Reference: Noronha, K. M., and A. Singh. 2017. “Why FSM? Critical Issues for the FSM4 Conference”. Presentation at “Moving towards sustainable Sanitation: Focus on FSM”. A Media Workshop organised by The India Sanitation Coalition, and the NFSSM Alliance. New Delhi, 7th February.

1. 1
Why FSM? Critical Issues for the FSM4 Conference
Kimberly M. Noronha and Arkaja Singh
7th February 2017
Presented at: “Moving towards sustainable Sanitation: Focus on FSM”
A Media Workshop organised by:

2. 2
The sanitation lexicon: key terms
Vocabulary Description
Cesspit An enclosed container used for storing sewage
Combined sewer A sewer system used to carry both blackwater (from homes) and storm water (rainfall). Combined sewers are much larger than separate
sewers as they have to account for larger volumes
Faecal Sludge A general term used to refer to undigested or partially digested slurry or solids resulting from on-site storage or treatment of blackwater or
excreta
Faecal Sludge [and
Septage] Management
(FS[S]M)
All components of a system to collect, transport, and treat faecal sludge [and septage]
Faeces (faecal waste) Refers to (semi-solid) excrements devoid of urine or water
On-site sanitation On-site sanitation is a system of sanitation whose storage facilities are contained within the plot occupied by a dwelling and its immediate
surrounding.
Septage Liquid and solid material pumped from a septic tank, cesspool or other primary treatment source
Sewage General term given to the mixture of water and excreta (urine and faeces). Also referred to as blackwater
Sewer An open channel or closed pipe to convey the sewage
Sewerage All components of a system to collect, transport, and treat sewage (including pipes, pumps, tanks, etc.)
Sludge The thick, viscous layer of materials that settles to the bottom of septic tanks, ponds, and other sewage systems. Primarily, sludge
comprises mainly of organics, but can also contain sand, grit, metals, and various chemical compounds
Sullage Dated (old) term for greywater: it includes wastewater from cooking, washing and bathing, but not excreta.
Wastewater Used water from any combination of domestic, industrial, commercial, or agricultural activities, surface runoff/storm water, and any sewer
inflow/infiltration. Wastewater from sanitation contains one or more of the following: excreta, faeces, urine, blackwater, brown water,
flush water, dry cleansing material, cleansing water
Adapted from: Koné, D., and S. Peter [Eds.] 2008. Faecal Sludge Management (FSM), Sandec Training Tool 1.0-Module 5. Dübendorf, Switzerland: EAWAG/Sandec Dept of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries
and: Tilley, E. Et. Al. 2014. Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. 2nd Ed. Dübendorf, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG)

3. 3
ÜBERSICHTSGRAFIK
Figure1: Definition of Excreta, Brownwater and Blackwater
Flushwater
Blackwater
BrownwaterExcreta
Anal Cleansing Water Dry Cleansing MaterialFaeces
properties and a variable nutrient content. Because of
leaching and volatilization, some of the nutrients may
be lost, but the material is still rich in nutrients and
organic matter. Generally, Excreta or Sludge should be
composted long enough (2 to 4 months) under thermo-
philic conditions (55 to 60 °C) in order to be sanitized
sufficiently for safe agricultural use. This temperature
is not guaranteed in most Composting Chambers (S.8),
but considerable pathogen reduction can normally be
achieved.
Dried Faeces are Faeces that have been dehydrat-
Excreta consists of Urine and Faeces that is not
mixed with any Flushwater. Excreta is small in volume,
but concentrated in both nutrients and pathogens.
Depending on the quality of the Faeces, it has a soft or
runny consistency.
Faeces refers to (semi-solid) excrement that is
not mixed with Urine or water. Depending on diet, each
person produces approximately 50 L per year of faecal
matter. Fresh faeces contain about 80% water. Of the
total nutrients excreted, Faeces contain about 12% N,
39% P, 26% K and have 107
to 109
faecal coliforms in
ÜBERSICHTSGRAFIK
Figure1: Definition of Excreta, Brownwater and Blackwater
Flushwater
Blackwater
BrownwaterExcreta
Anal Cleansing WaFaeces
Thewastewaterfromsanitationlexicon
Used to cleanse
oneself after
defecating and/or
urinating
(semi-solid)
excrement that is
not mixed with
urine or water
Solid materials used to
cleanse oneself after
defecating and/or
urinating (e.g. paper,
leaves, rags, etc.)
Water discharged into
the user interface
(latrine) to transport
the content and/or
clean it
Liquid produced by the
body to rid itself of
urea and other waste
products
Mixture of
faeces and
flush-water
and does not
contain urine
Mixture of
faeces and
flush-water and
does not
contain urine
Consists of urine
and faeces that
is not mixed
with any flush
water
Adapted from: Tilley, E. Et. Al. 2014. Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. 2nd Ed. Dübendorf, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG)

