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Animal husbandry
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For the dice game,see Animal Husbandry(game).
Cattle feedlot
Cattle feedlotinColorado,UnitedStates
Animal husbandryisthe branchof agriculture concernedwithanimalsthatare raisedformeat,fibre,
milk,orotherproducts.It includesday-to-daycare,selectivebreedingandthe raisingof livestock.
Husbandryhas a longhistory,startingwiththe Neolithicrevolutionwhenanimalswerefirst
domesticated,fromaround13,000 BC onwards,predatingfarmingof the firstcrops.Bythe time of early
civilisationssuchasancientEgypt,cattle,sheep,goatsandpigswere beingraisedonfarms.
Major changes took place inthe ColumbianexchangewhenOldWorldlivestockwere broughttothe
NewWorld,andthenin the BritishAgricultural Revolutionof the 18thcentury,whenlivestockbreeds
like the DishleyLonghorncattle andLincolnLongwoolsheepwere rapidly improvedbyagriculturalists
such as RobertBakewell toyieldmore meat,milk,andwool.A wide range of otherspeciessuchas
horse,waterbuffalo,llama,rabbitandguineapigare usedaslivestockinsome partsof the world.Insect
farming,aswell as aquaculture of fish,molluscs,andcrustaceans,iswidespread.Modernanimal
husbandryreliesonproductionsystemsadaptedtothe type of landavailable.Subsistence farmingis
beingsupersededbyintensive animal farminginthe more developedpartsof the world,where for
example beef cattle are keptinhighdensityfeedlots,andthousandsof chickensmaybe raisedinbroiler
housesorbatteries.Onpoorersoil suchas inuplands,animalsare oftenkeptmore extensively,andmay
be allowedtoroam widely, foragingforthemselves.
Most livestockare herbivores,exceptforpigsandchickenswhichare omnivores.Ruminantslike cattle
and sheepare adaptedtofeedongrass; theycan forage outdoors,or maybe fedentirelyorinpart on
rationsricherinenergyand protein,suchaspelletedcereals.Pigsandpoultrycannotdigestthe
celluloseinforage,andrequire otherhigh-proteinfoods.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History

2. 2.1 Birthof husbandry
2.2 Ancientcivilisations
2.3 Medieval husbandry
2.4 Columbianexchange
2.5 Agricultural Revolution
3 Husbandry
3.1 Systems
3.2 Feeding
3.3 Breeding
3.4 Animal health
3.5 Range of species
3.6 Products
4 Branches
4.1 Dairy
4.2 Meat
4.3 Poultry
4.4 Aquaculture
4.5 Insects
5 Effects
5.1 Environmental impact
5.2 Animal welfare
5.3 In culture
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
8.1 Citations
8.2 Sources
9 External links
Etymology

3. The verb to husband,meaning"tomanage carefully,"derivesfromanoldermeaningof husband,which
inthe 14th centuryreferredtothe ownershipandcare of a householdorfarm, buttoday meansthe
"control or judicioususe of resources,"andinagriculture,the cultivationof plantsoranimals.[1]
Farmersand rancherswhoraise livestockare consideredtopractice animal husbandry.
History
Furtherinformation:Historyof agriculture
Birthof husbandry
Main articles:NeolithicRevolutionandDomesticationof animals
Fat-tailedsheepinAfghanistan
The domesticationof ruminants,like these fat-tailedsheepinAfghanistan,providednomadsacrossthe
Middle Eastand central Asiawitha reliable source of food.
The domesticationof livestockwasdrivenbythe needtohave foodonhandwhenhuntingwas
unproductive.The desirablecharacteristicsof adomesticanimal are that itshouldbe useful tothe
domesticator,shouldbe able tothrive inhisorhercompany,shouldbreedfreely,andbe easyto
tend.[2]
Domesticationwasnota single event,butaprocessrepeatedatvariousperiodsindifferentplaces.
