The Etruscans: Ancient Culture of Italy

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The Etruscans
The area once known as Etruria covered a substantial portion of what is now modern-day Italy. The origins of the Etruscans is
unknown, but their culture flourished until the expanding Roman culture assimilated it.
Most surviving Etruscan material is associated with their burials. They buried their dead in sarcophagi, some of which were
very elaborate, placing the terra-cotta containers in beehive tombs, so named for their domed shape resembling a beehive.
A large assemblage of tombs might be called a necropolis, from the Greek necro for dead and polis for city, literally a “city of
the dead.”

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A sarcophagus is a fancy coffin. The Etruscans buried their dead in terra cotta (fired clay) sarcophagi (multiple unit form of the
word) that were extremely fancy if the family resources permitted. The example shown in the next slide us the most famous and
most published of the surviving Etruscan sarcophagi because it is the most elaborate.
The husband and wife are seen on the top of the sarcophagus reclining in the dining posture used by the ancient Greeks, Romans
and Etruscans. They did not sit in chairs at tables to eat their meals but instead reclined on one elbow on short couches. Based on
the funerary art, the Etruscans were an odd mix of family values and wild party animals.
The effigy figures on the top once held eggs in their hands. An egg would have been a powerful fertility symbol to Pagan people so
why was it present in a tomb? Well, if one believes in everlasting life, often the belief system includes the notion that one is born
into the next existence, hence the fertility symbol. In addition to fertility references, the Etruscan tombs frequently had erotic, fairly
pornographic scenes painted on the walls. Sorry, you will not find any examples in this presentation. If you really wish to see them
you will have to search for them. They are extremely graphic in their depictions of sexual activity and it may suggest that sexual
activity, for the purpose of procreation, may have occurred in the tombs. The Etruscans may have believed that conceiving in the
presence of the deceased ancestors would bring their offspring good luck.
Slide 8 shows this artifact from the rear. Slide 9 is a detail of the effigy figures showing the hand positions where they once held
eggs. Slide 10 is an Etruscan sculpture of a banquet scene illustrating the dining posture discussed previously. Apparently the
Etruscans believed that eternity consisted on a lot of dining and socializing to depict the dearly departed as reclining for a meal.
These sarcophagi would be placed in above-ground tombs (actually, partly below ground level and mostly above). The Etruscan
tombs were rounded and might remind us of a beehive so they are called beehive tombs. An Etruscan tomb was a family interment,
with numerous generations buried in the same tomb so some were quite large. The graveyards were also very expansive in some
cases, such as the Necropolis at Certevery seen in an aerial view in the next slide..

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Cervetery Necropolis Beehive Tombs 7th-2nd Century BC

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Necropolis: From the Greek
Polis = City
Necro = ?
Dead
Necropolis = City of the Dead

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Early Etruscan Tombs
These are early, individual Etruscan tombs. Does
anyone besides the instructor notice how phallic these
look? More fertility references?
As stated before, the tombs were partly below ground
level and mostly above. The next slide shows the
exterior of an Etruscan tomb and the doorway that
was always open. There would be several steps
leading down to the floor of the tomb placing a visitor
with the ground at about waist height. The tombs
were covered with soil and flora grew atop them.
Slides 14 – 16 (15 & 16 are color photos) showing
how the tombs blend in with nature.

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Etruscan Beehive Tomb Interiors
Once inside an Etruscan tomb, the arrangement of the sarcophagi becomes obvious. They were placed in the niches that we see in
the walls all the way around the tomb. Many of the tombs were highly decorated with relief sculpture and wall paintings covering
the interiors. Slides 18 & 19 show the Tomb of the Reliefs with its many sculpted elements. The reliefs are of weapons, armor,
tools and other needed items. There is even a chair represented at the bottom of the square support post to the right of the photo.
Apparently one family member didn’t want to spend eternity standing. The Etruscans believed in grave goods, much like the
Ancient Egyptians. However, rather than burying the actual item in the tomb, the Etruscans merely included a symbolic
representation of the item and that was good enough to ensure the dearly departed would have access to that item in the afterlife.
This is a better system in one way. Grave-robbers were not interested in stealing the sculpted materials so the tombs were not
looted as were the Egyptians’.
Note that there are two dogs visible in the photo. No man would want to spend eternity without his best friend.
Also note the bench that goes around the interior of the tomb. This would have been covered with pads and pillows for the comfort
of visitors to the tomb. The Etruscans would regularly spend time in the tombs to visit with their deceased ancestors. This is likely
a form of spirit placation, intended to keep the spirits of the dead happy and prevent them from feeling forgotten lest they try to
return. As discussed previously, visitors may also have used the bench for sexual intercourse.

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Tomb of the Reliefs 3rd Century BC

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The next four slides show wall paintings from the Tomb of the Leopards, named for leopards painted on the wall. The mural
depicts a banquet and party scene, with people reclining on short couches to eat and drink as other revelers dance as musicians
play. There is every reason to believe the Etruscans actually had meals and parties in the tombs with the deceased ancestors being
the guests of honor. This would be a part of the spirit placation, to make the dead feel loved and remembered so that they don’t try
to come back.
It is also possible that people engaged in sexual activity in the tombs. Procreating in the presence of the ancestors may have been
seen as a good luck omen, or part of continuing the family line. There are some very graphic depictions of sex painted on the
tomb walls to go along with the party scene suggesting that sexual intercourse did occur here. There are also obvious fertility
symbols included in the paintings, such as eggs held by the reclining figures.

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Many older countries struggle to maintain their sense of history while at the same time trying to fit into a
modern world and not appear “backwards.”
The results can be interesting.
Can you identify the restaurant seen in the next slide? The marble, sculpture and tiered gardens may fool you.

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It’s McDonald’s. This photo was taken by the instructor in 1989 long before American McDonald’s locations had salads let
alone a salad bar as seen here. The hamburgers were awful, by the way.

