1. How do male and female audiences aged 18 - 24 in
the UK, interpret the photography used within
selected contemporary social awareness campaigns?
Benedict Wilkins
B.A Hons. Media and Communications (Media Photography)
April 2016

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3. How do male and female audiences aged 18 - 24 in
the UK, interpret the photography used within
selected contemporary social awareness campaigns?
Benedict Wilkins
B.A Hons. Media and Communications (Media Photography)
April 2016
Word count: 12998
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4. Abstract
This dissertation explores how male and female audiences aged 18 to 24 in the UK, interpret the
photography used within selected contemporary social awareness campaigns. The research focuses
on how audiences generate messages and construct responses to the topics and subjects displayed
within social awareness campaigns as a result of the photographic medium. The research is
completed by collating a sample of three contemporary campaigns, and conducting focus group
interviews with participants to build up responses around these examples. Findings are reviewed
and formulated into key sections exploring the identified themes and areas of debate that
participants discussed. Each section is concluded with a summary of the supporting argument
concerning the question, offering a clear idea of some of the participants response and how they can
be linked to wider audiences of photography. Finally, the conclusion identifies the most important
aspects of the findings in response to the question.
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5. Dedication
To my tutor Dr. Oliver Carter, for supporting me and making this daunting process both bearable,
and enjoyable.
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6. Acknowledgements
I would like to thank everyone who volunteered their time to be apart of my research process in
contributing to my focus groups. Also, my friends and peers for the moral support and company
during the long days and nights spent working on our dissertations. Finally, an extended thank you
to my Mother and Farther for the long term support and motivation to keep on going.
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7. Contents
Abstract………………………………….…………………………………..…………….i
Dedication…………………………………………………….……………..…………….ii
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………….…………….iii
List of Figures……………………………………………………………….…………….v
1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………………1
2. Existing Literature………………………………………………………….…………3
2.1 Social Awareness and Advertising Campaigns………………………………..3
2.2 Photography and Visual Culture………………………………………………7
2.3 Audience Research and Analysis……………………………………………..11
3. Discussion of Method…………………………………………………………………15
3.1 Primary Research Method…………………………………………………….15
3.2 Existing Examples…………………………………………………………….17
3.3 My Research…………………………………………………………………..21
4. Presentation of Findings………………………………………………………………27
4.1 Juxtaposition and Pre-Existing Context……………………………………….27
4.2 The Role of Shock Factor…………………………………………………..…32
4.3 Visual Clarity, Text and Tag-Lines………………………………………….…37
4.4 Calls to Action and Audience Responses……………………..………………41
5. Conclusion……………………………………………………………….…………….45
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………48
Appendices……………………………………………………………………………..…51
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8. List of Figures
1.1 Tinning 2008. Back.………………….…………………………………..…………….22
1.2 Tinning 2008. Brain………………….…………………………………..…………….22
1.3 Tinning 2008. Neck………………….…………………………………..…………….22
2.1 Santo 2005. Woman………………….…………………………………..…………….23
2.2 Santo 2005. Oldman……………….…………………………………..………………23
2.3 Santo 2005. Kid……………………………………………………………..…………23
3.1 Vervroehen 2013. Flood………………….……………………………….………..….24
3.2 Vervroehen 2013. Earthquake……………….……………………………….………..24
3.3 Vervroehen 2013. War…………………………………………………..………….….25
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9. 1. Introduction
This dissertation explores how audiences interpret photography within social awareness campaigns,
using three contemporary examples created during the past decade to formulate a response. The aim
of this study is to uncover the relationship between photography and audiences, identifying how
audiences respond to images and bring unique meaning to the subjects and issues represented within
them.
The age range selected represents a recently matured audience who will have thoughts about their
political, social and cultural views. With this in mind, researching the response to images within this
demographic should provide insightful data with a relatively open perspective, Sturken and
Cartwright (2001:25).
Existing scholarly knowledge surrounding the areas of social awareness campaigns, and
photography audiences are not strong in comparison to other mass media channels, Berger, A.A.
(2005:117). Although references can be sought in other mediums of audience research, information
is usually specific and based on the structure of that format. Photography research predominately
lies within the codes and conventions of texts, rather than the audiences of them, Stoklossa
(2007:6). For this reason, and as an active photographer, I want to explore the field and contribute
findings to the area.
My question is, how do male and female audiences aged 18 to 24 in the UK, interpret the
photography used within selected contemporary social awareness campaigns? Through the use of
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10. focus groups, I explore the arguments raised by participants that construct foundations in the
understanding of audience interpretations and responses.
I begin with a review of existing literature; exploring discussions in the fields of social awareness
and advertising campaigns, photography and visual culture, and audience research surrounding the
photographic format. Uncovering the ideas and systems as discussed by key thinkers and scholars.
I follow with a discussion surrounding my primary research. Constructing a methodology, I provide
reasoning and justification into my selected research method of focus groups, giving examples of
how the technique has been carried out by researchers. Finally, I’ll detail how I conducted my
research process; and introduce the three selected campaigns into the report.
My findings identified four key themes that emerged from my primary research. I explore and
investigate how audiences interpret juxtaposition and pre-existing contexts within images. What
role shock factor plays in the efficient delivery of campaign messages, and the ability to increase
affectivity. Also, the extent to which campaigns have visual clarity across sets of images, and the
role of coinciding text and taglines. Finally looking at how the audience interprets and conduct calls
to action embedded within social campaigns as a result of the photographic and linguistic message,
and if these messages are consistent.
In conclusion to my report, I summarise audiences interpretations and responses to photography as
complex, consisting of many considerable elements. I review key themes found, and what I
consider is most important in relation to my research. I comment on my use of focus groups and
alternative research methods that could be explored. Finally, I outline alternative areas of study that
could continue to contribute to this field of research.
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11. 2. Existing Literature
I have identified three key areas of secondary research to draw reference to throughout this project.
These include social awareness and advertising campaigns, photography and visual culture with a
focus on contemporary society and research and analysis of photography audiences. Conducting
research into these areas of study will increase my understanding and knowledge of the topics that
are to be covered in the report, aiding me in essential aspects to the research of this project and the
outcome of results.
2.1 Social Awareness and Advertising Campaigns.
The first area of my literature review explores the realm of social awareness and advertising
campaigns. Initially, I wanted to focus on texts surrounding the effectiveness and creation of social
awareness campaigns, however, found the area did not have many academic texts, and consequently
found more reference within advertising literature. Although the majority of these texts adopt a
commercial focus for the advertisement of products and services within a capitalist society, they pay
close attention to the practices, techniques and theories behind the success of the commercial
campaign. Taking this into account links can begin to be built on the success of a social awareness
campaign with regards to execution, effectiveness, communication of message and audience
interaction and engagement, along with brand identity and development for a given charity or cause.
Let’s begin by looking at the description of campaigns by Barry;
“A campaign is a series of ads that make up a concept/idea”, ideas are “expressed in some
form of tagline (although sometimes the idea is so clear from the executions that a tagline is
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12. not needed: it’s superfluous). Aside from having a consistent strategy and idea, the
executions that make up any campaign should look and feel like part of a “family” —in
terms of language and art direction”.
Barry (2008:90)
Barry explains that campaigns are delivered as part of a set. In our instance, this set would be a
series of posters or billboards with different images and taglines. Although different with regards to
details such as image and wording, this set would all represent the same idea and issue of debate. A
consistent visual style across the set ensures audiences can draw reference to each separate
encounter of the campaign, and build connections between each one as part of a wider exposure
range.
The format of posters and billboards still plays an imperative role in the delivery of campaigns,
even with the increase in advertising channels that technology and creative development has made
possible. “The poster medium dictates that advertisements communicate their message, within a
matter of seconds, to an audience of busy passers-by” (Burtenshar, K. Mahon, N. and Barefoot, C
2006:14). I think this is one of the key reasons the format remains a popular channel of distribution.