Sheepandgoatswere the animalsthataccompanied the nomadsinthe Middle East,while cattle and
pigswere associatedwithmore settledcommunities.[3]
The firstwildanimal tobe domesticatedwasthe dog.Half-wilddogs,perhapsstartingwithyoung
individuals,mayhave beentoleratedasscavengersand killersof vermin,andbeingnaturallypack
hunters,were predisposedtobecome partof the humanpack and joininthe hunt. Preyanimals,sheep,
goats,pigsand cattle,were progressivelydomesticatedearlyinthe historyof agriculture.[3]
Pigswere domesticatedinthe NearEastbetween8,500 and 8000 BC,[4] sheepandgoats inor near the
Fertile Crescentabout8,500 BC,[5] and cattle fromwildaurochsin the areasof modernTurkeyand
Pakistanaround8,500 BC.[6]
A cow wasa great advantage to a villagerasshe producedmore milkthanhercalf needed,andher
strengthcouldbe put to use as a workinganimal,pullingaploughtoincrease productionof crops,and
drawinga sledge,andlateracart, to bringthe produce home fromthe field.Draughtanimalswere first
usedabout4,000 BC inthe Middle East,increasingagricultural productionimmeasurably.[3] Insouthern
Asia,the elephantwasdomesticatedby6,000 BC.[7]

4. Fossilisedchickenbonesdatedto5040 BC have beenfoundinnortheasternChina,farfromwhere their
wildancestorslivedinthe junglesof tropical Asia,butarchaeologistsbelieve thatthe original purposeof
domesticationwasforthe sportof cockfighting.[8]
Meanwhile,inSouthAmerica,the llamaandthe alpacahad beendomesticated, probablybefore3,000
BC, as beastsof burdenandfor theirwool.Neitherwasstrongenoughtopull a ploughwhichlimitedthe
developmentof agriculture inthe NewWorld.[3]
Horsesoccur naturallyonthe steppesof Central Asiaandtheirdomesticationbeganaround3,000 BC in
the Black Seaand CaspianSearegion.Although,horseswere originallyseenasa source of meat,their
use as pack animalsandfor ridingfollowed.Aroundthe same time,the wildasswasbeingtamedin
Egypt.Camelswere domesticated soonafterthis,[9] withthe Bactriancamel inMongoliaandthe
Arabiancamel becomingbeastsof burden.By1000 BC, caravans of Arabiancamelswere linkingIndia
withMesopotamiaandthe Mediterranean.[3]
Ancientcivilisations
Egyptianhieroglyphicof cattle
Milkingcattle inancientEgypt
In ancientEgypt,cattle were the mostimportantlivestock,andsheep,goats,andpigswere alsokept;
poultryincludingducks,geese,andpigeonswere capturedinnetsandbredon farms,where theywere
force-fedwith doughtofattenthem.[10]
The Nile providedaplentifulsource of fish.Honeybeeswere domesticatedfromatleastthe Old
Kingdom,providingbothhoneyandwax.[11]
In ancientRome,all the livestockknowninancientEgyptwere available.Inaddition, rabbitswere
domesticatedforfoodbythe firstcenturyBC.To helpflushthemoutfromtheirburrows,the polecat
was domesticatedasthe ferret,itsuse describedbyPlinythe Elder.[12]
Medieval husbandry
Paintingof shepherdwithsheep
Shepherdwithsheepinwovenhurdlepen.Medieval France.15thcentury,MS Douce 195

5. In northernEurope,agriculture includinganimal husbandrywentintodeclinewhenthe Romanempire
collapsed.Some aspectssuchasthe herdingof animalscontinuedthroughoutthe period. Bythe 11th
century,the economyhadrecoveredandthe countryside wasagainproductive.[13]
The DomesdayBookrecordedeveryparcel of landandeveryanimal inEngland:"there wasnotone
single hide,norayard of land,nay, moreover...notevenanox,nor a cow, nora swine wasthere left,
that wasnot setdownin [the king's] writ."[14] Forexample,the royal manorof EarleyinBerkshire,one
of thousandsof villagesrecordedinthe book,hadin1086 "2 fisheriesworth[payingtax of] 7sand 6d
[eachyear] and 20 acres of meadow[forlivestock].Woodlandfor[feeding] 70pigs."[15]
The improvementsof animal husbandryinthe medieval periodinEurope wenthandinhandwithother
developments.Improvementstothe ploughallowedthe soil tobe tilled toa greaterdepth.Horsestook
overfromoxenas the mainprovidersof traction,new ideasoncrop rotationwere developedandthe
growingof crops for winterfoddergainedground.[16] Peas,beansandvetchesbecamecommon;they
increasedsoil fertilitythroughnitrogenfixation,allowingmore livestocktobe kept.[17]
Columbianexchange
Main article:Columbianexchange
Explorationandcolonisationof NorthandSouthAmericaresultedinthe introductionintoEurope of
such crops as maize,potatoes,sweetpotatoesandmanioc,whilethe principal OldWorldlivestock –
cattle,horses,sheepandgoats – were introducedintothe New Worldforthe firsttime alongwith
wheat,barley,rice andturnips.[18]
Agricultural Revolution
Main article:BritishAgricultural Revolution
LincolnLongwool Sheep
The LincolnLongwool breedwasimprovedbyRobertBakewellinthe 18th century.