4. 4
The sanitation service chain
This refers to toilet
construction technologies
that either contain the
faecal waste on-site, or
convey the waste to a
sewerage network
Regular de-sludging of
septic tanks and other
on-site systems is
undertaken to evacuate
the sludge
Vaccuum trucks transport
the evacuated faecal
waste (sludge/septage)
away from the
household, and ideally to
a treatment site
This may be either at an
existing Sewage
Treatment Plant (STP)
designated for
treatment of sewage
and sludge, or at an
independent faecal
sludge treatment plant
(FSTP)
This involves treatment
of solid sludge for reuse
by composting, with the
final effluent discharged
into surface water, or re-
used for gardening or
agricultural purposes
after due processing

5. 5
What is safely managed sanitation?
Containment Collection Transportation Treatment
Re-use /
disposal
Water
closet
Sewer network / pumping
stations
Treatment
plants
Re-use /
disposal
Septic tank
/ pit
latrines
Primary
emptying
Transfer
Treatment
plant
Re-use /
disposal
Vacuum Truck
[Safe] burial
SEWERAGE
FAECAL SLUDGE & SEPTAGE MANAGMENT

6. 6
Evolving faecal waste management framework: the SFD
The JMP proposes to monitor “safely managed sanitation” through the containment, emptying,
Safe reuse and
disposal of faecal
waste
UNSAFE discharge of faecal waste
Source: JMP of WHO and UNICEF. 2015. “JMP Green Paper: Global Monitoring of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Post-2015.” Joint
Monitoring Program (JMP) of the World Health Organisation (WHO) and United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF).
• Either a partial FSM
framework; or
• No FSM framework

7. 7 Source: WSP analysis, using BMGF funded research © Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
Sludge direct to the environment: no service chain
Poor FSM: institutional open defecation (open discharge)
Leakage
Unsafely emptied
Safely emptied
Left to overflow
or abandoned
69%1%
Residential environment
79%
On-site
facility
20%
WC to
sewer
1%
Open defecation
Illegally
dumped
Not effectively
treated
Effectively
treated
Drainage systems Receiving waters
9% 9% 9%1%
2%
98%
of fecal sludge
unsafely disposed
2%
of fecal sludge
safely disposed
Containment Collection Transportation Treatment Re-use / disposal

8. 8
Containment Collection
Transportatio
n
Treatment
Re-use /
disposal
73%
On-site
facility
25%
WC to
sewer
2%
Open defecation
Illegally
dumped
Legally
dumped
Leakage
Unsafely
emptied
Safely
emptied
Safely abandoned
when full
2%
Residential environment
29%
Not
effectively
treated
Effectively treated
Drainage systems Receiving waters
10% 5%17%6%
10%
21%
69%
of fecal sludge
unsafely disposed
31%
of fecal sludge
safely disposed
Partial FSM: framework in place, services exist
Some sludge safely transported and treated
Source: WSP analysis, using BMGF funded research © Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

9. 9
SFD: All India (Census 2011)
Source: Census of India, 2011 – Analysis by CDD Society and BORDA – Also available in the press kit

10. 10
Waste water flow diagram (Case study: Angul, Odisha)
Source:DraftBaselineSurveyReport:ProjectNirmal(2015)Source: Draft Baseline Survey report 2015, Project Nirmal, BMGF Funded project implemented by CPR and Practical Action (unpublished)

11. 11
Close to 2.7 billion people need FSM today
Source: Dasgupta, S., Et. Al. 2016. “Faecal Waste Management in Smaller Cities Across South Asia: Getting Right the Policy.” Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi, and Freshwater Action Network.
http://cprindia.org/research/reports/faecal-waste-management-smaller-cities-across-south-asia-getting-right-policy-and. (Figure 12, p. 32)