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Rome
Due to the lack of electricity to power fans and air conditioners, the ancient Romans consumed massive quantities of water in the
public bath houses where the wealthy Romans would indulge in a cooling bath treatment. This consisted of seven pools of water
that started at a very high temperature and turned colder as each tub was utilized. After spending a specified time period in each
pool bathers would move on to the next with the water temperature growing colder as they moved through the process. The final
pool was filled with ice-cold water straight out of a mountain stream of lake and must have been quite invigorating. The idea was
to lower the bather’s body temperature so he or she would feel cool during the hot afternoon.
The baths were akin to modern shopping malls with restaurants, shops and salons. They were membership clubs and that’s why
they were reserved for the elite of Roman society.
Aqueducts were used to carry water from the mountains to the cities. Slide 29 shows a simple channel of concrete covering open
ground. To cross obstacles, a bridge would be required, such as the Aqueduct at Pont du Gard seen in Slides 30 & 31. While many
Roman projects were built using concrete (th3e Romans invented concrete and were the masters at using it), this bridge was
constructed of stone blocks stacked together without mortar. Gravity alone holds the structure up. This bridge was built to support
the channel at the top (seen in Slide32) that carried the water.
The Romans invented the architectural arch and the rounded arch that is the Roman style is built on a strict mathematical formula
using a height to width ratio that remains constant regardless of the size of the arch. This limits its usefulness since to go higher the
arch must also go wider to maintain that ratio.
Years ago the French government decided to save money by hanging a motor vehicle bridge on the side of the aqueduct (see Slide
33). This is an ugly intrusion on the historic structure but does demonstrate the sturdiness of the design.

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Aqueduct at Pont du Gard 1st Century AD

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The Colosseum
Built in the 1st
century AD, the Colosseum is oval in shape and could seat approximately 50,000 spectators (Slide 35). Not only
were the famous gladiatorial games staged here, but many various form of entertainment took place in this arena. With a core of
concrete covered with stone this building is a symbol for ancient Rome.
It is thought that a canvas awning once covered the seats which could be retracted on nice days. The building is plumbed and
running water made lavatories possible as well as enabling the arena to be flooded for mock naval battles.
The original flooring of wooden planks covered with sand is missing allowing us to see into the basement where holding cells are
located and several slides show this (various shots of the Colosseum Slides 35 – 41). Here is where men and animals destined to be
part of the show would have been kept awaiting their time in the arena. The original seats were made of marble but all but a few
have been stripped over the centuries.
Each of the archways featured a statue and the building was painted in bright colors as was the custom of the Romans. Just as did
the Greeks, the Romans painted their statues and buildings in bright colors.
Slide 41 shows the royal entrance where the emperor would enter the Colosseum. Like other elite Romans the emperor preferred
the comforts of the baths, but due to his high office he occasionally felt obligated to make an appearance and wave to the masses.
It was in deed the lower class Romans who attended event in the Colosseum. The pittance they paid for admission wouldn’t begin
to cover the cost of the entertainment provided here and it was the wealthy citizens of Rome who subsidized the Colosseum with
their tax dollars. They were probably happy to do so for it keep the poor people busy and distracted. The rich never want the poor
sitting around bored and miserable as this can lead to social revolt. The term “Bread and Circuses” may have been coined from the
entertainment and free lunch offered poor people in this venue.

35
The large Latin cross* erected at the royal entrance certainly
looks out of place on a structure dating to ancient Rome. After
the fall of Pagan Rome, and the Christians became the power
structure, one of the things they did was consecrate all of the old
Roman buildings as churches. The Colosseum, as well as other
Roman buildings built in antiquity, are technically Catholic
churches.
Terminology: A Latin cross features unequal length members
(longest at the bottom) while the Greek cross has four equal
length elements, resembling a plus sign.
The next slide is a drawing of how the Colosseum may have
originally looked. Recall that unlike the drawing, the structure
was painted in bright colors.
*The Latin cross features a vertical piece that is longer than the
horizontal piece whereas the Greek cross has equal length
pieces looking like a plus sign.

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Many visitors to historic cities and sites travel via arranged tours. Some folks are more
comfortable having their trips fully planned and guided but it can lead to some interesting
sights. An example would be when hundreds of tour buses suddenly appeared and surrounded
the city block where the Colosseum is located and thousands of tourists poured off the buses
for a hectic 10 minute visit. The sites the buses would visit would go from quiet serenity to a
mass of chaotic human invasion to quiet once again in a matter of minutes.
The next slide shows a photo of some of the many guided tour visitors arriving. The instructor
and his wife dubbed these folks “Bus People.”

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The Pantheon
Built in 125 AD this structure is made of poured concrete and features a doomed ceiling (see Slide 47). The problem with a dome
made of concrete is the weight. One estimate has the weight of the ceiling at 10 million pounds (5,000 tons). Modern architectural
engineers say the building is really impossible and the walls should be crushed under the weight. Fortunately, nobody told the
Romans the building was impossible.
The circular walls of the temple are 21 feet thick. The ceiling tapers from 21 feet in thickness over the walls to 4 feet thick at the
center.
The name Pantheon is from the Greek pan (all) and theon (Gods or religions) so this temple was dedicated to numerous Gods. Like
the Colosseum it was consecrated as a Catholic church and services are actually held here. There are also numerous burials within
the structure including some famous people from the Renaissance whose grave would have likely been looted (this was a weird
custom at the time) had they not been protected inside the Pantheon.
There is a hole in the center of the ceiling called the oculus (eye) and it might be a part of the engineering that allows the building to
stand and survive. The hole may dissipate the stress as the ceiling sags under its own weight, preventing cracking.
The front of the Pantheon appears styled after a Greek temple. Slide 49 illustrates how tightly packed the buildings are surrounding
the Pantheon, with only a narrow alley separating them. This was far back as was possible to get from the building before bumping
into another one. When the instructor visited here in 1989 it appeared as seen in Slide 50, covered with scaffolding for
maintenance.

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Pan = all
Theon = religion
Pantheon = all religions

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Oculus means eye, or opening.
The oculus in the Pantheon may have been meant to relieve the stress of the ceiling’s great weight
and prevent cracking. It is banded with iron to strengthen it.

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This Renaissance painting is an artist’s conception
of the interior of the pantheon. The next two slides
are photographs showing the oculus and the
coffered ceiling.
Slide 55 is a drawing showing a side section of the
structure. The drawing in Slide 56 illustrates how
the Greek temple portico attaches to the circular
part of the building.
Like the Colosseum, the Pantheon was consecrated
as a Christian church and there is actually an altar
located in the main room. See Slide 57.

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The Renaissance artist Bernini was asked by Pope Urban VIII (one of the more atrocious
popes) to add twin towers to the Pantheon. The additions were generally detested and were
removed around 1880. The painting seen in the next slide shows how it looked with the
added towers.

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The towers don’t seem to add anything to the structure, do they? Who knows what Pope Urban VII was thinking.

