Subtitles and Cognitive Load.pdf

105
© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press; all rights reserved.
Learning most with least effort:
subtitles and cognitive load
Karolina Baranowska
The article reports a study investigating the effects of different subtitling
conditions on cognitive load, incidental vocabulary learning, and
comprehension. In the study, 63 Polish intermediate learners of English were
asked to watch a movie clip and subsequently to answer comprehension
questions, take a vocabulary knowledge test, and fill in a self-reported cognitive
load questionnaire. They were divided into three groups: one group watched the
clip with Polish subtitles, one with English subtitles, and one without subtitles.
The findings indicate that intralingual (L2) subtitles assist learners in vocabulary
acquisition more than interlingual (L1) subtitles. Moreover, both types of
subtitles lower cognitive load, which is accompanied by greater comprehension
of the material presented. The results of the study offer some practical
implications for EFL teachers and learners.
In the past few decades, foreign language films and online media have
received considerable attention in the ELT literature. Previous research
reveals that exposure to various media positively correlates with foreign
language acquisition in the case of both younger and older learners. For
example, in the Early Language Learning in Europe project (Enever 2011),
researchers explored, inter alia, the impact of out-of-school exposure to
English in the case of primary school children from a range of European
countries. As it turned out, the amount of exposure to foreign language
films outside the classroom correlated positively with learners’ test scores
in listening and reading comprehension. Thus, the researchers suggest
that undubbed television programmes should be more available to
children since ‘the benefits of this additional language exposure outweigh
the effort required’(Enever 2011: 7). There is also evidence that secondary
school learners enhance their foreign language proficiency by means of
watching videos in the target language. The aim of another large-scale
study, First European Survey on Language Competences, was to collect
data on foreign language learners’ proficiency in different European
countries. Secondary school students from 16 educational systems were
tested on their listening, reading, and writing skills in the two most widely
taught foreign languages in their educational systems. Overall, the results
revealed that learners benefited from exposure to the media as evidenced
by test scores (Jones et al. 2012).
Learning English through
the media
ELT Journal Volume 74/2 April 2020; doi:10.1093/elt/ccz060
Advance Access publication 5 March 2020
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Even though it is widely believed that children have more capacity for
incidental vocabulary learning than adults (e.g. Macnamara 1973), there
is ample experimental research which shows that adults can also acquire
the target language implicitly. For example, Harji et al. (2010) investigated
the benefits of watching English videos by Iranian university students.
The participants watched instructional videos either without subtitles or
with English subtitles. Among other things, the researchers found that
exposure to the media was effective in terms of vocabulary acquisition.
Finally, studies investigating learners’ perceptions of the usefulness of
exposure to foreign language media show that such exposure is generally
appreciated by learners and believed to be useful for foreign language
learning. A recent survey concerning the use of new technologies in
learning English conducted by Trinder (2017) revealed that students
regarded films and the media as useful tools for developing listening
skills, pronunciation, and speaking. Television series or video clips were
also perceived as useful for developing communicative competence.
Watching subtitled films is generally found to be advantageous in terms
of overall language improvement, including incidental and intentional
vocabulary learning. Vanderplank (1988) noticed that one advantage of
subtitles is the fact that they help learners notice unfamiliar language,
which is otherwise lost in the speech stream. As Vanderplank (ibid.: 272–
73) noted, ‘subtitles might have a potential value in helping the learning
acquisition process by providing learners with the key to massive quantities
of authentic and comprehensible language input’. English language
learners who took part in his study found English language subtitles to be
facilitative in terms of comprehension of the presented video material as
well as in noticing new words. Aydin Yildiz (2017) examined the impact
of watching subtitled videos on comprehension and vocabulary learning
in the case of Turkish intermediate students of English. The participants
were divided into two groups: one watched movie clips with and the other
without English subtitles. After four treatment sessions during which
they watched different clips, the participants completed a multiple choice
vocabulary test and answered comprehension questions. The results reveal
that the group watching subtitled videos outperformed the group watching
the videos without subtitles on the vocabulary post-test.
Even though the benefits of watching subtitled foreign language films have
been acknowledged by numerous researchers, what still remains to be
established is how the video material should be presented to learners,
i.e. which subtitling condition assists learners the most in acquiring the target
language. Some argue that intralingual subtitles (foreign language subtitles)
are more advantageous since they help viewers to recognize the words that are
being spoken. For example, Frumuselu et al. (2015) found that intralingual
subtitles were more beneficial irrespective of the learners’ language level.
The researchers explain that this may be attributable to the fact that
intralingual subtitles increase learners’ interaction with the target language.
