes to the respondent’s willingness to
develop skills and collect experiences.
How important is the following statement for your motivation
to work as a volunteer?
20
Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD
It is good that merit to worked as a volunteer! * 3,38 1,27 3,94 1,13
Working as a volunteer can give me contacts in the labour market! ** 2,78 1,36 3,17 1,23
I learn more about events when I make a contribution as volunteer! 4,02 1,03 4,09 1,01
As a volunteer, I get practical experience of events!* 4,07 0,99 4,26 0,89
(In items with an asterisk *, the differences between sexes are statistically significant on 5 % level)
As previously mentioned, the situational or extrinsic aspects that occur are specific to each
person, such as personal gains or losses, or what the person sees as motivating in a specific
situation (Weinberg & Gould, 2011). Questions about extrinsic aspects were asked and here
we find significant differences between men and women in some of the items. We can also
see that women to a larger extent experience developmental aspects in being a volunteer.
Clary and Snyder (1999) and Papadakis, et al. (2004) also found career development aspects
to be important for volunteers.
Extrinsic development can also incorporate social development. To maintain or enlarge your
social sphere/network and social contacts are aspects of development that give people more
contacts, contacts that could be beneficial, for example to social (career) development.
How important is the following statement for your
motivation to work as a volunteer?
Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD
People around me have encouraged me to work as a volunteer! 3,01 1,32 2,81 1,33
I feel the ambient pressure to participate as a volunteer! 1,91 1,17 1,57 0,99
I have friends who work as volunteers! 3,55 1,43 3,37 1,48
I can use the work I put in as a social merit!* 2,66 1,37 3,33 1,34
It is common in my family to work as a volunteer. 2,49 1,43 2,24 1,47
(In items with an asterisk *, the differences between sexes are statistically significant)

The results show that respondents socialise positive personal aspects related to their
participation and that these aspects are connected to social relations and experience that could
be useful in their daily lives as well as in the labour market. There are no major differences
between men and women. The five items in Table 11 can also be clustered together as an
extrinsic or as a social relations aspect – to work as a volunteer is improving socialisation
perspectives and relations (Clary, et al., 1996).
Other positive related rewards of volunteering are new concepts of acquired knowledge,
useful in different aspects of life. The respondents mean that they have used their presence in
iEM to gain new useful knowledge.
item one (1) representing not at all and item five (5) representing very much (N= between 400 – 407).
What kind of experiences did you receive of being a
volunteer at the European Indoor Championships in Athletics
2013?
21
Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD
I have gained insight into how it is to organise large events! 3,87 0,92 3,96 0,99
I have gained new skills and experience! * 3,87 0,96 4,12 0,96
I have expanded my network! 3,32 1,24 3,35 1,24
I have actively contributed to the organisation of this event! 3,12 1,44 2,95 1,31
I've got insight into athletics at various levels! 3,35 1,13 3,54 1,19
The respondents felt to a relatively large extent that they gained new knowledge and
experiences, useful in career development. There were only small differences in the sample
between men and women, and the majority were not statistically significant. The items
disclose that there are experience aspects in participating that can be described as knowledge
or a career aspect. Jarvis and Blank (2011) and Solberg (2003) also indicate career aspects as
important in volunteer recruitment.
The respondents also referenced certain communicative and participating implications as
important experiences to gain. The volunteers have to feel safe in their work, that the work is
exciting and free, and that they receive appreciation for their work. If these conditions are
satisfied they could recommend others to work as a volunteer. Gallarza, Arteaga and Gil-
Saura (2013) conclude that volunteering is a highly emotional experience.