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Trajan’s Column 113AD Apollodorus of Damascus
Trajan’s Column was built to commemorate his victory in the Dacian War. The
monument is 98 feet in height and like all Greek and Roman colums was built by
stacking “drums” made of stone. This column is constructed of 20 stone drums
with each weighing 40 tons.
It is thought the monument was originally topped by a bronze eagle, which was
later replaced by a nude statue of Trajan. This disappeared after the Christian Era
began and the shaft is now surmounted by a statue of St. Peter (installed in the
16th
century) which makes so sense at all on a Roman monument. See Slide 62
for a detail of the sculpture.

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Of course, this is how Trajan’s Column appeared
when the instructor visited it in 1989. Just about
every historic structure seen on that trip was covered
with scaffolding for repairs and general maintenance.
We were happy to see the historic sites being
maintained, but did they have to do it while we were
there?

55
Constantine ended the prosecution of the Christians and was himself baptized becoming the first
Christian Roman emperor. He is perhaps even more famous for leaving Rome for Byzantium in
the 4th
century AD where he established a new empire in the city he renamed after himself.
Triumphal arches were dedicated to emperors for their accomplishments. The next several
slides show the Arch of Constantine, the Arch of Titus and the Arch of Septimus Severus.
Slide 67 depicts a detail of some relief sculpture on the Arch of Titus.

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Arch of Constantine. 315 AD

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Royal Portrait of Septimus Severus and family.
Septimus Severus was succeeded by his son, who was known
by the name Caracalla. He was a brutal man and a terrible
emperor. As a result of the general hatred for him many of his
portraits were vandalized after his death. The common
practice of removing of an unpopular leader’s image gives us
the term “deface.”

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Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (called Caracalla) 188-217 AD
This surviving portrait of Caracalla suggests that he was
not a cheerful man.
The baths seen in the next two slides were named for this
emperor. The aerial view of the artist’s recreation of the
baths shows just how big these complexes were.

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The basilica was a building design featuring a rectangular shape with the main area divided lengthwise into
three sections. Used for Roman government buildings, this design was borrowed by the Christians and became
the basic form for their churches.

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Augustus of Prima Porta 20 BC
This sculpture seen in the next slide was found at a villa used by Augustus’ wife. The two photos are of the same statue with only
the background color being different to highlight different details.
Much of the sculpture is symbolic and conveys messages Augustus wanted viewers to see. He stands in what art historians call an
oratory pose, where the subject appears to be addressing a group. He gestures… and looks… off in the distance indicating the
future. A leader is always concerned with the future. The here and now is the business of lesser members of the organization.
Augustus wears armor to remind us that he was a great military commander. He also has a Greek toga wrapped about his hips to
associate himself with the ancient Greeks like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. These men were known as intellectuals, thinkers,
philosophers and educators. Augustus wants us to know he was more than just the physical man who led armies to victory, he was
also the cerebral man, a great thinker and intellectual (which he most certainly WAS NOT).
The Caesars (and Augustus was a member of this family) claimed divinity by virtue of being descended from Venus, the Roman
goddess of love and beauty. Being of marble this statue needs a support element to prevent the ankles from breaking but rather than
the usual tree stump, this sculpture features the figure of Cupid riding on a dolphin’s back. Cupid was the son of Venus and one of
the legends regarding her birth involver her being carried ashore on a dolphin after being born on the sea foam. The figure of Cupid
on the dolphin is to remind the viewer of this link to Venus (Augustus would consider Cupid to be a cousin).
One more aspect of the sculpture is meant to suggest that Augustus is a god. He is barefoot. This means he is on holy ground.
What makes it holy? Why, he’s standing on it, of course! As a god, everywhere he goes is holy ground and he can never wear
shoes.

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Augustus of Prima Porta 20 BC

63
Recall that both the Greeks and the Romans painted their buildings and sculpture. To those of
us who are accustomed to the clean, white stone the painted versions would look garish and
ugly but this is how the Greeks and the Romans preferred them to look.

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The Ara Pacis
After an extended period of peace and prosperity within the empire this small marble structure was built to commemorate the happy
times (Slides 80 & 81). The exterior of the building features relief sculpture depicting some of Rome’s leading citizens. They are
recognizable as wealthy aristocratic Romans by their Greek togas. In Rome is was considered sophisticated to dress like Greeks,
teach one’s children to speak Greek, and fill one’s home with Greek art. The frieze shown on Slide 82 illustrates the Romans’ love
of realism in art and their sense of humor.
Note the two boys towards the right side of the frieze. The younger of the two is looking back over his shoulder and is glaring at
the older boy behind him. Meanwhile, the older boy stares back with a smug smile on his face. It is suspected that they are
brothers, and the older brother has been tormenting his younger sibling by poking him, stepping on the heel of his sandal, etc.
Such antics are common with youngsters, and will generally continue until an adult steps in. Note the woman behind the older boy.
Her hand is upraised and she appears ready to slap the boy in the back of the head.
If were to travel back in time and speak to these people we might learn that the child about to get whacked had a reputation as a
jokester and troublemaker. This sort of inside joke was popular with the Romans.

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Go back and look again at the people in the Ara Pacis frieze. How are they dressed?
Romans considered dressing like the Greeks, speaking Greek, and having Greek art to be signs of refined, upper-
crust society.

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Equestrian Marcus Aurelius
This emperor didn’t wish to be remembered by history as a great military man. He wears a Greek toga and even wears a beard in
the style of the Greeks (facial hair wasn’t popular in the Roman Empire) to emphasize that he considered himself to be an
intellectual. Unlike most of the Roman Emperors, Marcus Aurelius actually was highly educated and eschewed the company of
people he considered to be stupid and ignorant.
When the Christians came to power in the 4th
century AD a great deal of Pagan art was destroyed in what historians call The
Christian Backlash. Greek and Roman sculpture generally only survived when it was lost or deliberately hidden to protect it from
destruction. This sculpture is unusual in that it remained on public display from antiquity to the present day and is the only
sculpture to do so. The Christians spared it due to a misidentification. For some reason they believed it to be a depiction of the
emperor Constantine, who ordered an end to the prosecution of the Christians and was himself baptized making him the first
Roman emperor to be a Christian. Slide 86 clearly shows that the statue has now been moved indoors to protect it.
One part of the composition did not survive the Christian cleansing. Originally there was a small figure of a nude man tied with
rope in a fetal position under the horse’s upraised hoof. The nudity made it unacceptable and it was destroyed. It likely symbolized
the stupidity and ignorance Marcus Aurelius so despised.
Equestrian is from the Latin Equine for horse, meaning a mounted rider.
What is the material used for this sculpture? How do you know what was used to make it? Click for the answer.
Has to be bronze for so large a piece to stand without support.
Slide 87 is a portrait of Constantine. He bears absolutely no physical resemblance to Macus Aurelius.