Selectivebreedingfordesiredtraitswasestablishedasa scientificpractice byRobertBakewellduring
the BritishAgricultural Revolution inthe 18th century.One of hismostimportantbreedingprograms
was withsheep.Usingnative stock,he wasable toquicklyselectforlarge,yetfine-bonedsheep,with
long,lustrouswool.The LincolnLongwool wasimprovedbyBakewellandinturnthe Lincolnwas usedto
developthe subsequentbreed,namedthe New (orDishley)Leicester.Itwashornlessandhada square,
meatybodywithstraighttop lines.[19] These sheepwere exportedwidelyandhave contributedto
numerousmodernbreeds.Underhisinfluence,Englishfarmersbegantobreedcattle foruse primarily
as beef.Long-hornedheiferswerecrossedwiththe Westmorelandbull tocreate the Dishley
Longhorn.[20]

6. The semi-natural,unfertilisedpasturesformedbytraditional agricultural methodsinEurope were
managedbygrazing andmowing.Asthe ecological impactof thislandmanagementstrategyissimilarto
the impact of such natural disturbancesasa wildfire,thisagricultural systemsharesmanybeneficial
characteristicswithanatural habitat,includingthe promotionof biodiversity.Thisstrategyisdeclining
inEurope today due to the intensificationof agriculture.The mechanizedandchemical methodsused
are causingbiodiversitytodecline.[21]
Husbandry
Furtherinformation:Livestock
Systems
Furtherinformation:Agriculture §Livestockproductionsystems,andIntensive animalfarming
Herdwicksheep
Herdwicksheepinanextensive hill farmingsystem, Lake District,England
Traditionally,animal husbandrywaspartof the subsistence farmer'swayof life,producingnotonlythe
foodneededbythe familybutalsothe fuel,fertiliser,clothing,transportanddraughtpower.Killingthe
animal forfoodwas a secondaryconsideration,andwhereverpossibleitsproductssuchas wool,eggs,
milkandblood(bythe Maasai) were harvestedwhilethe animal wasstill alive.[22] Inthe traditional
systemof transhumance,peopleandlivestockmovedseasonallybetweenfixedsummerandwinter
pastures;inmontane regionsthe summerpasture wasupinthe mountains,the winterpasture inthe
valleys.[23]
Animalscanbe keptextensivelyorintensively.Extensivesystemsinvolveanimalsroamingatwill,or
underthe supervisionof aherdsman,oftenfortheirprotectionfrompredators.Ranchinginthe
WesternUnited Statesinvolveslarge herdsof cattle grazingwidelyoverpublicandprivate lands.[24]
Similarcattle stationsare foundinSouthAmerica,Australiaandotherplaceswithlarge areasof land
and lowrainfall.Ranchingsystemshave beenusedforsheep,deer,ostrich,emu,llamaandalpaca.[25]
In the uplandsof the UnitedKingdom,sheepare turnedoutonthe fellsinspringandgraze the
abundantmountaingrassesuntended,beingbroughttoloweraltitudeslate inthe year,with
supplementaryfeedingbeing providedinwinter.[26] Inrural locations,pigsandpoultrycanobtain
much of theirnutritionfromscavenging,andinAfricancommunities,hensmayliveformonthswithout
beingfed,andstill produce one ortwoeggsa week.[22]
Pigsina barn
Pigsinan intensive system, MidwesternUnitedStates

7. At the otherextreme,inthe more developedpartsof the world,animalsare oftenintensivelymanaged;
dairycows maybe keptinzero-grazingconditionswithall theirforage broughttothem;beef cattle may
be keptin highdensityfeedlots;[27] pigsmaybe housedinclimate-controlledbuildingsandnevergo
outdoors;[28] poultrymaybe rearedinbarns and keptincages as layingbirdsunderlighting-controlled
conditions.Inbetweenthesetwoextremesare semi-intensive,oftenfamily-runfarmswherelivestock
graze outside formuch of the year,silage or hayis made to coverthe timesof year whenthe grassstops