The spaces are typically large, well exposed and allow the creative direction to be stark and hard-
hitting as to grab attention in those all so limiting seconds. Ultimately it allows the boundaries to be
pushed harder to generate more impactful, and noticeable campaigns. This thinking is backed up by
Stoklossa (2007:6) saying “If a design is to grab people’s attention, it must offer something really
extraordinary”, hooking audiences “only when the sense of sight, which is extremely demanding
and thoroughly spoilt for choice, is confronted with something that is not ‘any old thing’ or ‘seen it
before”.
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13. However, audiences are complex and even when targeting a specific group, if the hook has been
successful, reactions and interpretations can be significantly different between individuals.
Understanding how viewers interact with campaigns, interpret context, generate meaning and
experience resulting actions is a key aspect of formulating a strategy. Goldman (1992:1) explains
that “Our Ability to recognise and decipher the advertising images that content us depends on our
photographic literacy and our familiarity with the social logic of advertising and consumerism”.
Although specific interpretations are unable to be anticipated, the style of response viewers
experience is more predictable. With the serious topical issues represented within social awareness
campaigns such as health, environmental, domestic and safety to name a few, an emotional response
has a significant place in the process audiences encounter when decoding and reacting to context.
Percy and Rosenbaum-Elliott (2009:249) confirm this for us, explaining that “The advertising itself
will trigger certain emotional responses and in certain cases this emotional response will mediate
what is learned and whether or how a particular point is accepted”. What’s more is “They occur
very rapidly after exposure to the stimulus that elected the response, and their onset is typically
involuntary; they unfold without conscious direction” (2009:251).
McDonald (1992:18) has categorised these responses further in two sections stating that
“Advertising has a ‘long-term’ as well as a ‘short-term’ effect (unlike most promotions, which are
necessarily transitory)”. What we now have to consider when looking at campaigns are the initial
reactions, such as emotional response, shock factor and gaze, along with the lasting actions that see
the viewer take steps to make an impact or change upon what they have seen.
Bernstein (1974:39) confirms this process saying “All advertisements are a call to action”. Taking
note of the phrase, an example of how a call to action has commodity is later given. “Do you
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14. remember that in classical times when Cicero had finished speaking, the people said, “How well he
spoke” - but when Demosthenes had finished speaking, the people said, “Let us
march”?” (1974:70). A solid realisation that a purposeful campaign must make audiences take
premise on the message transcribed, going deeper than the appreciation of acknowledgement alone.
A specific example of the action campaigns can have, comes from Green (2005), regarding a drug
awareness strategy. “There is evidence from lots of different sources that, since the start of the
campaign, instead of the inexorable rise, drug use has declined.” (258). “Advertising can be shown
to have impacted on our audience in ways that strongly suggest it has brought about the reduction in
drug use that we have seen.” (261). Evidence that shows when implemented correctly, the calls to
action have a corollary impression on audiences and fulfil the goals of generating awareness, and
changing public perception and behaviours.
Another more documented campaign is the United Colours of Benetton series. Taking an
introspective approach on issues such as HIV, racism and equality. “In this way the clothing
designed by Benetton rose to the role of an ambassador of peace between people” (Salvemini. L.P
2002:30). Benetton's aim was not only to raise global awareness of these issues but also to build up
its brand image and gain commercial growth through its clothing products. “Not previously
encountered in advertising, this was a remarkable correspondence between the humanitarian intent,
to combat racism, and the objectives of the company ‘to have the whole world as a
market’” (2002:30). An extremely well-executed effort to build awareness as a brand, and have
people not only adopt the social views of the campaign but also, adopt their products to be
perceived as someone who clearly has regard for humanitarian concern.
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15. In summary, I have learnt that social awareness and advertising campaigns are created and designed
with a built-in emotional response that can direct an audience to take calls to action, both
immediately and in the long-term. The examples I have seen look mostly at advertising in the
commercial sense of campaigns. However, the information discussed can still be applied to social
awareness campaigns with regards to the formulation of a successful campaign. With the research in
the paper, a more focused approach on social awareness campaigns is taken away from the
commercial aspects of advertising. I look at how texts generate and carry meaning with the
representation of hard topical subjects, and the interpretation audiences decoded from them.
2.2 Photography and Visual Culture.
The second section of the literature review looks at reviewing texts on photography and visual
culture, with a focus on the subject in contemporary society. Readings in this area will be able to
offer support in understanding the role of photography, and the importance of the format within
civilisation, along with fundamental theories and concepts from scholars within the discipline.
Understanding how audiences interact with photography and the history of visualisation as a mode
of mass communication, will bring into perspective the development and role the field plays in
current society.
An introduction to the term comes from Barnard (1998:195) saying “Visual culture is one of the
ways in which society is produced; it is one of the ways in which the different social groups
constitute themselves”. Furthermore, Jenkins (1995:16) offers a summary of visual culture within
academic form saying “‘visual culture’ is a term used conventionally to signify painting, sculpture,
design and architecture; it indicates a late-modern broadening of that previously contained within
the definition of ‘fine-art’”. He adds that “Broadening this designation further we might suggest that
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16. ‘visual culture’ could be taken to refer to all those items of culture whose visual appearance is an
important feature of their being or their purpose” (1995:16).
The above explains visual culture is the term used to describe anything that exists visually within a
population. As we have seen in recent times, the development and roles of visual culture within
contemporary society have experienced significant transformations, from great paintings and vast
sculptures to widespread advertising and user generated content for example. Rampley (2007:193)
explains that “The past 150 or so years have seen fundamental shifts in European and North
American visual culture, not only formally and aesthetically, but also concerning the system of
production and dissemination”. Confirming for us that the process of production and interaction has
experienced vast dynamic change. Content is no longer just produced in the view of artists and
visual directors, but with a much larger consideration for audiences and their connection, thoughts
and process of expression.
Thinking more about visual culture in a wider geographical perspective, we need to understand that
just as cultures themselves have a broad array of differences and traditions around the world, the
visual format also has significant contrasts in production and interpretation, thus follows a similar
pathway. Sturken and Cartwright (2001:25) say “The capacity of images to affect us as viewers and
consumers is dependant on the larger cultural meaning they invoke and the social, political, and
cultural context in which they are viewed.” Explaining that an individual image or campaign can
carry very different meanings, dependant on the location of its audience. For example, a campaign
about the use of fossil fuels that has a positive influence in China, will not necessarily be interpreted
with the same impact in Denmark that already has an energy programme significantly based on
renewables.
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17. Further thinking about visual representation and interpretation comes from Howells and Negreiros
(2012:201) “Photographs, just like the fine arts, are profitably open to ideological interpretation”
“we can, in addition, use photographs as visual evidence of social attitudes towards anything from
race and national identity to mourning and religion”. Linking to the study in the sense of campaigns
using photography to represent serious social issues to audiences. Even if these areas are not
particularly mainstream, there is demand for change and the widespread introduction and uptake of
the ideas displayed. Robins (1996:168) summarises these personal and cultural attributes of
interpretation in saying, “In the end, images are significant in terms of what we can do with them
and how they carry meanings for us”.
The way in which social awareness campaigns, and any visual format for that matter, communicate
their message is through an engagement of discourse. “Discourse involves representation, codes,
significations, and aesthetic affects” (Emerlin J 2012:3). This communication between text and
viewer starts when a creator records the context of their ideas with the visual image. Although we
know texts are open to interpretation, there is pre-existing built in messages that have been
processed by the creator, in the hope that with the use of typical codes and conventions of a given
society, the user will be able to receive the message with some degree of clarity. Hall (1999:310)
says “Visual discourses already have possible positions of interpretation (from which they ‘make
sense’) embedded in them, and the subjects bring their own subjective desires and capacities to the
‘text’ which enable them to take up positions of identification in relation to its meaning”. As just
explained, user interpretation is a dynamic journey tailored for each separate viewer by the viewer
their self. Emerlin (2012:15) ensures us of this noting “An image constructs a complex network of
socio-cultural discourse that defines—not once and for all, but contingently”.
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18. Within visual culture one of the key names that has significant importance is Roland Barthes. His
study “Image, Music, Text” (Barthes and Stephen 1977), looks into the photographic message and
the deeper relationship between images and viewers. “He discusses how images are first ‘encoded’
by the producer, and then ‘decoded’ by the viewer” (Wells, L 1996:211). He brings to our attention
denotation and connotation, the two types of meaning. Denotation as meaning in real visual
elements such as shape, colour and connotation being the deeper emotional feelings as a result of
these factors.