12. 12
At current trends, FSM could serve the majority of sanitation needs by 2030
Source: Dasgupta, S., Et. Al. 2016. “Faecal Waste Management in Smaller Cities Across South Asia: Getting Right the Policy.” Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi, and Freshwater Action
Network. http://cprindia.org/research/reports/faecal-waste-management-smaller-cities-across-south-asia-getting-right-policy-and. (Figure 13, p. 33)

13. 13
Indian cities depend on on-site sanitation
Source: Census of India, 2011– Analysis of SCI-FI Project, Centre for Policy Research, 2017

14. 14
Installed Sewage Treatment Capacities in Indian Cities c. 2015
Source: City-wise STP capacity compiled from CPCB(2015). Wastewater generation estimated at 540 litres per household (Census 2011) - – Analysis of SCI-FI Project, Centre for Policy Research, 2017
Even when cities have
sewerage systems they do
not cover all households

15. 15
With the decrease in settlement size, the dependence on on-site sanitation
increases

16. 16
Reducing resource use esp. in the Climate change context (energy and water)

17. 17
River & Groundwater pollution (Case: Odisha, India)
Source: Analysis of SCI-FI Project, Centre for Policy Research, 2017

18. 18
Faecal-Oral pathways: risks, impact
• • Waterbornediseases
• – Diarrhoea: estimated 600
mill. adult cases, 300 mill. U-5
• : about 400,000 U-5 deaths
• • Vectorborne
• – Malaria: 900,000 (2013)
reported cases to 24 mill.
annual cases (estimated 2012)
• – Dengue : ~ 50,000 cases &
250 deaths (2012)
• •Stunting
• - undernutrition in India is
largely explained by open
defecation, population density,
and lack
of sanitation and hygiene
Poor sanitation continues to have a significant impact on the country
as a whole. The faecal – oral chain, as expressed in Figure 1 continues to
contribute to significant morbidity and mortality in India. Sanitation as a
barrier for the faecal – oral chain has an important human development
role. Various researchers and field studies continue to produce evidence of
Source: Adopted from WEDC 1982
Primary Barrier
Secondary Barrier
Health And HygieneH
PRIMARY BARRIER SECONDARY BARRIER
FAECES
FOOD
FLUIDS
FARMS
FLOODS
FILESS
S
W W
S H
H H
H
S
H
H
Source: WEDC, 1982. Quoted in Dasgupta, S., Et. Al. 2015. “Swachh Bharat: Industry Engagement-Scope & Examples” SCI-FI Sanitation Initiative Research Report. New Delhi: Centre for Policy
Research. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4724.3287. (Figure 1, p. 15)

19. 19
Urban OD and IMR in select countries
Source: World Health Organisation and UNICEF (2013), World Bank (2013). Data analysis and representation by SCI-FI Sanitation Initiative, Centre for Policy Research, 2017

20. 20
Brief overview of international sanitation policy framework drivers

21. 21
MDGs vs. SDGs
MDGs (2000-2015)
GOAL
Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people
without sustainable access to safe
drinking water and basic sanitation
TARGET
Halve by 2015, the proportion of
population without sustainable access to
safe drinking water & basic sanitation
INDICATORS
• The proportion of the population that use
an improved drinking water source
• The proportion of the population that use
an improved sanitation facility
SDGs: 2015-2030
GOAL:
Ensure availability and sustainable
management of water & sanitation for all
TARGET
(6.2) By 2030 achieve access to adequate &
equitable sanitation & hygiene for all, and
end open defecation, paying special attention
to the needs of women and girls
INDICATORS
• % of all population using safely managed
sanitation services [progressive elimination
of inequalities in access]
• Population with a hand-washing facility with
soap & water in the household [progressive
elimination of inequalities in access]

22. 22
Containment Collection Transportation Treatment
Re-use /
disposal
Water
closet
Sewer network / pumping
stations
Treatment
plants
Re-use /
disposal
Septic tank
/ pit latrines
Primary
emptying
Transfer
Treatment
plant
Re-use /
disposal
Vacuum Truck
[Safe] burial
SEWERAGE
FAECAL SLUDGE & SEPTAGE MANAGMENT
MDGs SDGs