Moreover, intralingual subtitles allow learners to see the written form of the
spoken word, which makes them more confident. However, interlingual
subtitles (native-language subtitles) have also been found to contribute to
vocabulary acquisition. Koolstra and Beentjes (1999) investigated incidental
Impact of different
subtitling conditions
106 Karolina Baranowska
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vocabulary learning in the Dutch context. They exposed one group of children
to an English programme with Dutch subtitles, one group to a version
without subtitles and one group to a Dutch programme as a control condition.
Their findings show that the presence of standard subtitling (L1 subtitles) can
contribute to incidental learning of vocabulary.
Although in most studies subtitles were found to be useful in foreign
language acquisition, there are also studies which show that watching
subtitled videos did not lead to greater vocabulary acquisition than
watching videos without subtitles. To take one example, Karakas and
Sariçoban (2012) investigated the impact of subtitled cartoons on
incidental vocabulary learning. They found that the group that watched an
experimental video with English subtitles did not have more vocabulary
gains than the group that watched the version without subtitles. However,
both groups improved their scores from the pre-test to the post-test, which
means that mere exposure to videos can assist in vocabulary acquisition.
Cognitive load can be defined as ‘a multidimensional construct
representing the load that performing a particular task imposes on
the learner’s cognitive system’ (Paas et al. 2003: 64). Since there are
different sources of cognitive load, it can be subcategorized into intrinsic,
extraneous, and germane cognitive load. Intrinsic cognitive load is
generated by the inherent complexity of the presented material, extraneous
cognitive load is generated by the format of the presentation of the
information (Brunken et al. 2003), and germane cognitive load ‘constitutes
the remaining available cognitive resources’ (Kruger et al. 2014: 3).
In the light of cognitive load theory, subtitles may be regarded as
deleterious to learning since viewers have to manage attention distribution
between different sources of information, which in turn increases
extraneous cognitive load. At the same time, germane cognitive load
decreases, which means that there are fewer cognitive resources available
for processing and forming schemata (e.g. Brunken et al. 2003). In
language acquisition studies, however, subtitles are generally believed
to lower extraneous cognitive load by providing visual support, which in
turn leads to better performance as well as learning (Paas et al. 2003).
Kruger et al. (2014) carried out an experiment on the impact of subtitles
and attention distribution on cognitive load and comprehension of an
English academic lecture by speakers of English as a second language
whose L1 was Sesotho. To measure the level of cognitive load, they used
objective measures, i.e. electroencephalography and eye-tracking, as well as
subjective measures, i.e. self-reported questionnaires. Interestingly, on the
basis of self-reports, they found that the lowest comprehension effort was
reported by the group exposed to interlingual subtitles, whereas the highest
mental load was experienced by the group exposed to intralingual subtitles.
Although there is now substantial research showing that viewing foreign
language films contributes to the development of foreign language
proficiency, there is no consensus on the effects of native versus foreign
language subtitles on the level of cognitive load experienced by learners
and on the amount of vocabulary learning and comprehension that takes
place. Moreover, little is known about the interaction of cognitive load,
Learning and
cognitive load
Learning most with least effort: subtitles and cognitive load 107
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vocabulary learning, and comprehension during exposure to videos in
different subtitling conditions. On the basis of previous research in the
field (e.g. Kruger et al. 2014), it can be hypothesized that subtitles in
general will not result in cognitive overload and will even lower the level
of cognitive load, although it is difficult to predict whether interlingual
or intralingual subtitles will induce lower cognitive load. Determining
how cognitive load influences learning is important in foreign language
education since it allows for the appropriate choice of learning materials
that make students learn the most at a minimal cost. It may be expected
that lower cognitive load results in greater vocabulary acquisition and
comprehension of the video material presented. Learning materials that
generate low cognitive load are likely to boost interest in learning foreign
languages since learning will not be perceived as a tedious activity, but
rather a pleasant and effortless process. In order to address the above-
mentioned issues, the following research questions have been formulated:
1) What are the effects of different subtitling conditions on the level of
cognitive load experienced by learners while viewing English language
videos?
2) What are the effects of different subtitling conditions on the level of
comprehension of English language videos?
3) What are the effects of different subtitling conditions on the acquisition
of English vocabulary?
4) Is there a relationship between the level of cognitive load experienced by
learners while viewing videos and vocabulary acquisition?
5) Is there a relationship between the level of cognitive load experienced by
learners while viewing videos and comprehension?