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Equestrian Marcus Aurelius c. 180 AD

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We tend to forget history. Facts are quickly forgotten and each generation likes to
believe nothing existed before they were born.
Example: Popular culture describes the bikini as a 1946 invention.

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Really? 1946? This is a 2,000 year old Roman mosaic shows young women exercising in outfits that look like bikinis, don’t they?

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Roman Carved Glass Vase
Roman artists and art styles are generally
held in much lower esteem by art historians
than Greek art and artists. The Romans are
frequently seen as nothing more than
copiers of Greek art. One medium in which
Roman artists excelled was glass. Blown
and carved glass objects by Roman artists
can be exquisite in design and execution.

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Carved Glass Broach
Roman artisans were gifted at carving glass. This
cameo broach is of carved glass and is quite
impressive when we consider that the entire object is
slightly over 2” in height. Imagine carving that
small face on the headband back when they didn’t
have magnifying glasses to help them see such tiny
work.

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Carved Glass Cameo (Height 1.5”)
Notice the amazing detail in the carving
for such a small object.

79
The Portland Vase (Slide 95) got its name from the aristocratic family (the Duke and Duchess of Portland) that owned it when it
came to the attention of historians.
Now in the collection of the British Royal Museum in London this is an excellent example of Roman glass carving. The shape of
the vase is a Greek amphora and the decorative scene is also Greek in origins but the material (glass) is Roman. Recall that
wealthy Romans tried to emulate the Greeks as a sign of sophistication. Upper class Romans dressed in Greek togas, taught their
children to speak and write Greek, and filled their homes with Greek art. They bought original Greek art if they could and
reproductions by Roman artists if they could not.
In 1845 the vase was shattered when a drunken man tipped over a nearly sculpture on top of it. The restoration was very poorly
done and 37 pieces of glass were not replaced. The leftover pieces remained in a box in storage until 1948 when they were
identified and second restoration effort was undertaken. However, only three of the 37 pieces were returned to the vase. In 1987
the entire vase was disassembled and all the pieces finally put back together.

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Terentius Neo and his Wife 1st
Century AD
The fact that we have a painting of this Roman couple tells us that
they were members of the wealthy class. Poor people were not
buying art as it was far too expensive for working class people to
afford.
The woman’s purple dress also speaks volumes of their economic
status. Dying fabrics was very expensive before modern chemical
treatments were devised and purple was the most costly color to
produce. This is why it became associate with royalty as often
only they could afford it.
The woman holds a wax notebook and a stylus to indicate that she
was literate. Even amongst the rich educating the girls wasn’t
considered important so a young woman who was able to read and
write would want anyone viewing her portrait to know it.
Her husband holds a diploma. Not only literate, he has actually
received a formal education and has graduated from an academy.
This wall painting was found in the couple’s home. Because we
know where they lived we know how and when they died.

82
On August 24, 79 AD Mount Vesuvius in what is now southern Italy erupted and destroyed the Roman towns of Pompeii and the
smaller Herculaneum. It was not a lava flow that doomed the towns but rather the choking toxic gases that spewed forth from the
volcano. Victims either suffocated or were burned to death by the red-hot volcanic ash (which is rock that got so hot it burned up
and turned into ash) that fell from the sky burying Pompeii and Herculaneum.
As the volcanic ash fell and buried the city, the bodies of those dying in the tragedy were entombed in the ash as it hardened back
into stone when it cooled. Excavations of the city often turn up these victims and casts are made of their remains within the
hardened ash. These almost become living statues and remind us that people lived here and died here. As terrible as the Pompeii
tragedy was for them, it has proven a wonderful opportunity for us to examine a Roman town in a relatively complete and intact
state.
The next slide shows Mt. Vesuvius erupting in 1945. The 79 event was much more dramatic and devastating.

84
When Vesuvius erupted a wall of super heated gases slammed into anything or anyone within the area of affect. The
Pompeii victim seen in the next slide tried to run from the eruption but was knocked down from behind by the blast, and he
died lying face down in the street with his arms flexed above his shoulders. Look closely at the skeletal remains and figure
out what the man did for a living.
I wouldn’t ask you if you couldn’t tell me. The visual clue is there in the photo. Look at the photo in the next slide and
after giving it some thought, click for the answer.

85
He was a soldier, probably assigned to patrolling the city like a modern police officer. Note the sword worn on
his right hip (the strong side if right handed) as Roman soldiers wore their short swords.
Did you figure it out for yourself?

86
If the impact of the fast moving blast of hot gas didn’t kill you, you might suffocate due to the lack of breathable air. Or the
toxic gases could prove fatal. Or the red-hot volcanic ash might burn you to death. The volcano had numerous ways to kill its
victims. One particularly disturbing cause of death was the fallout of volcanic ash.
When Vesuvius erupted, millions of tons of volcanic ash was blown into the air. This is rock that has been subjected to such
intense heat that it has actually burned up and all that’s left is the fluffy ash that floats through the air and settles over everything
in the area. Unfortunately, this ash is so hot that it sticks to anything it touches, including living creatures, and causes terrible
burns that quickly prove fatal. Then, as the ash cools, it hardens back into its original form, entombing the victims covered with
volcanic ash. As Pompeii is excavated, the bodies of the victims create cavities within the material into which plaster is poured
to make macabre statues of the dead.

87
Their relationship, if any, is
unknown to us, but this man
and woman died together on a
Pompeii street, holding on to
one another as the volcanic ash
covered and suffocated them
and/or burned them to death.

88
This man appears peaceful in death, but we can only imagine the horror of his last moments.

89
The victim’s expressions reveals the suffering.

90
Some victims ran, some collapsed in agony. This man seems to
have simply given up, and sat down to await his inevitable fate.

91
Nobody was spared the horror. Whole families died including children.

92
Not even the family dog made it out.

93
Many victims have been found in Pompeii’s waterfront area. People may have rushed there hoping to take a boat away from the
dying city. Obviously not everyone made it out.

94
As horrible as the Vesuvius eruption was for the victims, it’s a fantastic opportunity for modern historians to examine a
complete Roman city that is relatively intact, having been sealed by the ash fallout. Here is a bakery frozen in time. Breads
and cakes still on sales display. All of Pompeii is like this. A Roman town that simply stopped cold, and has been protected
for the past two millennium, giving us a chance to see how the Romans lived and worked.

95
Roman Room in Pompeii
Numerous homes have been excavated
in Pompeii. Here we see one of those
short reclining couches in a highly
decorated room. Wealthy Romans
loved rich surroundings including fine
art.