Taking this thinking further, Barthes took a scientific view on the topic of semiology and the use of
Saussure’s work on signifiers and signifieds. Rose (2007:79) summarises this work in saying “the
signified is a concept or an object” and “ the signifier is a sound or an image that is attached to a
signified”. Barthes describes that without spoken language, semiology is required as a mode of
generating meaning through reading visuals. He explains “on non-linguistic substances, semiology
is required, sooner or later, to find language” (Barthes, R 1967:10). He talks more about the
specifics of the term later, explaining that more can be gained from the reading and interpreting of
visual signs than in linguistic language alone.
“Semiology, in the proper sense of the word, that is, as a science comprising all systems of
sign, will therefore be able to make good use of the general distribution on the types of
opposition throughout the various systems - an observation which would have no object at
the level of language only”.
Barthes, R (1967:80)
To summarise visual culture, we can see that almost all theorists agree texts are dynamic and open
to interpretation among individual viewers. Even taking into account the built-in pre-existing
messages, each audience will still generate a different context as a result of his or hers personal
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19. experience, and connection to the subject the texts displays. Helping us understand more about
visual interpretation; however, examples of this process within social awareness campaigns have
not been studied before. With this research, audiences will be explored to see just how contrasting
interpretations can be across a set of images within selected campaigns. As a result, we will be able
to understand if the messages of the campaigns are delivered correctly, and what impact they have
on individual audiences and the contrasts between them.
2.3 Audience Research and Analysis.
Finally, the last section of literature looks into the area of research and analysis of audiences. I
wanted to base this section on texts with a focus on photography, however, again was unable to find
a high number of works on the topic of photography audiences. Instead, I have focused more on
mass media as a whole, and arguments from key thinkers within the field.
Texts within this area will expose thinkings around how audiences of photography work, decoding
and interpreting messages from this visual format of communication. Not only this, it will allow us
to understand key theories that see what topics of debate have been investigated about still visual
audiences. Thus offering an understanding of existing materials and aiding in the later stages of this
report within the primary research, being able to draw reference to similarities, differences and
discovering new findings within the subject.
Audiences have always co-existed side by side with content creators; when something is produced
whoever views it is quite simply the audience. As Bertrand and Hughes (2005:37) put it “The
simplest definition of the audience is the receiver or consumer of a text”. With this said the concept
of the audience, and research into thinking about them and understanding them is a relatively new
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20. concept within the scholarly field. “The nature of audiences, weather as a conceptual or a
theoretical issue, went unquestioned until almost the mid- 1980s when speculation about alternative
theories of ‘audience’ began as part of a critique of the mass audience” (Nightingale, V 1996:10).
There is more to audiences, other than just creating something and giving it to someone to view. All
contemporary media texts are created with an intended targeted viewer already in mind.
“Producers construct complex media texts, often with a very clear idea of what they intend
to say, but this intended message is not simply dumped into the minds of passive audiences.
Instead, audiences interpret the message, assigning meaning to its various components”
Croteau and Hoynes (2014:263).
With audience research, content can be tailored to increase its success, especially within a
commercial sense, but also with an idea of transferable awareness in campaigns. Priest, H.S
(2010:36) says “research on how to improve the ways that media organisations serve their audience
can contribute to the business success”. Also highlighting how research crossing over from
commercial into social campaigns can be used saying “research on how best to promote a new line
of clothing or cars can also help others promote the adoption of healthier eating habits or more
environmentally friendly behaviours” (2010:36).
Audience research is constantly developing ways of targeting audiences more efficiently, building
upon past examples and the information known about audiences on what they like and how they
react and respond to specific content. There is extensive research into mass media audiences. These
include television, radio, cinema and print, but strangely photography is not considered to be part of
this collection as a stand-alone platform, despite audiences interacting highly with the medium on a
day to day basis. Berger, A.A. (2005:117) says “mass communication involves the use of the mass
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21. media—print media such as newspapers and magazines and electronic media such as radio,
television, and film (and now the Internet)—to communicate with large numbers of people at the
same time”. Again all elements encompass visual imagery, but photography is not considered an
individual format.
However, reference to key thinkers in this area, although not topical researchers in the field of
photography, offer insight into a critical perspective about audience behaviours. Liz Wells refers to
Roland Baths paper Rhetoric of the image highlighting that as audiences “if our reading is
satisfactory, the photograph analysis offers us three messages: a linguistic message, a coded iconic
message, and a non-coded iconic message” Wells (2003:116). If we break this down, the linguistic
element is referring to any texts we can see, branding or labels, for example. The coded message is
the story that the image portrays. Finally, the non-coded message is the visual architecture of an
image, for example, shapes, lines, and colours.
Due to the lack of research conducted within photography audiences, predicting how one audience
may react over another could be difficult, increasingly so if audiences fall under the same cultural
practices. One way we can break this down though is by understanding that there are major
differences between audiences across cultures. This report looks upon audiences from a western
background, the interpretations and responses from the participants will be contrasting to that of a
sample from a none-western upbringing. Collier, J. Jr and Collier M. (1986:27) state that “in a
north Indian village wives are in purdah to protect them from outsiders. A husband would become
very angry if you showed a picture of his wife to men outside of the family”. Within our Western
culture and society, the above idea seems absurd, and most would think nothing of doing this.
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22. In summary, it has proven difficult to find examples of existing literature that explore the ideas of
audiences within the photographic medium. The area is significantly lacking the comprehensive
understanding and input from scholars in comparison to formats such as TV and radio. My research
will begin to offer some addition to the area, and increase understandings around audiences of
photography; discovering more insight into how individuals decode and interact with the images
they see.
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23. 3. Discussion of Method
3.1 Primary Research Method.
In this chapter, I will be introducing the different stages of my primary research process that will
find results to begin developing the subject area. I start by outlining my selected method of
research, detailing considerations as to why I have chosen this approach and how it is appropriate
for use within this report. Following on from this, I will review examples of how the method has
been used previously by scholars and researchers, and in what ways it was used to gain efficient
results. Finally, I will introduce the selected campaigns and the process involved in determining a
sample of images from each for use in the research stages. I will set out background information on
the campaigns and also give an account, as to why they are considered an appropriate representation
of contemporary campaigns from the past decade.
To conduct the primary research around my question “how do male and female audiences aged 18
to 24 in the UK, interpret the photography used within selected contemporary social awareness
campaigns?” I will using focus groups as to explore responses to the question, and consequently,
formulate data generated around the subject in understanding the audiences of awareness campaigns
and the images used within them as a means of communication.
Conducting focus groups will allow me to present images to a small sample of individuals, and gain
insight into both their personal and group responses in a controlled environment, which can be
dynamically simulated and shaped to get the most insightful results. This approach will allow
individuals to draw their personal conclusions initially, then follow up by taking part in a discourse
within a wider group, encouraging interaction and thought, along with offering an opportunity to
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24. share and build upon homogeneous and antithetical perspectives. Thus encouraging debate and
strengthening any trends that may arise within their collective.
Focus groups defined by Seale (2012:569) as “an interview or discussion with a group of
participants”, offer a greater amount of capacity in generating information respective to audience
responses and analysis. Given the nature of social awareness campaigns they are designed to be
consumed in public, received by many simultaneously within a shared open environment. A focus
group usually consisting of around four to 12 individuals, offers an opportunity to replicate this
scenario to a given extent, joining individuals together to view images as they would in day to day
life, surrounded by the company of others. What's unique is that the focus group, while allowing
individuals to build their own opinions, will also encourage participants to discuss between them
what they see, something that may not necessarily be common practice among unacquainted
individuals in the public sphere.
Furthermore, a focus group renders a more relaxed approach for participants in the process of
generating a set of detailed, qualitative results in comparison to such methods like interviews and
questionnaires. These techniques may convey more enforcing conditions, along with not being able
to respond dynamically and shape questioning; consequently leading to the possibility of an adverse
impact on the data generated.