Participants and procedure
The participants of the study were 63 Polish learners of English selected
by means of convenience sampling from a high school in Słupca, Greater
Poland Voivodship. They were at an intermediate level of proficiency (B1),
which was determined on the basis of the coursebook they were using at
the time of the study and the teacher’s report. Three intact groups were
used: there were 20 students in the first group, 22 in the second, and
21 in the third group. The participants were informed about the general
aims of the study; they were asked to watch the movie carefully and were
also told that they would be asked questions about it afterwards. First,
each group completed a pre-test on vocabulary items from the movie.
Subsequently, the first group watched the video material without subtitles,
the second group with Polish subtitles, and the third group with English
subtitles. After the viewing, the participants completed a post-test on
comprehension and vocabulary, as well as a self-reported questionnaire
concerning cognitive load.
Materials
The materials used in the study included a pre-test which consisted of
two parts. The first part contained questions checking the participants’
familiarity with the video clip to be presented, so as to eliminate students
who were familiar with the television series, as the likelihood of them
knowing the experimental clip would then be too high. The second part
The study
Method
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was a Revised Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (RVKS) test, adapted from
Zhao and Macaro (2016: 86). Figure 1 is an example item from the test
along with the instructions that were provided.
As Figure 1 shows, the test consists of a three-point scale concerning
vocabulary knowledge: ‘I haven’t seen this word before’, ‘I have seen this
word before, and I think it’s related to the category__’, ‘I know this word.
It means (answer in Polish or English)’. The first level is worth 0 points,
the second 1 point, and the third one is worth 2 points. In total, there were
30 words, 10 of which were fillers to distract the participants from the
purpose of the study. Although the participants were asked to give all the
meanings of a given word they knew, they got a point only if they knew
the meaning in which the word was used in the video clip. Therefore,
what was measured was the ability to infer context-dependent meanings
(ad hoc concepts)—a student obtained a point in the post-test only if the
meaning given was the required meaning, and this required meaning was
the meaning that had to be inferred from the context.
The video material was a 12-minute clip from the first episode of the
television series Gilmore Girls. The rationale behind choosing this
particular series was that it was highly likely that the series was not well-
known by teenagers as it ended its run in 2007, yet it is authentic material
so does not pose a threat to the external validity of the study. Moreover,
the scenes include mostly dialogues, so the participants were not able to
answer comprehension questions without comprehending the language
used in the video material.
The post-test consisted of two parts. In the first one, the participants
were asked to answer eight comprehension questions. Seven of them
were worth 1 point, and one was worth 3 points. All the questions were
in the participants’ native language. The second part was the RVKS
test containing 20 vocabulary items from the video clip. This time the
participants were specifically asked to provide the meaning of the words in
which they were used in the clip.
A self-reported questionnaire was compiled from the self-report used by
Kruger et al. (2014) and NASA Task Load Index (Hart 1986). In total,
there were five questions with the answers presented on a five-point Likert
scale. Each question was related to one aspect of cognitive load: mental
demand, temporal demand, effort, frustration, and engagement.
The effects of subtitles on cognitive load
Figure 2 illustrates the level of cognitive load experienced by each
participant in the three experimental groups. It shows that the group
Results
figure 1
RVKS adapted from Zhao
and Macaro (2016: 86)
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which watched the version without subtitles experienced the highest
mental effort, while the group that watched the clip with Polish subtitles
reported the lowest level of cognitive load.
A Kruskal–Wallis test was applied to check for statistically significant
differences. It yielded a statistically significant difference between the
impact of different subtitling conditions on the level of cognitive load
(P = 0.012). The results of pairwise comparisons show, however, that the
only difference to reach the level of statistical significance is the difference
between the Polish-subtitles and the no-subtitles group (P = 0.011).
The effects of subtitles on comprehension
Comprehension questions turned out to be the easiest for the group
watching the clip with Polish subtitles, and the most difficult for the group
watching the clip without subtitles. As indicated by the Kruskal–Wallis test
(P = 0.000), the differences in the level of comprehension between the three
groups were statistically significant. Pairwise comparisons demonstrate that
statistically significant differences were found between the no-subtitles and
the Polish subtitles group (P = 0.000), as well as the English and the Polish
subtitles groups (P = 0.038). Figure 3 shows how comprehension decreased
figure 2
The level of cognitive load
in the three experimental
groups. Broken line
connects means
figure 3
Comprehension
scores broken by
groups. Broken lines
connects means
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from the Polish subtitles, through the English subtitles, to the no-subtitles
group. From this, it can be inferred that own-language subtitles facilitate the
comprehension of foreign language videos the most.