96
Many of the Pompeii homes that have been
unearthed featured what some would call
pornographic art painted on the walls. At first
researchers thought they were discovering
bordellos, houses of prostitution where one
might expect to see such explicit art. But in time
they realized these were just average Roman
homes. It seems the Romans favored sexually
suggestive art and much of it is too graphic for
comfort in an introductory class such as this one.
But this painting and the one in the next slide are
not too outrageous for inclusion.
By the way, the word pornographic comes from
the Greek porno meaning prostitute, and graphic
for writing or drawing. Words and pictures of
prostitution becomes pornography.

97
Most of the Pompeii images of sexual activity are far
more graphic than this one.

98
Pompeii Plumbing
Many of the buildings in Pompeii were plumbed and had
running water. This is a photo of a pipe exposed inside
the wall of a Pompeii building.

99
Pompeii Cobble-Stone Street
Some sources will describe the stones
crossing the street as a pedestrian
walkway to stay dry in the rain.
Actually, the stones are a speed bump.
They are placed at the perfect spacing to
allow the typical Roman wagon’s
wheels to pass between them. But a
driver would be forced to slow down to
make sure he hit the gaps between the
stones.

100
Villa of the Mysteries- Pompeii

101
The Villa of the Mysteries
One of the more interesting structures to be unearthed in Pompeii is a large, deluxe private home dubbed The Villa of the
Mysteries due to the wall paintings found in one large room (Slides 122-129). It seems most authors profess uncertainty at the
use of this room or the meaning of the paintings but some of the images do not really seem all that hard to interpret.
Satyrs and fauns are seen in one of the paintings. These creatures are from Greek (satyrs) and Roman (fauns) mythology and are
associated with wild and unrestrained sex. Their sole function seemed to be the pursuit of women for the purpose of seduction.
Other scenes in the wall paintings also suggest sexuality of a more extreme nature. Several nude women are present and one
(perhaps with wings indicating her status as a deity or magical being) wields a whip and lashes one of the nude women.
It may be that this house was inhabited by worshippers of Bacchus, the Roman god of wine and drunken orgies (Dionysus to the
Greeks). Perhaps this home was used for ritualistic orgies or other ceremonies involving sex or at least sexual references.

102
Villa of the Mysteries Wall Painting.

103
An immature faun stands next to a
seated figure who may be the man of
the house with his wife standing to
our left. Perhaps a serving woman
passes by with a tray of snacks for
hungry party guests.

104
A satyr on the right plays his lyre hoping to entice some or all of the nearby women.

105
The goat was perhaps the second
most powerful Pagan fertility
symbol (behind the snake) and we
see satyrs and goats together we
can assume there is a sexual
theme to the meaning of the
painting.

107
This could be Dionysus, the Greek god of grapes, wine and
orgies. Known as Bacchus in the Roman pantheon, the wall
paintings might tell the story of women being initiated into a
secret cult of followers of Dionysus.
Images of naked or nearly naked women beating each other
with whips, as seen in the next two slides, support the notion
that the room was used for sexually charged rituals.

110
Modern Herculaneum (seen in the next slide) was built atop the ruins of the original city destroyed in 79 AD.
The volcano still looms over the community and Mount Vesuvius remains active and could erupt again.
History does often have a habit of repeating itself.

112
Catacomb
The early Christians refused to “acknowledge” the official state
religion of Rome as required under Roman law and were therefore
considered to be criminals. Christianity was not outlawed, in fact all
religions were legally practiced in Rome and its territories, but the
Christians weren’t allowed to meet openly or build cemeteries to bury
their since they were in conflict with Roman law.
Desiring to bury their dead in consecrated soil, the Christian
constructed tunnels under the cities where the entombed their dead.
These are known as the catacombs.
With sculpture being popular with pagans throughout history, the
Christians rejected sculpture and instead favored two-dimensional art
such as painting and mosaics. Here we see a wall painting inside the
doorway (see detail Slide 2).

113
This is a depiction of Jesus Christ. He looks a little
different from most portraits done in the Renaissance and
later. For the first 150 years or so following His death,
images of Jesus show him as clean-shaven. This would
make sense since facial hair wasn’t popular with Roman
men at the time of Jesus. For unknown reasons He
suddenly acquires a beard after 150 AD and from then on
this is how we usually see Him. The next slide shows
another example of the early vision of Jesus by Christian
artists.
Jesus is also shown as much darker than later artists
would have him, with thick, dark hair rather than the long
blonde locks associated with Him from Renaissance
paintings. Being Jewish and from the Middle East this
may be a more authentic representation of His physical
appearance.
Jesus’ arms seem to making a welcoming gesture, with
the arms flexing at the elbows and the hands moving to
His chest and back out again perhaps symbolizing the
“come to me message” of Jesus.

114
IΧΘΫΣ
Iota Chi Theta Upsilon Sigma
spells the word seen above and is an anagram for
Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior
The Greek word seen at the top of the slide is ichthus, meaning
fish. The letters of the word fish are an anagram for Jesus
Christ, Son of God, Savior. Thus the symbol of a fish (or
anything relating to fishing such as boats or boat parts) became
a secret code for Christians to identify themselves to each other.
The fish is still used today as a symbol for Jesus and/or
Christianity although most people do not know the origins of
the symbol. The same is true regarding the Greek letter Chi
which looks like the Arabic X and is the initial for the name
Christ. Saying “Merry Xmas” is simply using the Greek
abbreviation for Christ’s name in Christmas.
When Christianity was new and trying to recruit new members
it was the poor who were most interested in converting. The
rich tend to be conservative and happy and see no need for
change. Indeed, it was the poorest of the poor, the Roman
slaves, who swelled the ranks of the new religion. All they
could be offered was salvation after death but to a slave that
sounded like a good deal.
Because it was the poor who converted to Christianity, the
wealthy were often viewed as the enemy, and thus evil. The
catacomb painting in Slide 7 depicts three wealthy men burning
in Hell. Their only sin was simply being rich but to the Early
Christians, just as with some politicians today, that is enough to
make them evil.

115
Three Wealthy Men Burning In Hell. Catacomb Wall Painting, 3rd
Century AD.

116
Catacomb Internment Niches.
The bodies would be placed in the niches cut into the catacomb
walls. It’s easy to see why painting was more popular than sculpture
to the Early Christians as space was at a premium. Even with
spacious accommodations the Christians would have disdained
sculpture because it was seen as largely Pagan in nature.
The next slide illustrates how the niches were often not organized
with mathematical precision.