Seale confirms, and concludes this in saying;
“A focus group is, quite simply, a small group discussion focused on a particular topic and
facilitated by a researcher”. An “interactive quality is the key feature of focus group research.
The unit of analysis is the group, rather than the individuals taking part in the discussion.
Focus groups in this sense are not simply a means of interviewing several people at the same
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25. time; rather, they are concerned to explore the formation and negotiation of accounts within a
group context, how people define, discuss and contest issues through social interaction.”
Seale, C (2004:194)
Finally to ensure an appropriate representative sample is achieved when conducting focus groups, a
number of sessions should be completed. Bertrand and Hughes (2005:238) suggest researchers
should “keep repeating the task with different groups, until the same issues begin to arise
repeatedly”. For the scale of research required for this report and the timeframe, a minimum of two
focus groups lasting around one hour in length, each with five participants should be sufficient.
Alongside this, ethical issues confidentiality and permission to visually document participants needs
to be sort. “Check that taping is acceptable” and “remember to get any ‘informed consent’
signed” (2005:75).
3.2 Existing Examples.
To develop a deeper understanding of the focus group as a method of audience research, I want to
look at past examples of how researchers have utilised the technique within their research,
uncovering how they used it, and why it was considered to be the most appropriate method for
investigation. Furthermore, I want to build an idea of the best way to conduct my focus groups,
seeking out guidance and advice on how to formulate a solid plan and run an effective research
forum as displayed in existing materials.
From the reading of a few initial texts, it’s clear to see that the technique has existed since the early
1920’s and has been in use within social science from the 1940s. With regards to the uptake of the
technique within media research, it is only in recent times that the method has begun to see
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26. widespread use. During the 1980s it rose to become somewhat of an essential aspect of the media
and communications field, “the focused group interview has gained widespread popularity as a
research method for studying media audiences” Hansen and Machin (2013:228).
I refer to Bertrand and Hughes (2005) again in regards to the makeup of focus groups. Key aspects
they cover preparation of a “checklist of topics or questions, including alternative questions or
wording in case the conversation falters” (2005:81). Additionally the importance of documenting
such a process, both with audio and visual recordings, subsequently taking notes on key areas that
may arise during the discussion, along with remarks to body language and gestures. With regards to
my role as the researcher, directions like, “start by introducing yourself”, “explain the purpose of
the session, have a general chat to relieve any tensions”(2005:82) are important. Other points
include “start the discussion with a focus question and invite response” (2005:82). If progress is
initially slow, “address someone by name: to keep the conversation going” (2005:82). Finally, as
lead it's suggested I reserve my personal input, applying my efforts into monitoring the focus group
to ensure participants stay on topic, and all questions are answered, along with dynamically
adjusting to any “new ideas” that may be of interest, and carry benefit for the direction of the study
(2005:82).
The first example of the technique in a previous context comes from a paper on the use of focus
groups with audiences of TV comedy.
“My focus group approach aimed to generate comparable data by using a set list of questions,
but it also strove to promote participant interaction by inviting group members to comment on
each other’s responses. To facilitate a comfortable discussion environment, I used relatively
small group sizes and I encouraged each of my respondents to form their own group of three to
six participants by recruiting friends, colleagues or family members.”
Bore (2012:4)
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27. From the above it is clear the method has improved data by creating an environment where
participants can interact and build responses as a collective. Allowing discussion and the
development of ideas and thinkings. I noted that a small sample size was adopted, even tasking the
participants with bringing additional candidates on board, an effective way of building up
contributors. Another interesting area is the use of people already acquainted in comparison to
selecting individuals with no pre-existing connection. Reading later, it becomes apparent that
groups are mixed with some existing relations present. Bores' responds to this later in the report
noting,
“my analysis suggested that participants who had never met before tended to be more careful in
their negotiations, because they had yet to establish norms and boundaries for appropriate tastes
and behaviour”
Bore (2012:19)
This is a critical point in the thinking behind the formation of my focus groups, using participants
with existing associations could prove to be a solid advantage in the quality of data generated.
Kitzingen (1994:105) also talks about the advantages of running groups with existing
correspondence. “We chose to work with pre-existing groups - clusters of people who already knew
each other through living, working or socialising together”. She goes onto explain her reasoning for
this saying “we did this in order to explore how people might talk about AIDS within the various
and overlapping groupings within which they actually operate”, “people with whom one might
‘naturally’ discuss such topics”. She continues by highlighting “the fact that research participants
already knew each other had the additional advantage that friends and colleagues could relate each
other’s comments”, “they often challenged each other on contradictions between what they were
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28. professing to believe and how they actually behaved”. Finishing with “above all it is useful to work
with pre-existing groups because they provide one of the social contexts within which ideas are
formed and decisions made”. Ultimately what Kitzingen has presented further encourages the use of
participants with existing relation within focus groups, as to offer the most real world scenario in a
constructed setting of audience research.
Finally, I bring attention to David Morley and his study of Nationwide audiences, a groundbreaking
text within audience research. Morley mapped out responses to the TV show Nationwide using
socioeconomic groupings to documents the contrasts in interpretations across class levels. The
decision to use focus groups as the method of research “was made on the grounds that much
individually based interview research is flawed by a focus on individuals as social atoms divorced
from their social context” Morley (1980:97). Kamberelis and Dimitriadis (2013:11) comment on
this thinking about focus groups and its use from Morley and other leading scholars saying they are
“invaluable because they afford insights into how meanings get constructed in situ”.
In summary, this section has confirmed my reasoning for selecting focus groups as a method of
research. Looking at existing examples of how the technique is used in audience analysis has
brought up key reoccurring themes. It offers as close of a perspective to reality as possible within a
controlled environment, allowing data to replicate natural scenarios to a greater degree. Running
small sized groups with participants who already have built up relationships, allows contribution to
be natural, and reflects once again how audience experience, interpretation and discussion is
expressed in a daily situation. Taking these elements into account, it further strengthens my decision
to conduct focus groups for this audience study.
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29. 3.3 My Research.
To begin my research, I carried out an initial assessment of existing social and public awareness
campaigns, formulating a number of texts that appeared to tackle contemporary issues that could be
relevant to UK society. As outlined in my question, I aimed to keep the research applicable for
current audiences and thus, generate research results that are representative around current topical
areas of debate. Using books and the internet to find inspiration and seek reference, I was able to
build up a wider picture and increase my primary understanding and knowledge of the vast
selection of campaigns that have been created in the past decades.
Taking these findings forward, I went onto select three campaigns. Within these collections I
advanced by conducting a secondary review, taking the time to look at each of the individual
images featured across the campaign sets. I continued by selecting three images from each body of
work, as to have a concise selection of texts that represented each of the individual campaigns in the
most appropriate manner.
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30. The first of these campaigns comes from the Government of Western Australia in the form of a road
safety campaign.
Government of Western Australia / Road Safety Council
“One click could change your future. Belt up. Drive safe. Arrive safe.”
I have selected this campaign as from a creative aspect they offer an alternative visual perspective.
Am am curious about the context audiences will bring to these images by linking meaning to the
objects displayed, and if the resulting discourse is considered hard hitting. I want to see how an
audience will look at these, will they pick up on all of the elements and draw them together using
their existing association to the visuals displayed. The danger displayed in the X-Ray images, the
simple message of wearing a seatbelt to save your life and breaks within your body? I am intrigued
as to how the removed element of a personal identity affects the communication of this message,
does it perhaps enhance the experience, or maybe reduce the audience connection to the images.
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Figure 1.1: Tinning 2008. Back. Figure 1.2: Tinning 2008. Brain. Figure 1.3: Tinning 2008. Neck.

31. The second campaign is about domestic violence produced by the APAV, Portuguese Association for
Victim Support.
APAV - Portuguese Association for Victim Support
“Silence hurts.”
This campaign features the heavily documented issue of domestic abuse. Many campaigns touch
upon this subject, and it remains to be a problem present throughout the world. Unlike the road
safety campaign, these portrait shots introduce a human element, I am curious if this will affect the
audience with the added association of a real person, the marks on their face and the look in their
eyes? What also increases impact in these images is that some viewers may not be initially aware
that the hand enforcing silence, is, in fact, being made by what we can presume to be the perpetrator
of the abuse. A further element that displays an interesting topic of debate to explore among an
audience.