The effects of subtitles on vocabulary acquisition
As shown in Figure 4, all experimental groups improved their vocabulary
scores from pre-test to post-test.
Although no statistically significant differences were found between the
groups on the pre-test (P = 0.59), the difference between the Polish and
the English subtitles groups approached significance (P = 0.07). On the
post-test, the differences between the groups proved to be statistically
significant (P = 0.003), although the paired comparison analysis showed
that the only statistically significant difference was found between the
Polish and the English subtitles groups (P = 0.002). Table 1 shows mean
vocabulary scores on the pre and post-test, as well as mean vocabulary
gains for all three groups. Vocabulary gains were calculated by subtracting
the points obtained on the pre-test from the points obtained from the
post-test.
As presented in Table 1, the English subtitles group had the biggest
vocabulary gains, while the Polish subtitles group did not acquire many
new vocabulary items from the video clip.
The relationship between cognitive load, vocabulary acquisition, and
comprehension
In terms of the relationship between the level of cognitive load and
vocabulary acquisition, Spearman’s rank-order correlation indicated no
statistically significant correlations, either in terms of vocabulary gains for
all the groups taken together (rs
= –0.047, P = 0.717), or in terms of gains
for each group separately.
When it comes to the relationship between the level of cognitive load and
comprehension, Spearman’s rank-order correlation showed a statistically
significant correlation for all groups taken together (rs
= –0.34, P = 0.006).
When broken down by groups, a significant correlation was found only in
the English subtitles group (rs
= –0.596, P = 0.004). Therefore, the results
suggest that a high level of cognitive load implies poorer comprehension,
at least while watching videos with intralingual subtitles.
figure 4
Mean vocabulary scores
on the pre-test and post-
test broken by group
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The current study shows that there is a significant difference between
various subtitling conditions when it comes to their impact on cognitive
load, comprehension, and vocabulary learning. The results demonstrate
that there is a significant difference in the level of cognitive load
experienced by learners watching videos in different subtitling conditions.
Own-language subtitles contributed to lowering cognitive load more
than intralingual subtitles, while the absence of subtitles resulted in the
highest level of cognitive load. Cognitive load theory says that a high
level of cognitive load may negatively impact learning since it places a
greater demand on learners’ mental resources, leaving fewer resources for
learning. In the present study, there was a negligible correlation between
the level of cognitive load and incidental vocabulary learning in the case
of both subtitles groups. Nevertheless, it can be tentatively inferred
that materials which generate low cognitive load may be conducive to
vocabulary learning as the value of the correlation coefficient was negative,
which means that greater cognitive load negatively impacts vocabulary
learning.
The current study also set out to determine the impact of cognitive load on
comprehension. Since the Polish subtitles group reported the lowest level
of cognitive load and at the same time obtained the highest scores on the
comprehension post-test, it can be concluded that the higher the level of
cognitive load, the more difficult comprehension becomes. Additionally,
in line with previous research in the field (e.g. Kruger et al. 2014),
subtitles, regardless of their type, were not found to result in cognitive
overload, which means that while watching subtitled videos, mental
resources are still available for learning.
As regards the differences between subtitling conditions and their impact
on incidental vocabulary learning, the results demonstrate that learning
foreign language vocabulary through the media can be effective since
in all three experimental groups there were some vocabulary gains. It
transpired that intralingual subtitles boosted vocabulary acquisition more
than interlingual subtitles, which were in turn even less beneficial than
the absence of subtitles. It should be noted, however, that the interlingual
group had the lowest score not only on the post-test, but also on the pre-
test, which could mean that this group was at a lower level of proficiency
than the other two groups, hence their vocabulary gains were the smallest.
Also, the study set out to investigate incidental vocabulary learning,
therefore the participants were not informed about the vocabulary post-
test, only about the comprehension questions. Thus, this unexpected
finding may also be attributed to the fact that the participants could have
focused on comprehension and did not really pay attention to the English
words that were spoken, only to Polish subtitles. In contrast, while being
exposed to the English language with or without English subtitles, they
Discussion
Pre-test Post-test Vocabulary gains
None 2.6 4.3 1.7
Polish 1.6 2.4 0.9
English 3.5 6.2 2.8
table 1
Mean scores obtained
on the pre-test,
post-test, and mean
vocabulary gains for all
experimental groups
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were probably more concerned with guessing the meaning of the words
to understand a given dialogue; with Polish subtitles they did not have to
put additional effort to infer the meaning of words as they were translated
for them. Accordingly, in terms of comprehension, Polish subtitles turned
out to be the most advantageous.