2013?
22
Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD
I think that the work was exciting! 4,17 0,90 4,12 0,96
I've been praised for my work! 4,09 0,98 4,15 1,03
I feel that I developed as a person by working as volunteer! 3,68 1,11 3,63 1,10
I would recommend others around me to work as volunteer! 4,25 0,96 4,38 0,90
I felt safe when I was working as a volunteer! 4,53 0,71 4,50 0,79
Not significant.
Both the men and the women in the study strongly felt the importance of what we can call a
communicative aspect in relation to their work assignments. Being a volunteer is a give-and-take
business, you learn from others, and you teach newcomers if you are an experienced
volunteer (and in this study many volunteers had been on the road before). The
communicative aspects also implicated that you have something to tell friends, regardless if
you have good or bad experiences.
In the international events you also can meet and talk to well-known people from other
countries on the spot. You can also watch top sports and if you are an athlete yourself, you
might learn something by watching participating athletes.
Table 14: Comprehension about management aspects of the event (N = 490) on a 5-item Rating Scale:
What kind of experiences did you receive
of being a volunteer at the European Indoor
Championships in Athletics 2013?
Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD
I had an outlet for my interest in sports! 3,84 1,23 3,79 1,28
I saw the famous practitioners of athletics! 4,29 0,98 4,35 1,06
I saw celebrities (in general)!* 3,28 1,28 3,65 1,34
The results show that the respondents felt they had the opportunity to see famous and well-known
persons both athletes and other celebrities. As it seems to be quite important for some,

it can be used as a recruitment aspect and we can call it a fame attraction aspect. The
volunteer’s engagement in sport (as practicum) could be another reason for volunteering
(Clary et al., 1996; Coyne & Coyne, 2001; Costa et al., 2006).
The volunteers felt that they contributed to their hometown (in the majority of cases), maybe
not as a local hero, but still as someone who donated personal time to his/her city as well as to
the event.
Table 15: Comprehension about management aspects of the event (N = 490) on a 5-item Rating Scale:
2013?
23
Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD
By working as a volunteer, I feel more involved in what is
happening in my hometown!
3,83 1,22 3,81 1,28
I feel more important after having participated as a
volunteer!
3,57 1,15 3,49 1,25
My friends were also volunteers! 3,21 1,52 3,13 1,58
I do not really like to be official! 1,32 0,81 1,49 0,93
Not significant
The respondents appreciated the importance of making contributions both to their city and to
the event as such (also; Gallarza, Arteaga and Gil-Saura, 2013). No gender differences could
be seen in the results of these questions. The respondents also felt that they volunteered
because of their duties towards the city of Gothenburg (Grassman, 1994), and that the work
they did in the event made them feel more interested in volunteering in the future. We might
call this personality and loyalty aspects.

24
5. Discussion
Method discussion
Initially, we have to discuss the methods that were used as well as the eventual problems with
the sample decline. The problem with web-based questionnaires is twofold (Eriksson et al.,
2007). First, there is an age problem, as web services are based on digitised technology. For
older people, it can be a problem to manage computer-based correspondence. We also know
that many people, especially older people, don´t have the same confidence in electronic
mailing as they have in mailing by post. Second, access to computers (as well as smartphones,
e-book readers, or tablet computers) can also be a problem. Furthermore, even in a highly
technology-based country like Sweden, not every individual has a computer. Even so, we
could cross-check three variables and did not find any skewness in background variables (sex,
age, and residence). The validity and reliability in relation to the questionnaire have to be
considered as high. The questionnaire has been tested and used before by Hanstad (2012),
which strengthens the validity.
Result discussion
To summarise the results, it seems that the same behavioural factors such as motivational lure
for volunteer work appear regardless of gender and participation level. In general the results
in this study share in many aspects the same character as other quoted researchers in this
study have found. Grassman (1994) states that this shows that it is people’s own interest in
sport and being part of a social context that motivate most. In this study many of the
respondents with an athletic background in track and field were recruited and with a relatively
common desire to do a good job for the city, the organiser, and themselves. Therefore the first
conclusion must be that volunteer work has a general impact in most countries and cultures in
the world, and there must be an obligation for the organisers to develop the volunteering in an
international context. Therefore, it is important to develop the voluntary work by continuously
improving the organisation of the event (Clary et al., 1996; Solberg, 2003).
The next aspect for successful recruitment of volunteers is that they receive a certain payback
to their efforts. The second conclusion is that volunteering is a give-and-take relation between
organisers and volunteers and especially the organisers have to ensure that it is a win - win
situation. Clary et al. (1996), Clary and Snyder (1999) and Papadakis et al. (2004) show that
there are personal reasons for participation, but they define the task-motivation as the most
important motivation factor. To retain volunteers to assign for further jobs requires matching
between duty and personal motivation. The respondents in this study indicated several things
that were task-motivated, both intrinsic and extrinsic aspects and payback were of
psychological and social character. The obvious standpoint here is that work has to be