Finally, the last campaign produced by Crisis Relief Singapore features the subject of becoming a
volunteer, running with the tagline “liking isn’t helping”.
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Figure 2.2: Santo 2005. Old Man.Figure 2.1: Santo 2005. Woman. Figure 2.3: Santo 2005. Kid.

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Figure 3.1: Vervroehen 2013.Flood.
Figure 3.2: Vervroehen 2013.Earthquake.

33. Crisis Relief Singapore
“Liking isn't helping. Be a volunteer. Change a life.”
This popular campaign has received a fair amount of attention online. It is a robust campaign, which
brings attention to the developed attitude to philanthropy displayed by users of Facebook. It offers a
very direct call to action that encourages viewers to take a direct approach to making a difference. A
stronger message perhaps than the other two selected campaigns. I want to see how audiences will
react to this, considering more have likely participated in the “liking” behaviour, than the
participation of relief support. This is a strong example of visual iconography, a traditional
collection of documentary-style images displaying tragedy, overlaid with a display of a somewhat
unconsidered approach to online users responses to humanitarian issues. I want to explore if this
style of campaign successfully achieves it’s call to action, and what emotive effects it has on
viewers
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Figure 3.3: Vervroehen 2013.War.

34. Each of the selected campaigns has been chosen as they carry a different style of visual imagery
used to represent the issues and topics portrayed within the texts. Some feature images with a
dramatic and high shock factor, some used a more metaphorical style that encourages audiences to
think more than others, along with having to decode visual meanings. Others offer a more simplistic
and informative style representing the issues in a wider context. Overall the three campaigns give a
general flavour of current topical campaigns.
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35. 4. Presentation of Findings
For this section I will be exploring the answer to my question “how do male and female audiences
aged 18 to 24 in the UK, interpret the photography used within selected contemporary social
awareness campaigns?”, Looking at how audiences perceive the images and the constructing
arguments to support this. I have broken down five key themes as found from my primary research.
The focus groups enabled me to build up a lot of data on different areas of audience interpretation,
both from my selected questions asked, and the dynamic responses and topics participants covered
themselves. In each sub-section, I will begin by introducing a supporting argument of the area
followed by the findings and conclusion. By drawing back to my initial literature review, and
investigating any trends or contrasts, the findings will be a critical response to each area with close
relation to my research question.
4.1 Juxtaposition and Pre-Existing Context.
I start with the most popular area of discussion covered by participants during each of the focus
groups. From my findings, audiences appeared to be impressed with some of the campaigns smart
and thoughtful use of visual juxtaposition. The images in question are the Liking isn’t helping and
the One click road safety campaigns. In this scenario, each set of participants showed an extended
appreciation for the road safety images, and how the selected visual elements are a complex mix
displaying both the cause and effect of the issue, along with the resulting actions to take in the
prevention of the danger it represents. Along with this, they also detailed how they were able to link
items such as the X-ray to their pre-existing understanding and association with the object to
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36. danger, hospitals and broken bones. Arguably increasing the campaign's effectiveness with regards
to the delivery of the message, as a result of existing associations to meaning from an initial visual
perspective. With this I want to look at how juxtaposition is used within campaign images and
interpreted by viewers, so to begin to understand the role of the technique within the field.
In conducting the focus groups, it became apparent very quickly that juxtaposition was an
underlying theme for participants. The buzz word in reference to this technique was “clever” with a
number of participants using the word to describe the utilisation of the technique and its affecting
role within specific campaigns. The images related to in this way were from the liking isn't helping,
and road safety campaigns.
An early comment from Clara (2016) in the first focus group brought this to my attention, initially
in a negative perspective saying that the images “appear to be too clever” and that “with campaigns
you need to be able to look at it and understand it”. This struck me with the idea that at a glance,
audiences may struggle to interpret messages when they appear to have many elements that require
the viewer to tie them together with pre-existing meanings. This thinking would compliment what
was discussed early on in the literature review with Burtenshar, K. Mahon, N. and Barefoot, C
(2006:14) detailing that “the poster medium dictates that advertisements communicate their
message, within a matter of seconds, to an audience of busy passers-by”. However as the focus
groups advanced, it emerged this was not entirely the case, and participants began to explain how
they appreciated the use of the technique once they took a further look. Describing what it was able
to achieve in the delivery of the message and their personal interpretations of the campaign.
This contrast began with Daniel (2016) saying “if they’re too clear, you just look at them and leave
it. But like this, you look at it for a while, and begin to understand what it means”. Daniel has
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37. explained that you need to look at the campaign for a while, so contradicting the idea the messages
need to communicate in an initial glance. However as passive audiences of social awareness
campaigns, viewers are exposed to these images many times across commutes to work with posters
on trains, billboards in various locations on roads, and sets of images on display in multiple areas
across a city. Giving plenty of time for audiences to investigate these images further from their
initial perspective.
From this point members of the group were in agreement that the use of juxtaposition enhanced the
images and that it had been utilised effectively within these campaigns, to communicate the
message on a more interactive level. There were some different segments to the juxtaposition that
participants highlighted. These seemed to be an association of the visual objects represented,
connected to the danger of the subject and both the cause and steps of prevention needed to be taken
to tackle the issues displayed. Harry (2016) began to explain this saying “right away with the road
safety you know why it’s an X-ray. It’s there because you may have broken something. It’s quite
brutal, then you see the seat belt and get the message. It’s clear with a shocking contrast”. Clara
(2016) added “the seat belt makes me know it’s road safety”, igniting a development in her primary
opinion. This was a recurring theme among the majority of participants with additional comments
being made about juxtaposition. Leah (2016) adding “with the X-ray you see it and it signifies
injuries, accidents, and bad stuff” and also Sam (2016) with “you see the X-ray and know there’s a
problem”.
From these comments, I can see a trend in audiences using the signification of the X-ray and
connecting it to their own pre-existing context. Supporting Hall’s (1999:310) argument that “visual
discourses already have possible positions of interpretation (from which they ‘make sense’)
embedded in them, and the subjects bring their own subjective desires and capacities to the ‘text’
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38. which enable them to take up positions of identification in relation to its meaning”. In the case of
the road safety campaign, participants were able to bring the sense of danger and the ideas of
hospitals and medical issues that are all associated with the item displayed to their personal
interpretations of the meaning. When asked, all members of the focus groups agreed that the X-ray
is effective because of these associations that they were able to build from their individual pre-
existing knowledge.
With regards to the order in which viewers experience interpretation, this could be seen as the first
stage of message delivery within the visual elements representing juxtaposition. Being the largest
element, the X-ray as a whole is visually clearest and immediately triggers viewers to build the
connection to the feelings, emotions and knowledge they already have built up of X-rays, and where
you would commonly see them and in what imposing situation. Stage two of the juxtaposition is the
iconography of the seatbelt buckle. Here viewers are able to take the primary context of danger, and
begin to associate it with cars, transportation and road safety; bringing the issues represented in the
campaign to a visual conclusion in the audiences mind.
Participants brought this to attention, referring to its clever use once again. Sam (2016) described
that it “shows what could happen and what you need to do to stop it from happening”. The seatbelt
appears to have multi-levelled meaning, the positioning of the buckles in critical parts of the body,
and the buckle being unclipped displays the increased danger of not clipping in. Emily (2016)
continued this theme saying “ it shows the damage that could happen” along with Jack (2016) who
interpreted the message that “if you detach your seatbelt, it gives you the idea that you could be
detaching your brain, back or neck”. These comments show furthermore that the juxtaposition used
within this campaign has an impact.
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39. In conclusion to this section, the findings have revealed the use of visual juxtaposition within the
road safety campaign has increased its effectiveness to communicate a message. The use of the
technique from campaign creators appears to be an effective tool in increasing the interaction
between campaigns and viewers. With this technique, the road safety campaign goes from
appearing to be a broad, general set of images, to a deeply personal message that is independent to
each viewer by their interpretation of the context. We have seen that audiences can generate deeper,
and more personal meanings as a result of injecting the existing context of the items displayed
within the images, to their prior knowledge surrounding these very items. Thus building
connections to arrive at a concluding position of thought, that successfully interprets the message in
an impactful process.