In contemporary classrooms, where learning with the use of new
technologies often takes precedence over traditional forms of learning,
seeking ways to assist learners in acquiring a foreign language through
those technologies should be one of the priorities for educators. In
our technologically driven world, access to films and different types of
subtitles is no longer a problem, thus teachers can focus solely on the
choice of video content relevant to their learners’ current needs.
Videos have an added value of entertainment so that students can learn
in a relaxed atmosphere, which lowers the affective filter. They may learn
with or without conscious effort (intentional versus incidental learning)
and in either case learning is a pleasant activity, which in turn boosts
motivation towards learning. Students will use media and watch foreign
language films in their free time anyway, so the role of teachers is to make
the most of it. The results of the current study as well as previous research
in the field show that watching foreign language films, especially with
subtitles, is an effective technique of vocabulary learning, and this is why
it should become part of mainstream teaching.
The study has important implications for materials developers and
teachers promoting out-of-class exposure to videos. There is a need for
developing learning materials that include videos. Such videos should be
available in different subtitling conditions so that different versions can
be used depending on the learning objective—if the focus is vocabulary
learning, a movie may be played with intralingual subtitles, if the focus
is comprehension (e.g. a film is used as a springboard for discussion),
interlingual subtitles may be opted for. Materials designed for ‘flipped
classrooms’ will effectively increase the popularity of using videos for
language practice. For example, YouTube videos are easily accessed, they
are relatively short, usually available with subtitles, and interesting for
students, thus materials based on YouTube clips will effectively encourage
learners to practise the target language inside and outside the classroom.
Nowadays we have access to a variety of technological developments, such
as online resources using videos or smart televisions, so teachers should
take advantage of these new technologies to make students learn more
with less mental effort. The current study showed that it is possible to
modify extraneous load related to the learning material—the same film
viewed with interlingual and intralingual subtitles may induce a different
amount of cognitive load. Thus, educators should help their learners
undertake self-learning activities that will not overburden their working
memory. Learners should be instructed how to watch foreign language
movies at home so as to effectively improve foreign language competency.
The current study is therefore useful for teachers inasmuch as it shows
which subtitling condition is best suited for intermediate learners
when they want to learn new vocabulary items or improve listening
comprehension skills.
Conclusion
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Due to technological advancement, watching foreign language movies
with subtitles is possible even in countries which traditionally preferred
dubbing (e.g. France or Spain). Accordingly, the benefits of subtitling
for language learners should be widespread so as to encourage students
from ‘dubbing countries’ to watch subtitled rather than dubbed movies.
The current study offers a promising start for further research into the
use of subtitled videos in classrooms and their impact on vocabulary
learning, comprehension and cognitive load. The interaction between
cognitive load and learning is one of the aspects of the current study that
deserves more research. In the study, cognitive load was measured only
by means of a subjective measure. It is, however, advisable that further
research resort to objective measures of cognitive load, e.g. eye-tracking,
as it may provide a better understanding of the actual mental effort
experienced. Of particular interest may also be the interaction between
different levels of proficiency and the level of cognitive load, vocabulary
learning, or comprehension of foreign language videos in different
subtitling conditions. While in the present study incidental vocabulary
learning was tested, more studies should be carried out on intentional
vocabulary learning. When explicitly instructed to pay attention to the
language, students can perhaps benefit even more from watching videos
during lessons, although possibly with greater cognitive load. Finally,
one area that deserves more attention is students’ preferences regarding
subtitling conditions. Teachers should be aware of how their students
watch foreign language films to be able to help them use such materials
more effectively.
Final version received September 2019
References
Aydin Yildiz, T. 2017. ‘The effects of videos with
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Kruger, J. L., E. Hefer, and G. Matthew. 2014.
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Macnamara, J. 1973. ‘Nurseries, streets, and
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theory’. Educational Psychologist 38/1: 63–71.
Trinder, R. 2017. ‘Informal and deliberate learning
with new technologies’. ELT Journal 71/4: 401–11.
Vanderplank, R. 1988. ‘The value of teletext subtitling
in language learning’. ELT Journal 42: 272–81.
Zhao, T. and E. Macaro. 2016. ‘What works better for
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The author
Karolina Baranowska is a PhD student at the
Department of Applied English Linguistics and
Language Teaching, Adam Mickiewicz University,
Poznań, Poland. Her research interests include
second language acquisition, methods of teaching
English as a foreign language, and cognitive load
theory. She is involved in teaching English as a
foreign language at academic level.
Email: karolina.baranowska@amu.edu.pl
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