growing,andfertiliser,feed,andotherinputsare broughtontothe farmfrom outside.[29]
Feeding
Main article:animal feed
Cattle aroundan outdoorfeeder
Cattle aroundan outdoorfeeder
Animalsusedaslivestockare predominantlyherbivorous,the mainexceptionsbeingthe pigandthe
chickenwhichare omnivorous.The herbivorescanbe dividedinto"concentrate selectors"which
selectivelyfeedonseeds,fruitsandhighlynutritiousyoungfoliage,"grazers"whichmainlyfeedon
grass, and"intermediatefeeders"whichchoose theirdietfromthe whole range of available plant
material.Cattle,sheep,goats,deerandantelopesare ruminants;theydigestfoodintwosteps,chewing
and swallowinginthe normal way,andthenregurgitatingthe semidigestedcudtochew it againand
thusextract the maximumpossible foodvalue.[30] The dietaryneedsof theseanimalsismostlymetby
eatinggrass.Grassesgrow fromthe base of the leaf-blade,enablingittothrive evenwhenheavily
grazedor cut.[31]
In manyclimatesgrassgrowthis seasonal,forexample inthe temperatesummerortropical rainy
season,sosome areasof the crop are setaside to be cut and preserved,eitherashay (driedgrass),oras
silage (fermentedgrass).[32] Otherforage cropsare alsogrownand manyof these,aswell ascrop
residues,canbe ensiledtofill the gapinthe nutritional needs of livestockinthe leanseason.[33]
Cattle feedpellets
Cattle feedpelletsof pressedlinseed
Extensivelyrearedanimalsmaysubsistentirelyonforage,butmore intensivelykeptlivestockwill
require energyandprotein-richfoodsinaddition.Energyismainlyderivedfromcerealsandcereal by-
products,fatsand oilsandsugar-richfoods,while proteinmaycome fromfishormeat meal,milk
products,legumesandotherplantfoods,oftenthe by-productsof vegetableoil extraction.[34] Pigsand
poultryare non-ruminantsandunable todigestthe cellulose ingrassandotherforages,sotheyare fed
entirelyoncerealsandotherhigh-energyfoodstuffs.The ingredientsforthe animals'rationscanbe
grownon the farm or can be bought,inthe formof pelletedorcubed,compoundfoodstuffsspecially
formulatedforthe differentclassesof livestock,theirgrowthstagesandtheirspecificnutritional

8. requirements.Vitaminsandmineralsare addedtobalance the diet.[35] Farmedfishare usuallyfed
pelletedfood.[35]
Breeding
Main article:Animal breeding
The breedingof farmanimalsseldomoccursspontaneouslybutismanagedbyfarmerswithaviewto
encouragingtraitsseenasdesirable.These include hardiness,fertility,docility,motheringabilities,fast
growthrates,lowfeedconsumptionperunitof growth,betterbodyproportions,higheryields,and
betterfibre qualities.Undesirabletraitssuchas healthdefectsandaggressivenessare selected
against.[36][37]
Selectivebreedinghasbeenresponsiblefor large increasesinproductivity.Forexample,in2007, a
typical broilerchickenateightweeksoldwas4.8timesas heavyasa birdof similarage in1957,[36]
while inthe thirtyyearsto2007, the average milkyieldof adairycow inthe UnitedStates nearly
doubled.[36]
Animal health
Furtherinformation:Veterinarymedicine
Vaccinationof a goat
Vaccinatingagoat, Niger
Good husbandry,properfeeding,andhygiene are the maincontributorstoanimal healthonthe farm,
bringingeconomicbenefitsthroughmaximisedproduction.When,despite theseprecautions,animals
still become sick,theyare treatedwithveterinarymedicines,bythe farmerandthe veterinarian.Inthe
EuropeanUnion,whenfarmerstreattheirownanimals,theyare requiredtofollowthe guidelinesfor
treatmentandto recordthe treatmentsgiven.[38] Animalsare susceptibletoa numberof diseasesand