23. 23
Brief overview of sanitation policy & programme development in India

24. 24
Delivery challenges of network sewerage
Laying new
networks
Unplanned
urban
settlements
O&M
• Laying new infrastructure is expensive and complicated
• Cost of works, engineering higher than for FSM
• Laying new networks in dense, urban areas
• Clearing land for projects, engineering challenges
• Managing the networks is also expensive &
complicated
• Blocked pipes, incomplete networks lead to sewage in
open drains
• User cost recovery is difficult
• Technologies are expensive and difficult to operate
• Changes in sewage composition, volume cause the system to
malfunction
• Unplanned urbanism poses planning challenges
• Population densities and usage difficult to predict

25. 25
But who will do FSM? Gaps in the institutional architecture
leave out FSM
Roles Responsibilities
Sewage networks and STPs Water boards, PHEDs, and sometimes
municipalities
But there is also a lot of sewage in
storm water drains and nallahs
Municipalities, water boards and irrigation
departments
Collection & treatment of on-site
septage
Water boards and PHEDs ignore this completely, no
legal responsibility
Sometimes ULBs do a bit
Mainly unregulated private operators, no
treatment
Control over new construction Development authorities, ULBs
Environmental compliance Pollution control boards, High Court and NGT

26. 26
Fixing the gaps in the FSM chain: environmental
compliance
Effluent standards under Environment
Protection Act, 1986
Standards apply equally to public
authorities, institutions and private
individuals
• Not possible to implement w/o a
continuum of responsibilities
• High standards, expensive
technology
EIA conditions and planning regulations
for large real estate projects
Mandate for on-site treatment and re-
use
Almost everyone is in violation, so enforcement hardly ever happens
NGT & courts operate in an institutional vacuum
NGT & PCBs can address compliance, but not how it is done

27. 27
FSM has to address manual scavenging
• When feacal sludge is not dealt
with appropriately
• Blocked pipes have to be manually
cleaned
• Sludge lifted from drains and
nallahs
• Manual cleaning of septic tanks
• Municipalities, public authorities
and private operators make
workers do very hazardous work
• Prohibited under the Manual
Scavenging Act, 2013
• Collection, transport & treatment
• Quality of septic tank de-sludging
services?
• Linkages with treatment facilities
• Facilitate investment
• Monitoring and regulation

28. 28
The urgent question: What
happens when the pit is full?
New developments related to on-
site sanitation systems
Share field experiences.
How sludge accumulates and
degrades
Innovations in pit emptying
Mechanised emptying for Small,
Medium and Micro Enterprises
(SMMEs)
Protecting the manual pit
emptiers- “eThekwini's Pit
Emptying Programme”
Decentralised treatment of
household sanitation wastes
FSM I (2011) FSM II (2012) FSM III (2015) FSM IV (2017)
Understanding on-site sanitation
Research and technology solutions
related to on-site sanitation systems
The how of faecal sludge treatment
On-site sanitation as a business
Toilet design for FSM optimization
Pit emptying – exploring options
Beneficial use of faecal sludge
Technology and innovation in FSM
Health aspects of faecal sludge
Practical innovative solutions that
can be applied at scale in rapidly
growing cities.
FSM at city scale: institutional
arrangements, policy and finance
Enabling environment for FSM
Resource recovery from faecal
sludge
Replicable faecal sludge solution
Assessing health risks of FSM
Treatment technologies for
pathogen reduction
Faecal sludge desludging and
transportation
FSM in emergency disaster
situations
FSM- Focus on Vietnam
Innovative and practical solutions
that can be scaled up for FSM.
Characterization and quantification
of faecal sludge
Health, safety and hygiene
Technologies for the collection,
transport, treatment, disposal and
use of faecal sludge
The role of education
Economics and business
Challenges to scaling up fully
Future plans and developments
Private sector service provider
development
Regulatory and legislative
development
Policy and institutional models
FSM – Focus on India
What role have the FSM conferences played?
What is FSM?
Expanding the
understanding
Solutions for FSM Scaling up

29. 29
Thank you
Kimberly M. Noronha (kim@cprindia.org)
Arkaja Singh (arkaja@cprindia.org)
Presented at: “Moving towards sustainable Sanitation: Focus on FSM”
7th February 2017
A Media Workshop organised by:
More of our work from: www.cprindia.org/sci-fi
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