Somatic embryogenesis is the process in which a single cell or a small group of cells follow a developmental pathway that leads to reproducible regeneration of non-zygotic embryos which are capable of producing a complete plant. These non-zygotic embryos may originate directly from other organs or parthenogenetic embryos (without fertiliza­tion) or androgenetic embryos (from the male gametophyte).

1. SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS

2. Somatic Embryogenesis:
Somatic embryogenesis is a process by which
somatic (non-reproductive) plant cells are
induced to form embryos, which can develop
into complete plants.

3. Challenges and limitations:
Genetic stability of somatic embryos.
Cost of production.
Limited scalability for some plant species.
Ethical and regulatory considerations in genetic
modification

4. Somatic embryogenesis is the process in which a
single cell or a small group of cells follow a
developmental pathway that leads to reproducible
regeneration of non-zygotic embryos which are
capable of producing a complete plant.
These non-zygotic embryos may originate directly
from other organs or parthenogenetic embryos
(without fertilization) or androgenetic embryos (from
the male gametophyte).

5. Key stages:
Initiation: Dedifferentiated cells are induced to form
embryogenic callus or somatic embryos.
Proliferation: Rapid multiplication of embryogenic
structures.
Maturation: Development of somatic embryos into
mature, plantable structures.

6. Factors influencing somatic embryogenesis:
Growth regulators (auxins, cytokinins, etc.).
Culture conditions (light, temperature, and nutrient
medium).
Genotype of the plant species.
Applications:
Clonal propagation of elite plant varieties.
Genetic transformation and biotechnology
applications.
Germplasm conservation and preservation

7. 1. Direct Embryogenesis:
The embryos initiate directly from the explant without callus formation and
here some cells which are called as ‘Pre-embryonic determined cells’ (PEDC)
initiates embryonic development, only those cells need to be released. Such
cells are found mostly in embryonic tissues, certain tissues of young in vitro
grown plants, hypocotyl, nucellus, embryo-sac, etc.
2. Indirect Embryogenesis:
Here, the embryos are developed through cell proliferation i.e., callus
formation. The cells from which embryos arise are called as ‘Induced
embryogenic determined cells’ (IEDC). Here growth regulators with specific
cultural conditions are required for initiation of callus and then
redetermination of those cells into the embryo development.

10. SYNTHETIC SEED PRODUCTION

11. SYNTHETIC SEEDS
Synthetic seeds are artificial
structures containing plant
embryos or somatic embryos
enclosed within protective
coatings, similar to real seeds.

12. SYNTHETIC SEEDS

13. Components of synthetic seeds:
Embryogenic tissue or somatic embryos.
Encapsulation materials (e.g., alginate, gelatin).
Protective coatings for storage and transport.

14. Types of synthetic seeds:
i) Desiccated
ii) Hydrated

15. i) Desiccated:
Desiccated synthetic seeds are artificially created
plant embryos that have been dehydrated to a low
moisture content, allowing them to be stored for
extended periods. These seeds are often used in
agriculture and plant breeding for the preservation
and easy distribution of valuable plant varieties.
They can be rehydrated and planted to grow into
mature plants, making them a convenient tool for
plant propagation and preservation..

16. ii) Hydrated: Hydrated synthetic seeds are artificially
created plant embryos that have been rehydrated
after being in a desiccated or dehydrated state. This
process involves adding water to the synthetic seeds
to restore them to a suitable moisture content for
germination. Once hydrated, these seeds can be
planted to grow into mature plants. Hydrated
synthetic seeds are used in plant propagation and
agriculture, offering a convenient way to cultivate
specific plant varieties with known traits.
Hydrated synthetic seeds are artificially created plant embryos that have been rehydrated after being in a desiccated or dehydrated state. This process involves adding water to the synthetic seeds to restore them to a suitable moisture content for germination. Once hydrated, these seeds can be planted to grow into mature plants. Hydrated synthetic seeds are

17. Advantages:
Ease of handling, storage, and transportation.
Uniformity in plant quality.
Reduced risk of disease transmission.
Season-independent planting.

18. Potential applications in agriculture and horticulture:
Rapid multiplication of valuable crops.
Expansion of plant varieties to non-native regions.
Improved crop yield and genetic consistency.