voluntary and attract different people with different reasons for performing the task (Clary &
Snyder, 1999).
Peoples’ perceived feeling of being a part of a sport event is linked to volunteers’ motivation.
If the volunteers have a direction and an intensity of motivation towards their work tasks, than
the work can be improved and a better overall perspective on preferred work-tasks is achieved
by the organisation (and officials in this sense do not receive any financial compensation for
the work). So the third conclusion is that there has to be both intrinsic and extrinsic gains that
motivate volunteer work.
Motivation theory is an important foundation to explain and understand volunteering
(Mannell & Kleiber, 1997, Weinberg & Gould, 2011). Generally speaking, Mannell and
Kleiber (1997) define motivation as factors that impel a person to action with a desire to reach
some kind of self-adaptation to correct a mental imbalance. This imbalance has its origin in
individual needs that could be satisfied through a volunteer’s contribution and the respondents
in this study were of the opinion that they were contributing in several ways. Frankly, it seems
to be persons’ desire to do something for someone else that makes them feel good. In this
study the respondents felt that they were doing something good for the city of Gothenburg, for
the organisers, and for themselves, and when praised for their actions, they felt that they
developed personal assets. Weinberg and Gould (2011) indicated the direction and the
intensity of action (Adolfsson & Söderberg, 2013) and the respondents in the study
experienced both personal and situational factors while fulfilling different goals, needs or
interests. Gagné and Deci (2005) find that there has to be both internal (intrinsic) and external
(extrinsic) motivation, and underpin Self-Determination Theory (SDT) as a useful tool for
further analysis.
25
Some final words
To accomplish the iEM event, volunteers are indispensable; without them, it would not be
possible to hold the event. Therefore, it is as Lockstone and Baum (2009) discuss, important
to enlighten the public about volunteering and voluntary work through the media. The results
from the sample in this study confirm that volunteering sometimes is an emotional experience
(Gallarza, Arteaga, and Gil-Saura, 2013) as a give-and-take situation and offers an emotional
reward (Solberg, 2003). Love, Hardin, Koo, and Morse (2011) have in their study found
motivational factors such as personal enrichment, prestige, and career enhancement and in the
current study we could see that the respondents also found these opportunities, perhaps to use
in their existing or future careers. Furthermore we also found that the respondents felt a
degree of altruism (Suruajal, 2010) as part of their work as volunteers. We can, after all, only
underline May, Zhang, and Connaughton’s (2010) findings, that knowledge about developing
and rewarding factors is essential for recruiting and retaining volunteers.