Although I have discussed the importance of the initial seconds when viewing a campaign and how
they are critical with regards to the delivery of the message, we have learnt that due to the nature of
how campaigns are distributed, audiences continue to develop meanings as they take a more
investigating look at the visuals over time. Once successfully hooked on the images, it is then
during these following stages that the use of juxtaposition as a technique becomes active. During
these stages is when audiences build these complex multi-layered connotations, each one being a
unique interpretation as constructed by each individual's personal experience. Finally, the
juxtaposition can be seen as an effective technique in an audience's journey to interpreting a social
awareness campaign. What was covered by Robins (1996:168) evidently relates to how this
technique can be seen to be effective, summarising that “in the end, images are significant in terms
of what we can do with them and how they carry meanings for us”.
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40. 4.2 The Role of Shock Factor.
The second key theme to emerge from my primary research is how campaigns utilise the method of
shock factor to build impact among audiences. When conducting the focus groups this subject was
also heavily talked about in connection to the juxtaposition explored in section 4.1. Participants
discussed how the campaigns were effective, and also suggested how some of the campaigns could
possibly be improved if they had increased shock factor. In this section, I will be referring to each
campaign in some detail, as participants felt that this tool was used to some extent within each.
However, the extent to which it was utilised across the campaigns varied. Consequently, each of the
different levels will be explored and discussed, to uncover how the technique was perceived by the
audiences in contrasting situations, with a variety of subject matters and visual styles. I will be
looking at what visual items were selectively considered to be of a shocking nature and why, along
with the resulting implications and how viewers were able to generate feelings, and interpret the
messages of the campaigns through the use of the method. Furthermore, I will also explore why
participants thought some campaigns could be enhanced within their impact if the shock factor was
of a higher value.
During each of the focus groups, both sets of participants referred to the selected elements within
each of the campaigns as shocking. To link in with McDonald’s (1992:18) comments on initial
reactions and shock factor, I wanted to gain a wider insight into this emotion as explained by
viewers themselves. Jack (2016) explained his primary thoughts about the images by linking the
elements of shock and juxtaposition together, explaining that, “the road safety and the liking isn't
helping images have initial shock value. Very good use of juxtaposition is what creates this shock”.
Alongside this, Harry (2016) describes “the images are quite shocking at a glance, but the more you
look, the more you're like, wow, that actually works really well”.
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41. Although as explained all of the campaigns were referred to at some point as displaying shocking
elements, the most effective and popularly talked about were the liking isn't helping images. Clara
(2016) made a compelling statement about the resulting impact these campaign images had in their
initial stages saying, “walking away, the liking campaign is what I will remember the most, it’s
actually had an impact on me”. Upon hearing this, I wanted to understand other peoples
interpretations of the campaign. Jasmin (2016) had a slightly different approach that opened up a
new idea of debate, “it took me a long time to understand the point of it. At first, I thought it’s just
another charity thing”. At this point Clara nods and agrees with Jasmin, leading me to wonder how
this campaign carried the most impact, yet initially, the images may be over looked.
Seeking further answers, I investigated the viewing process participants experienced when reading
the images from the liking campaign, curious about Croteau and Hoynes (2014:263) thinking about
how audiences interpret messages as a result of assigning meaning to various components. I asked
participants what visual element they noticed in the primary stages of delivery. All members agreed
that the human subjects displayed in the middle of the frame were what first caught their eye. Sam
(2016) explained you first see this because of the formation the thumbs adopt, “the thumbs sort of
frame the subject”. From looking at the images, it is understandable that this is the case, the
positioning of the thumbs act as a visual lead-in for the viewers eye. Drawing attention to the
suffering and almost overlooking the ideas and messages the thumbs represent, thus making them
secondary in the stages of interpretation, only being interpreted once the eye has explored.
Therefore making the shock factor an accompanying emotion to the initial response.
Jack (2016) describes that he thought the liking images “look like there taking the piss”. He goes
onto explain in more detail saying that you see the thumbs in the picture and how this is something
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42. you just wouldn't do in real life, himself questioning why this behaviour is carried out on Facebook,
and wondering what people expect it to achieve. He continues to describe how he sees these images
as shocking by saying “at a passing glance yes” we are desensitised “when you see the thumbs up
its changes though, that's the shocking bit, not the person who is the subject”. Harry (2016)
continues the theme further saying “I feel shock, but then angry. This is a reference to non efficient
behaviour on Facebook, stuff that does not do much”. From this it can be interpreted that the
element people find shocking is the thumbs, and its use as a precise visual representation of the
controversial behaviour of liking images on Facebook, expecting impactful results.
The two remaining campaigns were also referred to as shocking to some degree. The road safety
images were interesting, participants commenting on how the images were shocking in the respect
that the message is brutal, direct and to the point. Along with the idea that the removal of personal
elements also contributes as Emily (2016) suggested, “the road safety campaign is shocking as there
is a removed personal human element. The X-ray could be anyone. This could be you, or someone
you know”. However, contradicting this argument, the participants also commented on how, even
though they believed this campaign was not designed to create this style of extensive shock, they
had “seen ones with much larger impact” (Jasmin 2016), and suggested that this campaign could be
further enhanced if it represented the more graphic and gruesome side to the subject.
Last I refer to the domestic campaign and how participants viewed this as the least shocking set of
visuals. The general comments surrounding these images as a whole were they appeared to be
unclear in what they were representing, without the user investigating further for a message.
Participants seemed to be able to interpret the message clearly with the image featuring the female,
but lesser so in the images of the two male subjects. Each group came to the conclusion that the
visual injuries displayed on the faces and bodies of the male subjects were not clearly visible, as to
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43. be able to understand the context entirely from just a visual perspective, and without having to refer
to the singular image of the female subject. This links to what Wells (1996:211) discussed, the
images do have an encoded message; however, they are not necessarily represented in a way that
can be decoded efficiently by the viewer.
Finally, the element defined as shocking, the arm and hand of another person silencing the victim,
was only perceived at a later stage and was again described as not being precisely clear, with one
member even saying “I did not realise it was someone else’s hand” (Clara 2016). This was agreed to
be down to its secondary nature of interpretation, along with the fact there was lacking strength
between the face and arm, unlike that carried by the contrast of the woman and the hairy tattooed
arm. It is important to note that participants felt the image of the Woman was most shocking in the
campaign, and also that it was the most clear, and without this image the set would be weak. Jasmin
(2016) summarised this view in saying “the image of the woman is most striking, not so much with
the boy and the man, their visual injuries are not as clear”.
In review of this section, I have uncovered an understanding to how audiences of social awareness
campaigns interpret the encoded messages with the use of shock tactics as employed by image
creators. Considered to be the most shocking in how it was perceived, an interesting result was
discovered with the liking isn’t helping campaign. Surprisingly, the shock was not interpreted from
a result of witnessing the human suffering, but instead the placement of the thumbs, and how they
appear to be distasteful and making a mockery of the issue whilst representing trends within social
media culture. The shock in this campaign has driven the viewers to think more about what is being
shown, in a way that prioritises thinking about their own behaviours on social platforms at the
expense of the real calamity displayed, bringing to light how audiences in the UK respond to
sensitive imagery, that has been extensively used within mass media.
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44. The road safety campaign raised debate around a new concept in this subject area. Participants were
mixed in thinking this was a shocking way to engage with audiences in a non-typical gruesome way
that is common for this area. Some participants felt the removed personal elements such as a face,
enabled them to implement themselves into the image, thus resulting in a shocking realisation that
being endangered as a result of not wearing a seatbelt could happen to them. However, even though
it was agreed that this campaign felt like it was not designed to shock in that way, the idea that this
campaign was not as effective as more graphical images raises debate over whether the level of
shock delivered in this stylistic approach is successful.