117
Sarcophagus lid, Christ Separating Sheep and Goats 4th
century.
The Christians worked at suppressing the Pagans and the various Pagan religions for many hundreds of years. The
Christians tried destroying Pagan art and demonizing Pagan symbols (such as making the serpent the symbol of Satan in the
Garden of Eden).
In the relief sculpture on the sarcophagus lid seen in the next Slide 11 we see Jesus as he seems to shun goats, an obvious
reference to Paganism, while embracing sheep, symbolizing Christianity. Jesus has turned his back on the goats, and raised
in hand in a negative gesture causing the animals to pull up short. Meanwhile, He caresses and welcomes the sheep who
lean in close to receive His blessing.

118
Sarcophagus Lid, Christ Separating Sheep And Goats 4th
Century.

119
Constantine legalized Christianity around 323 and by 394 Emperor Theodosius outlawed all religions other than Christianity. As
the Christians came to power throughout the Roman Empire, and eventually all of Europe, Pagans were driven out and
marginalized. As a last resort some built underground places of worship where they could continue to honor the Pagan Gods of
their fathers. The altar to Mithra on the next slide was discovered in an excavated room beneath what was once a Roman city.
It could be argued that once in power, the Christians were far more harsh towards the Pagans than the Pagans had been towards
them.

121
Byzantine Art
In addition to ending the prosecution of the Christians and being the first Roman emperor to be baptized, Constantine is also
remembered for splitting the empire and the Christian Church. Seeing that the empire was near collapse in the 4th
century,
Constantine took flight from the city of Rome and sailed to what is now Turkey, landing and settling in the city of Byzantium. He
established a new capitol here and renamed the city Constantinople after himself.
He was unable to maintain his position as emperor of Rome but he did found a new empire called the Byzantine Empire after the
original name of the capitol city. He also founded a new Church, which was exactly like the old Christian Church in every way. Of
course the original Christian Church evolved into the Roman Catholic Church and the Byzantine Church is today known as the
Eastern or Greek Orthodox Church.
Byzantine churches always feature a domed ceiling. Although the roof on the Church at San Vitale (next Slide) is octagonal, it is
considered a domed ceiling. Since the Byzantines were essentially a continuation of Rome, large Byzantine structure were made of
concrete just as were Roman buildings. The problem with a domed ceiling made of concrete is weight, as discussed with the
Pantheon. However, on this structure some unremembered worker came up with the idea of inserting stacks of clay pots (similar
objects inside one another is called nested) that displaced concrete and made the ceiling lighter.

123
This aerial view reveals the octagonal shaped domed ceiling.

124
Mosaics were a favorite medium for Byzantine artists. In the mosaic of Emperor Justinian found in the Church at San Vitale (Slide
18) we see the emperor flanked by 12 attendants. Some are difficult to see but a careful survey shows there 12 men behind
Justinian.
He also holds a bread basket. This would signify one half of the communion. Justinian’s halo and purple robe completes the image
of the emperor as Jesus.
Just in case the viewer doesn’t catch on to Justinian’s Christ association, the shield seen at the far left of the image bears the Chi-
Rho symbol, appearing as the letter P superposed over the letter X. These are the initials for Jesus Christ in ancient Greek. This
symbol is still used to signify Jesus by the Catholic Church (see Slide 19).

127
The mosaic of the Empress Theodora (next Slide) shows her holding wine complimenting the bread her husband held. She also wears
purple and has a halo. On her robe is embroidered the three wise men bearing gifts as she tries to remind us of the Virgin Mary with
her image.
Theodora had an interesting story. Her father was an animal trainer who worked with bears and her mother was an actress and part
time prostitute. She herself was also an actress and prostitute before becoming empress. She proved to be a formidable force in
Byzantine politics, supporting her husband against his political enemies and winning the respect of the citizens for her strength and
determination.

129
Mosaic Of last Supper St. Appolinaire Nuovo (Ravenna) 5th
Century
The mosaic in the next Slide is not a particularly well done piece of art but it is one the most historically accurate depictions of the Last
Supper. Romans didn’t sit in chairs at tables to eat their meals. Like the Greeks and the Etruscans, they reclined on short couches propped
up on one elbow when eating. The painting by a Russian artist seen in Slide 24 has it partially right with the nearer guests reclining but the
diners on the far side of the table are incorrectly seated in chairs.
Slide 25 shows a restored room in a house excavated in Pompeii featuring one of these short couches.

131
Last Supper From St. Isaac’s Cathedral 1862-1917

133
The Byzantine image of Christ tends to be more severe than
the Western images of the Savior. He appears older, darker
and often stern and unforgiving rather than the younger,
more benign appearing man seen in Western art.

134
Hagia Sophia (Church Of The Holy Wisdom)
This was the principal church in the Byzantine Empire. Unfortunately, it’s great size has created many structural problems
for the building. The idea for using clay pots to reduce the weight in the massive ceiling was not used in building Hagia
Sophia and the dome of this building has collapsed several times. It has been rebuilt each time but the structure is still in
danger of suffering another catastrophe at any time.
Constantinople was a Christian city in a predominantly Muslim country. As such, it was attacked many times by the forces
of Islam. Finally, in 1453 the city fell and Hagia Sophia was converted into a Mosque. Since mosques share the domed
ceiling of the Byzantine churches all that was needed for the conversion was to cover the paintings and mosaics on the
interior and add the minarets (all mosques have at least one) to the exterior.
Recent photos of the interior of Hagia Sophia suggest some work has been done to stabilize the structure.

137
The size of the interior space in Hagia Sophia is
almost overwhelming.

138
Islamic law was amended centuries ago to forbid the
depictions of any people or animals in art. Therefore, the
three motifs available to Islamic artists are floral designs,
geometric patterns, and calligraphy or elaborate writing.
The calligraphy generally takes the form of quotes from
the Koran, the Muslim Holy Book.
Examples of Islamic calligraphy can be seen in the round
medallions on the walls of Hagia Sophia.

139
St. Basil’s Cathedral c. 1560
After Constantinople fell in 1453, Moscow declared itself
to be the new capitol of the Byzantine Empire. It could be
argued that the Byzantine Empire didn’t actually vanish
until the Communist Revolution in Russia in 1917. Since
Communism is officially atheistic Churches were not
permitted to operate in the Soviet Union until it collapsed
in 1989.
St. Basil’s Cathedral is an Orthodox church (and
Moscow’s most recognizable landmark) that can be
identified by the domes in its design. This is an extreme
example of a domed structure but those are domes.
The next two slides show the cathedral from different
angles.