conditionsthatmayaffecttheirhealth.Some,likeclassicalswinefever[39] andscrapie[40] are specific
to one type of stock, while others,like foot-and-mouthdisease affectall cloven-hoofedanimals.[41]
Animalslivingunderintensive conditionsare prone tointernal andexternal parasites;increasing
numbersof sealice are affectingfarmedsalmoninScotland.[42] Reducingthe parasite burdensof
livestockresultsinincreasedproductivityandprofitability.[43]
Where the conditionisserious,governmentsimpose regulationsonimportandexport,onthe
movementof stock,quarantine restrictionsandthe reportingof suspectedcases.Vaccinesare available
againstcertaindiseases,andantibioticsare widelyusedwhere appropriate.Atone time,antibiotics
were routinelyaddedtocertaincompoundfoodstuffstopromote growth,butthispractice isnow
frownedoninmanycountriesbecause of the riskthat itmay leadto antimicrobial resistanceinlivestock
and inhumans.[44]

9. Watercolordrawingof farmyardwithcow,horse,pigs,andchickens
Familiarlivestock:inkandwatercolourdrawingof afarmyardwithcow,horse,pigs,andchickens, 1869
Governmentsare concernedwithzoonoses,diseasesthathumansmayacquire fromanimals.Wild
animal populationsmayharbourdiseasesthatcanaffectdomesticanimalswhichmayacquire themasa
resultof insufficientbiosecurity.Anoutbreakof Nipah virusinMalaysiain1999 was traced back to pigs
becomingill aftercontactwithfruit-eatingflyingfoxes,theirfaecesandurine.The pigsinturnpassed
the infectiontohumans.[45] AvianfluH5N1ispresentinwildbirdpopulationsandcan be carried large
distancesbymigratingbirds.Thisvirusiseasilytransmissibletodomesticpoultry,andtohumansliving
inclose proximitywiththem.Otherinfectiousdiseasesaffectingwildanimals,farmanimalsandhumans
include rabies,leptospirosis,brucellosis,tuberculosisandtrichinosis.[46]
Range of species
Main articles:Livestock§Types,Aquaculture §Speciesgroups,andEntomophagy
There isno single universallyagreeddefinitionof whichspeciesare livestock.Widelyagreedtypesof
livestock include cattle forbeef anddairy,sheep,goats,pigs,andpoultry.Variousotherspeciesare
sometimesconsideredlivestock,suchashorses,[47] whilepoultrybirdsare sometimesexcluded.In
some parts of the world,livestockincludesspeciessuchasbuffalo,andthe SouthAmericancamelids,
the alpaca and llama.[48][49][50] Some authoritiesuse muchbroaderdefinitionstoinclude fishin
aquaculture,micro-livestocksuchasrabbitsand rodentslike guineapigs,aswell asinsectsfromhoney
beestocricketsraisedforhuman consumption.[51]
Sheeringmerinosheep
Shearinga Merinosheepforitswool
Products
Main article:Animal product
Animalsare raisedfora wide varietyof products,principallymeat,wool,milk,andeggs,butalso
includingtallow,isinglassandrennet.[52][53] Animalsare alsokeptformore specialisedpurposes,such
as to produce vaccines[54] andantiserum(containingantibodies) formedical use.[55] Where fodderor
othercrops are grownalongside animals,manure canserve asa fertiliser,returningmineralsand
organicmatter to the soil ina semi-closedorganicsystem.[56]
Branches
Dairy
Main article:Dairyfarming

10. Rotary milkingparlour
A modernrotarymilkingparlour,Germany
Althoughall mammalsproduce milktonourishtheiryoung,the cow ispredominantlyusedthroughout
the worldto produce milkandmilkproductsforhumanconsumption.Otheranimalsusedtoalesser
extentforthispurpose include sheep,goats,camels,buffaloes,yaks,reindeer,horsesanddonkeys.[57]
All these animalshave beendomesticatedoverthe centuries,beingbredforsuchdesirable
characteristicsasfecundity,productivity,docilityandthe abilitytothrive underthe prevailing