Finally, the domestic abuse campaign was considered to be successful in conveying shock, but only
within a singular image. Participants felt without the individual image of the female subject, the
other pictures as part of the campaign would not have been as clearly interpreted because of there
inconsistent signification of visual abuse, decreasing the understanding of the message
communicated, and failing to promote an engagement of shock. The use of another persons' arm
and hand to signify the silencing of the victim was considered to be the trigger of this shock.
Viewers initially overlooking the idea that this could be another person, therefore experiencing a
shock of realisation once the context is fully understood and put into perspective.
In response to my question, it appears audiences require consistent visual context across campaign
images, in order to successfully reach a conclusion to the embedded messages. The role of shock
factor enables an active discourse to the subjects portrayed in images, and allows personal avenues
of interpretation to be explored by audiences, creating a deeper and impactful result if the technique
is successfully implemented; supporting Percy and Rosenbaum-Elliott’s (2009:249) argument about
what can be mediated if a point is accepted.
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45. 4.3 Visual Clarity, Text and Tag-Lines.
Another key theme to emerge from my research was, to what degree audiences were able to
interpret the messages encoded in the campaign images, before needing to refer to the text or
taglines for clarification, and how they link the images together as a wider collection. As I have
already reviewed, participants brought their own dynamic interpretations to the images, and these
were relatively consistent throughout each of the individual responses. However, some debate
seemed to arise on a number of occasions during the focus groups about what the actual messages
and aims of some of the campaigns were, resulting in the need to reference the additional textual
details to seek confirmation. I want to understand to what extent it was felt this additional text was
required, along with, if and how audiences interpretations changed as a result of this motion.
Furthermore, I also explore if viewers thought different images from the same campaign, could be
linked together when viewing at separate times and in different locations, as is the nature of
campaign delivery in real world situations.
In the later stages of each of the focus groups, it was uncovered that the majority of participants felt
that they had to read the linguistic text and taglines overlaid onto a number of the images, in order
to generate a response to what they had seen, or to confirm the initial meaning already arrived at as
a result of viewing the photograph. This links to Barry’s (2008:90) thinking that ideas are
“expressed in some form of tagline (although sometimes the idea is so clear from the executions
that a tagline is not needed)”.
The images that appeared to be talked most about with regards to this issue, were from the Liking
isn’t helping, and the domestic abuse campaigns. Ella (2016) mentioned that “it took a while to
figure out what issues the campaigns represented. It took further looking before I fully got it”. From
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46. her comment, this gives an idea that the overall clarity of the images and text combined may be
problematic within primary delivery. This idea was further explored in relation to the liking
campaign, Harry (2016) explained that “I didn’t get it until I saw the words. Only then do you get
an understanding and connect it to social media”. Clara (2016) also agreed with this by saying, “I
did not understand until I read the caption text. It was only then I understood the context”. This
finding is interesting, from the previous sections it was identified that the liking campaign promoted
the highest level of shock value, and triggered an increased amount of emotional response.
However, here it is learnt that even though this is the case, viewers appeared to be unclear about
what the embedded visual message was, thus referring to the text for confirmation. Burtenshar,
Mahon and Barefoot’s (2006:14) arguments along with Croteau and Hoynes (2010:36) come into
play here, with their views on how producers create complex texts that are not designed to simply
dump messages into passive audiences but encourage an active role. Also, while doing this, the idea
that campaigns should be easily identifiable, requires a carefully considered balance between the
two suggestions. Too much of one and the other is no longer effective.
Upon reading the text, the participants found that the campaign seemed to carry a multi-levelled
message. Consisting of a very effective visual message, promoting reaction around the ideas of
social media culture and a tagline message, arguably upholding what is the purpose of the campaign
in reading, “Liking isn’t helping. Become a volunteer” (Figure 3.1: Vervroehen 2013.Flood.), this
resulting in the induction of a new message to viewers in the secondary stages of studying the
campaign. Everyone agreed with Daniel’s comments on how the text is required in order to get the
campaigns residual message about becoming a volunteer, “The text is needed to get the message
with the liking images, 100% it is needed” (Daniel 2016). This made me think about the structure of
the campaign, and back to Rampley (2007:193) and the constant development of visual culture.
Perhaps this is the purpose of the campaign, to be very effective in delivering one of the messages it
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47. has set out to achieve, but at the expense of putting its own agenda, with regards to the message of
recruitment for the charity, on the back bench.
The domestic abuse campaign is next in questioning. Clara (2016) explained that the images are
“effective next to each other, but without the clear image of the woman, the others lose some
context”, Jasmin (2016) agreeing “if it was just the guys, they might not have as much of an
impact”. With this set of images, a visual message had the potential to be successfully delivered if
all of the images adopted the same strength of visual abuse, and contrasting elements as shown in
the image of the female victim. However this was not the case, viewers were once again left
seeking an answer to what the message was, from within the supporting text. Even with this,
participants found that the text information in these images was small, making it another
challenging aspect in the interpretation of this campaign. However, aside from this, members of the
focus groups explained that after seeing and gaining meaning from the image of the female victim,
they would be able to link these reactions to the other images in the campaign, as a result of them
sharing the same stylistic codes such as lighting, backdrop, colour pallet and subject positioning.
Harry (2016) concluding saying “as they are the same style, if you saw one then another you would
make the connection”.
Continuing with this idea and the relation to Barry’s (2008:90) argument about language and art
direction of images needing to appear as a family, I looked into how participants also felt that the
road safety campaign was easily identifiable as a set of images. Jack (2016) described that “they
would work well spread across a city” indicating viewers would be able to make the link without
difficulty. These images appeared to convey their message successfully in a purely visual manner,
both Daniel (2016) saying “the road safety campaign speaks for its self ” and Harry (2016) with
“the road safety campaign is most effective with communicating the message just as you see it”.
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48. The tagline therefore of “one click could change your future, belt up”, acts very much as a
supporting statement to the message that's already interpreted from the images. Leading to a clear,
and consistent link between the message from both the visual and the text elements for audiences to
understand.
In summary of this section, I have discovered that the supporting texts and taglines featured in
social awareness photography have a crucial role, in regards to the process of clear interpretation for
audience members. The inclusion of such wordage enables viewers to understand fully the encoded
message embedded into the campaigns by producers and acts as a way of either offering official
context or a supporting confirmation in an already achieved conclusion.
Furthermore the effectiveness of a campaign working together as a set of images has been
addressed, and my findings confirm ideas explored in the literature review around the foundations
of campaign photography. By adopting a clear and constant visual makeup, participants were able to
recognise all images as part of a wider set, and detailed how links would easily be made when
viewing separate images from the same campaign, at various times and locations. Drawing
connections, and increasing the effective coverage of a campaigns reach.
Finally, the clarity of campaigns when interpreted by audiences appears to be a very dynamic
process, consisting of complex structural foundations. These aim to grab viewers attention and
deliver a primary visual message while at the same time, trying to actively engage the audience in a
deeper journey of investigation. We see the road safety images achieve this with great success,
however, the domestic and liking campaign considerably less so. It appears that this mix needs to be
thoroughly considered and well executed by campaign creators, so that audience members do not
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49. overlook the real issues and messages the campaign sets out to achieve, by interpreting a
superstitious conclusion that has been quickly derived.
4.4 Calls to Action and Audience Responses.
This section of findings explores the last stage of interpretation for audiences of social awareness
campaigns, the calls to action and the resulting steps they take to tackle the ideas and issues
represented within the very images. Here I look at how the participants in my focus groups
experienced these effects with the three campaigns displayed to them. Exploring if Bernstein
(1974:39) is correct, I will look at how participants felt about taking action on what they had seen,
along with the reasonings behind their answers. I will examine if campaigns are effective among
audiences that fall under a wider coverage rather than just their targeted groups, and if campaign
photography is an efficient way of generating awareness and action in a diverse, mass media
market.