142
Islamic Art
Muslims adopted a policy of Iconoclasm in art, meaning no depictions of people or animals were
permitted. This is why Islamic Art features three subjects that abide by this canon.

143
• Calligraphy: Decorative script or writing, usually involving
quotations from the Muslim Holy Book, the Koran.
• Floral Designs.
• Geometric Designs.

144
Examples Of Islamic Calligraphy.

145
Terminology
• A mehrab is a niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the direction toward Mecca
and is designed to symbolize a door leading to the Islamic Holy City.

147
The next two slides show examples of Islamic art familiar to many of us, the so-called
Oriental rug. The first is decorated with geometric patterns and the second is covered
with floral designs. Rugs produced before the edict was issued banning depictions of
people and animals (and thus containing such images) are especially valuable to
collectors.

150
Reliquary
During the Middle Ages Christians
became obsessed with the collecting of
religious relics. Anything associated
with a Biblical figure or a significant
person from Christian history could
become a relic. Every church had to
have at least one good relic to be taken
seriously and congregations sometimes
fought over relics.
This elaborate gold box inlaid with
ivory and precious stones was made to
hold the foot bone of one of the saints.
Of course, with relics commanding great
sums of money from collectors
(including some Popes) fakery
abounded. Many of the best known
relics are of dubious authenticity.

151
Reliquary 1450
Apparently foot bones were
popular relics as were ornate,
appropriately shaped reliquaries
to hold them.

152
Reliquary c. 1150
This reliquary suggests the general shape of a church building. Not real gold, it’s made of wood and
painted reflecting the more austere financial standing of the church where it was kept.

153
Byzantine Reliquary 13th
Century
Not all reliquaries are made in
interesting shapes. Most are
simple boxes in form although
they often feature elaborate
decoration.

154
Byzantine Book Cover c. 1000 AD
Any religious text, such as a Bible, or a prayer book
or a hymn book, could be covered with a rich cover
of precious metal (gold or silver) and decorated with
jewels.
Some Christians thought that the more money spent
on expressing one’s faith… the more God would
love the worshipper.

155
Latin Bible
Not only were religious books decorated with fancy covers on
the outside, but often the pages were garnished with scroll
work or illustrations. These are generally known as
“Illuminated Manuscripts.”
Sometimes the borders of the pages were decorated and
sometimes whole pages of illustrations were included. See
the next slide for an example.

157
Beginning in the Middle Ages, portable altarpieces that could be easily stored, transported and erected for
worship began to appear. These might be owned by a devout, wealthy family for use in the home, or might be
donated… again by a wealthy patron… to a priest who traveled a circuit of smaller towns that lacked enough
population to support a full-time clergy.
These early portable altars are seen in two-piece form, called diptychs, and later in the Renaissance period tri-
folding (three-piece) versions appeared that are called triptychs. Materials could vary, as could the level of
decoration depending on the desires of the people who commissioned them. Someone who supports artists by
purchasing art is a patron. Someone who then donates the art to the Church is the donor (or donator as some
books use).
Most of the portable altars feature paintings on the wooden panels but some incorporated sculpture into the
decorative themes. Ivory seems to have been a popular medium for those who could afford it as seen in the
diptychs in the next two slides. The following slide shows an ivory cross.

158
Diptych, Ivory, French, c. 1260

159
Sant' Apollinare In Classe (Slide 55) is an example of a Byzantine church built in the basilica style, based on the design used for
Roman government buildings. It is rumored that the church was built on top of a Pagan graveyard and that some tombstones
were used in the construction.
Slide 56 clearly shows the basilica form, with a rectangular area divided into three spaces by colonades (rows of columns).
Slide 57 depicts some of the mosaics that decorate the interior. Jesus is shown with sheep that may look odd at first because
their tails have not been cropped short as we are accustomed to seeing today.

160
The Pisa Cathedral is built in the basilica form, with the center section of the structure rising above the roof on either side.
The windows on the sides of the elevated portion create what is called the “clear storey” that is a feature of the basilica
form. By the way, storey is the correct spelling for the word meaning the level of a building. So if you tell a story about a
three storey building be sure to use the proper words. The next slide shows the exterior view of the building.
Like all cathedrals the one at Pisa has a bell tower. It’s the bell tower at the Pisa Cathedral that makes the site unique and
famous. Do you know why this cathedral is known around the world?
Slides 60-62 show the famous (infamous?) bell tower.

165
Shortly after construction began on the Pisa bell tower, the foundation beneath it shifted, causing the tower to lean. Workers
actually compensated for this and put a slight bend in the tower to make it go straight up again. But the tower continued to lean
over farther and farther until it was closed for safety reasons. It has only been recently that engineers managed to stabilize the
structure allowing it to be reopened to the public.

166
Gothic
The most recognizable art form from the Gothic period is the architecture. Specifically, the huge Gothic Cathedrals that represented an
expression of faith on a scale hard to imagine. A cathedral is home to a bishop, opposed to a standard church. These were enormous
investments in resources and often became the focal point for the cities where they were located.
The word Gothic was actually meant to be an insult. It was a term coined by an art critic long ago who disliked the Gothic style of
architecture so much that he likened it to something created by barbarians, like the Goths, and the name stuck.
Some of the features typically found on the Gothic Cathedrals are the flying buttresses, the pointed arches and the ribbed or vaulted ceilings.
These buildings are very tall and heavy due to the stone construction. To help support the enormous walls a buttress was designed that
offered support while not being so intrusive as to detract from the design of the building. Since these support elements appear to literally leap
off the side of the building down to the ground they were called flying buttresses.
The Romans invented the true arch but the Roman arch was limited by physics. The Roman arch was based on a mathematical formula of
height versus width. If you wanted a higher arch it had to also be made wider. This kept the Roman arch from being made really tall. The
Gothic designers wanted to go really tall with doors and windows and they found that turning the rounded Roman arch into one that was
pointed at the top it could be elongated.
The ribbed ceilings are a function of the rows of beams that made a crisscross pattern in the ceiling giving them the name “ribbed” or
“vaulted.”
Note the time it took to complete one of these massive projects. In most cases the architect did not live to see the finished building. It’s not
that it really took 70 or 80 years to build a cathedral, but it often took that long to raise the money for construction. Work would cease when
funds were depleted and would not resume until after fundraising efforts were undertaken.
The Paris Cathedral (Slide 65 and plan view on Slide 66) is an early cathedral as seen by the squared bell towers. Later designs incorporate a
pointed spire style of bell tower. As a general rule architecture gets taller with time and the cathedrals are an example of this rule. In Slide 67
the flying buttresses and pointed arches can be seen. Slide 68 is an interior view showing the ribbed (vaulted ceiling). Slide 69 illustrates the
twin bell towers and three-part entry. The cathedrals have three doors and they differ in size and complexity of decoration. The largest door
in the center was reserved for use by the social elite. The second biggest door would be used by the lesser members of polite society while
the smallest was where the peasants would be directed to enter. If one wanted to upgrade a bribe could be offered to the Church to improve
one’s “door standing.”
Note that large, circular stained-glass windows are located on multiple sides of the building. All cathedrals were dedicated to the Virgin
Mary and the rose was Her symbol so these are called Rose Windows in Her honor.