26
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Idrottsvetenskapliga rapporter –
Institutionen för kost- och idrottsvetenskap
Göteborgs universitet
Adress: Box 100
405 30 Göteborg
Redaktör: Owe Stråhlman
1. Stråhlman, O., (2004). Idrott – mål eller medel. Göteborgs universitet: Idrottshögskolan.
2. Patriksson, G., Eriksson, S., Augustsson, C. & Stråhlman, O. (2004). Utveckling och
förnyelse av idrottsverksamhet” - en utvärdering av projektverksamhet som fått medel ur
Allmänna arvsfonden. Göteborgs universitet: Idrottshögskolan.
3. Patriksson, G. & Stråhlman, O., (2004). Young peoples lifestyle and sedentariness - the
case of Sweden and Denmark. Göteborgs universitet: Idrottshögskolan.
4. Annerstedt, C. (2006). Framgångsrikt ledarskap inom elitidrott. Göteborgs universitet,
Idrottshögskolan.
5. Stråhlman, O (2006). Elite sport career process, career analysis of former Swedish elite
athletes. Göteborgs universitet: Idrottshögskolan.
6. Stråhlman, O., Patriksson, G. & Annerstedt, C. (2008). Arbete – livsstil – hälsa. Resultat
och analyser av AB Previas databas Arbetsliv och Hälsa. Göteborgs universitet,
Idrottshögskolan.
7. Stråhlman, O. & Patriksson, G. (2008). Att rätta mun efter matsäcken. Förutsättningar för
att bedriva projekt om kostnadseffektivitet. Utvärdering av Handslaget. Göteborgs
universitet, Idrottshögskolan.
8. Patriksson, G., Stråhlman, O., Eriksson, S. & Kristén, L. (2008). Handslaget – från idé till
utvärdering. Om projekt, ekonomi och verksamhet. Utvärdering av Handslaget. Göteborgs
universitet, Idrottshögskolan.
9. Annerstedt, C., Annerud, E. & Stråhlman, O. (2009). Hälsoform: en analys av ett
hälsofrämjande koncept. Institutionen för pedagogik och didaktik, Göteborgs universitet.
I samband med omorganisationen av verksamheten vid UFN år 2010 påbörjades ny
indexering:
2012:
1. Patriksson, G., Stråhlman, O. & Eriksson, S. (2012). Blev Idrottslyftet ett lyft? Analys och
utvärdering av Riksidrottsförbundet, Akademiska Idrottsförbundet, Flygsportförbundet och
Korpen – Svenska Motionsidrottsförbundet. Göteborgs universitet: Institutionen för Kost-och
Idrottsvetenskap.
2. Patriksson, G., (2012). Swedish young peoples´ lifestyles with focus on physical (in)activity
and overweight/obesity - a review of the research literature. Göteborgs universitet:
Institutionen för Kost- och Idrottsvetenskap.
3. Kougioumtzis, K (2012). Greek young peoples´ lifestyles with focus on physical
(in)activity and overweight/obesity - a review of the research literature. Göteborgs
universitet: Institutionen för Kost- och Idrottsvetenskap.
4. Backman, J. (2012). I skuggan av NHL: En organisationsstudie av svensk och finsk
elitishockey. Göteborgs universitet, Institutionen för Kost- och idrottsvetenskap
(licentiatuppsats).

2013:
1. Patriksson, G. & Persson, C. (2013). Physical literacy among inactive Swedish young
people - An interview study of a neglected group in sport science research. University
of Gothenburg: Department of Food, Nutrition and Sport Science.
2. Kougioumtzis, K. (2013). Physical literacy in Greek children and adolescents. A study
within the Active Lifestyles project. University of Gothenburg: Department of Food,
Nutrition and Sport Science.
3. Samuelsson, D. (2013). En sportchefs vardag - en kvalitativ studie om sportchefens
uppgifter i elitserien i ishockey. Göteborgs universitet, Institutionen för kost- och
idrottsvetenskap.
4. Adolfsson, H & Söderberg, E. (2013). Att arbeta utan lön? En studie om
funktionärerna på GöteborgsVarvet. Göteborgs universitet, Institutionen för kost- och
idrottsvetenskap.
5. Teng, G. (2013). Uppdrag samspel - en studie om elevers samspelskunnande i bollspel
i ämnet idrott och hälsa. Göteborgs universitet, Institutionen för kost- och
idrottsvetenskap (licentiatuppsats).
6. Högman, J., (2013). Young people´s experiences of organized spontaneous sport.
University of Gothenburg: Department of Food, Nutrition and Sport Science.
7. Stråhlman, O & Marting, S., (2013). Volunteers at the 2013 European Indoor Athletics
Championships – a study on volunteerism in sport events. University of Gothenburg:
Department of Food, Nutrition and Sport Science.

Reports in Sport Science
Department of Food, Nutrition and Sport Science
University of Gothenburg
Address:
Box 100
405 30 Göteborg
SWEDEN
ISSN 1653-6991

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