The key finding in this area was that when participants considered themselves not to be the intended
target audience, they felt no obligation to endeavour the calls to action, despite in most cases having
reached a successful interpretation of what the call to action was. I asked participants if they would
consider taking action, Daniel (2016) explained that “I don’t feel any of the campaigns are aimed at
me so no”. While Harry (2016) offered more insight into the long-term effects saying “they don't
make me necessarily want to take action, but they are making me more aware, and therefore I may
notice stuff more later on after seeing these”. The general feeling among members of each focus
group detailed that, as they personally were not the intended target audience, they did not feel they
were required to take part in the call to action process. Clara (2016) explaining that for us to want to
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50. take action, we “need to be able to relate to the cause”. However, a number of participants
explained how these campaigns will most likely stick within their long-term memory, and that the
messages may be of relevance later in life. Therefore, these memories potentially fulfilling a
response with the call to action or functioning as a visual cue that could be linked to future
awareness material.
The idea of this process was profoundly evident across the domestic images, and most individuals
felt the intended audience were people who had, or were experiencing such abuse, and that the
campaign was perhaps too specialised in its effective targeted group. Consequently, the resulting
effectiveness of the campaign on a wider audience were perceived as minimal. Leah (2016)
explained that “the audience is someone who is effected, so it has a solid call to action for them”.
Emily (2016) also agreed, and additionally addressed the small role that can be played by a wider
audience, “the domestic call to action is more for people effected. I suppose I could take the number
and give it to someone to help”, Harry (2016) adding “it raises awareness to everyone else, that may
be helpful in the future”.
The road safety images carried a more mixed response. In relation to Sturken and Cartwright
(2001:25) ideas on cultural context, members of the focus groups felt these images were irrelevant
due to the common practice of wearing a seatbelt in the UK. Emily (2016) commented on herself
and how she would challenge others that were not wearing a seatbelt saying, “it makes you think
and I would tell people if I was with them”. However, there seemed to be an equal divide on the
idea that if wearing a seatbelt was not already common, how this campaign would make viewers
act, and belt up. The first focus group arrived at the conclusion these images would not make them
feel the need to wear a seatbelt; however, the second group showed a contrast, summarising that if it
were not already “drilled into us” (Lewis 2016), then it would probably make us wear a belt.
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51. Finally, the liking images promoted two calls to action for audiences in my research. The primary
being based around the idea of changing attitudes towards social media, and the secondary in
becoming a volunteer and enroling as an active member within a charity. Interestingly, almost all
participants detailed how they did not engage in the “liking” of such images on Facebook, but were
aware of people who did, as a result of seeing such content within their feeds. With this, they did
not feel any personal action had to be taken because again it was felt they did not relate on an
individual level. In regards to the secondary message, although unsubstantial in is delivery, the idea
of becoming a volunteer was more positively received. McDonald’s (1992:18) writing around the
“long-term” effects come to light here, as a number of individuals stated how they would love to
become a volunteer and make a difference, but how at this current stage in their life it was
unfeasible. This said they explained that campaigns like this will be remembered, and encourage
them to volunteer in the future at more suitable periods in their life.
In summary of these findings, it is evident Bernstein (1974:39) is correct in his argument, and that
calls to action are embedded in all campaigns. For the most part, participants in my study were able
to identify and understand the calls to action in the three selected campaigns. Despite this, though, I
have found that there was a significant contrast in audiences comprehension of the call to action
message, and them acting on it.
The underlying conclusion appears to be, if audiences are unable to relate to what is being shown,
they simply do not care to take action, as it does not affect them. Suggesting that campaigns need to
be specifically targeted to achieve positive results and that they have difficulty in successfully
achieving change over broad demographics. Giving the idea that although a campaign can increase
social awareness, they do not necessarily implement a change in behaviours.
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52. However, in some cases, participants were able to see that although the message is not personally
relevant now, they could depict long-term effects, and how viewing the images and ingesting the
calls to action could be beneficial in the future if their circumstances were to change. It was also
discovered that audiences felt that they would be able to draw links between any past and current
materials they witness in the future, as a result of these prolonged effects. Thus confirming that
social awareness campaigns do have the ability to implement long-term effects, as a result of
audiences interpretations, even if the short-term effects are neutral.
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53. 5. Conclusion
Through conducting this research, I have discovered and investigated some of the key
interpretational processes experienced by audiences, as a result of photography within social
awareness campaigns. The answer to my research question is not a simple one, the processes of
interpretation are complex and many, however, key areas of discovery have explored the role of
juxtaposition and shock factor, along with the clarity of message delivery through the use of image
and text, and finally the calls to action embedded within campaign photography.
The most significant discovery in my research relating to my thesis is how photography
successfully raises social awareness among audiences and delivers embedded calls to action, in a
universal language that can be personally interpreted for increased effectivity. Additionally, it also
highlighted how audiences do not adequately conduct the process of undertaking these calls to
action. Campaigns are created in such a way that the majority of viewers can build context as a
result of successfully interpreting the visual imagery and photography displayed. However, in
relation to the issues represented within campaigns, my findings suggest that intended target
audiences are too specific, resulting in more viewers unable to relate on a personal level to the
issue, compared to those whom can. This raising debate over how effective campaigns can be in a
wider mass market and the resulting amount of responsive action they generate.
Focus groups, due to their dynamic nature, provided an effective primary research method, resulting
in me being able to generate large amounts of responsive data. This was positive, as the information
was detailed and allowed my question to be explored in depth. However, formulating all
contributions as to identify key themes, was a complex and time-consuming process, but did allow
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54. me to ensure the widest range of responses were referred to in my findings. Conducting a higher
number of focus groups would have allowed larger samples of the outlined audience to be
investigated. Also, research with participants from a larger spectrum of disciplines and social
economic groups would result in more insightful data. The idea of conducting social media research
might also be worth considering.
As outlined in the introduction to this dissertation, research on photography audiences has received
little academic attention. The findings in this report begin to offer a perspective into the audience of
photography, detailing how viewers can generate unique meanings and experience contrasting
levels of accountability in undertaking calls to action based on their personal connection to the
subject or issue as they feel relevant.
Further areas of research could explore the extensive range of emotional responses audiences
experience when viewing campaigns, and how they prioritise certain feelings over others, and what
effects these have on individuals. This generating data that creators can interpret to produce more
efficient campaigns that have an ability to promote particular emotive responses. Along with this,
discourse with creative agencies and photographers of social awareness imagery could provide an
insightful look into the planning and construction of campaign photography. Furthermore looking at
where campaigns have been hosted, along with their visual appearance, and linking this information
to records of response and engagement from campaign commissioners, such as charities and
government departments, would provide a factual base of what visual and technical systems have
been successful in the past.
Ultimately, photography plays a critical role in social awareness campaigns. Its ability to transmit
messages in such a way that allows individual viewers to bring personal connotation to the context
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55. is an impressive attribute. In a society where messages are transmitted in a competitive
environment, photography still offers an efficient and impactful system in the communications
realm.
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58. Primary Sources
Clara (2016) How do male and female audiences aged 18 - 24 in the UK, interpret the
photography used within selected contemporary social awareness campaigns?
Daniel (2016) How do male and female audiences aged 18 - 24 in the UK, interpret the
photography used within selected contemporary social awareness campaigns?
Ella (2016) How do male and female audiences aged 18 - 24 in the UK, interpret the
photography used within selected contemporary social awareness campaigns?
Emily (2016) How do male and female audiences aged 18 - 24 in the UK, interpret the
photography used within selected contemporary social awareness campaigns?
Harry (2016) How do male and female audiences aged 18 - 24 in the UK, interpret the
photography used within selected contemporary social awareness campaigns?
Jack (2016) How do male and female audiences aged 18 - 24 in the UK, interpret the
photography used within selected contemporary social awareness campaigns?
Jasmin (2016) How do male and female audiences aged 18 - 24 in the UK, interpret the
photography used within selected contemporary social awareness campaigns?
Leah (2016) How do male and female audiences aged 18 - 24 in the UK, interpret the
photography used within selected contemporary social awareness campaigns?
Lewis (2016) How do male and female audiences aged 18 - 24 in the UK, interpret the
photography used within selected contemporary social awareness campaigns?
Sam (2016) How do male and female audiences aged 18 - 24 in the UK, interpret the
photography used within selected contemporary social awareness campaigns?
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59. Appendices
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