169
Flying Buttress
Named for how they seem to leap from the side
of the building and soar to the ground.

170
The interior of the cathedral is designed to be spiritual..
The great ceiling height reminds us to maintain humility,
to remind us how small and insignificant we truly are in
the context of the whole universe. The light poring in
through the stained-glass windows gives the room an
ethereal glow which heightens the sense of spirituality.
The ribbed (vaulted) ceiling can be viewed in this slide.

171
Paris Cathedral
Remember that this is an early cathedral and as such is much smaller than the later ones. Some are truly enormous.

172
This diagram shows the basilica form of a
rectangular building divided into three parts,
the flying buttress on the exterior and how
the support beams create the ribbed ceiling.

173
Rheims Cathedral 1225-1290.
The square bell towers identify this as an early cathedral
design but we can see that it is taller than the Paris
Cathedral started nearly 60 years earlier. As the
buildings get newer they get taller.

174
Chartres Cathedral 1145-1220
This next slide shows how the cathedrals tended to be located on the higher elevations available. We try to elevate the divine and
being higher implies superiority. Also note how the cathedral seems to be in the center of town. Often the city would grow around
the church once it was completed. Living near the church had many benefits. Of course this symbolically implied power to the
Church and when Europeans came to North America and founded what would become the United States giving the Church too
much power was something they wished to avoid. The Church was told to build its structures in the outlying areas while the center
of town was reserved for government buildings.
One American city broke with this custom and does have the religious building at its heart. This means the citizens must have all
shared the same religion to agree on a specific church building as the center of the new city. Can you play detective and figure out
which American city was the one built with the church at its core? One clue is that it is a state capitol.
Need another clue? When the pioneers arrived in the area in 1847, fleeing other states where they suffered persecution for their
religious beliefs, their leader announced “This is the place” and they constructed their church before starting any other buildings.
Salt Lake Cit, Utah has the Mormon Temple as the central structure.

175
Chartres Cathedral 1145-1220

176
A dramatic photo of Chartres Cathedral. Note the spire-topped bell towers of the later design. This contrasts with the
squared tops of the towers on the cathedrals at Paris and Rheims.

177
This view really conveys the enormity of the cathedral and the sense of power is exudes.

178
Chartres Cathedral can be identified as a later style by the spires
on the bell towers. Recall that earlier designs, like the Paris
Cathedral, were squared at the top.
But there is a problem with this cathedral’s bell towers. They are
asymmetrical, and do not match one another in height or design.
The Gothic Cathedrals were designed with matching bell towers so
what could explain this situation with Chartres?
One tower was destroyed by fire and was rebuilt. The new tower
does not match the old one. Which one is newer and how can you
tell?
The taller one is the new one. Remember, as a general rule
buildings get taller and this cathedral was several hundreds of
years old at the time of the fire so it was decided to erect the
replacement in the taller style of the newer cathedrals.

179
Chartres Entry.
Note that the central door is the biggest and nicest followed by the one on our left. Your social status dictated
which door you used. The next two slide show the center door and one of the side doors for comparison.

180
Chartres Central Entry Tympanum.
The tympanum is the area above the door. On Gothic cathedrals this area is usually decorated with relief sculpture.

181
Chartres Side Entry Tympanum.

182
Naumburg Cathedral, c. 1249-1255 Pilate Washes His Hands.
Sculpture all but disappeared from post-Pagan Europe until the Early Renaissance except for the figures
sculpted on the cathedrals. Biblical figures and stories were a favorite theme.

183
Amiens Cathedral 1145-1220

184
Amiens 1220-1288
The situation with Amiens Cathedral is the same as with
Chartres. Fire destroyed one tower and the replacement
was built taller in the style popular at the time of the
reconstruction.
The differences in the size and decoration of the three
doors can be clearly seen in this slide.
Amiens is also famous for the intricate, geometric
designs its floors. The following two slides illustrate
some of the patterns seen in the cathedral’s floor.

187
This photo conveys the sense of verticality
sought by the cathedral architects. Taller is
better and tend to elevate the divine. The
massive building appears light and delicate with
the extremely tall windows and doorways.

188
St. Chapelle
Stained glass windows are an important
feature of Gothic religious architecture.
With no electricity for lighting windows
allowed light into the building and the
multi-colored glass gave the light a
spiritual quality. This photo illustrates
how the Gothic designers used the
pointed arch to good effect. These very
tall and narrow windows are not
possible with the rounded Romanesque
arch. It seems there is more window
than wall giving even a massive
structure a light and airy feel.
This Parisian chapel was constructed in
1248 to house several valuable relics,
including the crown of thorns reported
worn by Jesus as well as the ever-
popular sliver of wood from the True
Cross.

189
In addition to providing spiritually uplifting light, the
stained glass windows also served as educational tools.
Frequently they depicted Biblical scenes and figures or
religious beliefs and the priest could refer to them
during sermons to illustrate stories and concepts.
Here we see a baptism depicted in a St. Chapelle
window.

190
Biblical stories and lessons are always popular subject matter
for a cathedral’s stained glass windows. Here we see Adam
following the expulsion from the Garden of Eden. One of the
punishments he and his descendents must suffer is to work for a
living. No more swinging in a hammock picking fruit of the
tree.

192
Orvieto Cathedral 1290-1534
Despite an incredible 244 years for construction, this cathedral
almost seems to be a lesser reflection of the more magnificent
Gothic structures. Perhaps this is due to the design having
actually started prior to the Gothic period and the finished
result being the work of several different architects. It really
bears little resemblance to the traditional Gothic cathedrals.
Note the lack of the flying buttresses in the next slide.

194
Milan Cathedral 1386-2006
This is the notion of the Gothic Cathedral taken to an extreme. It is absolutely huge and wasn’t declared finished
until 2006 after 620 years of construction. At that time it really wasn’t even done, they just said it was.

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