conditions.Whereasinthe past,cattle hadmultiplefunctions,moderndairycow breedinghasresulted
inspecialisedHolsteinFriesian-type animalsthatproduce large quantitiesof milkeconomically.Artificial
inseminationiswidelyavailable toallow farmerstoselectforthe particulartraitsthatsuittheir
circumstances.[58]
Whereasinthe past, cowswere keptinsmall herdsonfamilyfarms,grazingpasturesandbeingfedhay
inwinter,nowadaysthere isatrendtowardslargerherds,more intensivesystems,the feedingof silage
and "zerograzing",a systemwhere grassiscut and broughtto the cow,whichis housedyear-round.[59]
In manycommunities,milkproductionisonlypartof the purpose of keepingananimal whichmayalso
be usedas a beastof burdenor to drawa plough,orfor the productionof fibre,meatandleather,with
the dung beingusedforfuel orforthe improvementof soil fertility.Sheepandgoatsmaybe favoured
for dairyproductioninclimatesandconditionsthatdonotsuitdairycows.[57]
Meat
Herefordcow
The Herefordisa hardy breedof beef cattle,now raisedinmanycountriesaroundthe world.
Main articles:Meatindustry,Cattle,Sheepfarming,Pigfarming,andCuniculture
Meat, mainlyfromfarmedanimals,isamajorsource of dietaryproteinaroundthe world,averaging
about8% of man's energyintake.The actual typeseatendependonlocal preferences,availability,cost
and otherfactors,withcattle,sheep,pigsandgoatsbeingthe mainspeciesinvolved.Cattlegenerally
produce a single offspringannuallywhichtakesmore thanayear to mature;sheepandgoatsoftenhave
twinsandthese are readyfor slaughterinlessthana year;pigsare more prolific,producingmore than
one litterof up to about11[60] pigletseachyear.[61] Horses,donkeys,deer,buffalo,llamas,alpacas,
guanacosand vicunasare farmedformeatin variousregions.Some desirable traitsof animalsraisedfor
meatinclude fecundity,hardiness,fastgrowthrate,ease of managementandhighfoodconversion
efficiency.Abouthalf of the world'smeatisproducedfromanimals grazingonopenrangesoron
enclosedpastures,the otherhalf beingproducedintensivelyinvariousfactory-farmingsystems;these
are mostlycows,pigsor poultry,andoftenrearedindoors,typicallyathighdensities.[62]

11. Poultry
Batteryhens
Battery hens,Brazil
Main article:Poultryfarming
Poultry,keptfortheireggsandfor theirmeat,include chickens,turkeys,geese andducks.The great
majorityof layingbirdsusedforeggproductionare chickens.Methodsforkeepinglayersrange from
free-range systems,where the birdscanroamas theywill butare housedatnightfor theirown
protection,throughsemi-intensive systemswhere theyare housedinbarnsandhave perches,litterand
some freedomof movement,tointensivesystemswhere theyare kept incages.The batterycagesare
arrangedin longrowsinmultiple tiers,withexternal feeders,drinkers,andeggcollectionfacilities.This
isthe mostlaboursavingand economical methodof eggproductionbuthasbeencriticisedonanimal
welfare groundsasthe birdsare unable to exhibittheirnormal behaviours.[63]
In the developedworld,the majorityof the poultryrearedformeatisraisedindoorsinbigsheds,with
automatedequipmentunderenvironmentallycontrolledconditions.Chickensraisedin thiswayare
knownas broilers,andgeneticimprovementshave meantthattheycanbe grownto slaughterweight
withinsix orsevenweeksof hatching.Newlyhatchedchicksare restrictedtoa small areaand given
supplementaryheating.Litteronthe floor absorbsthe droppingsandthe areaoccupiedisexpandedas
theygrow.Feedandwateris suppliedautomaticallyandthe lightingiscontrolled.The birdsmaybe
harvestedonseveral occasionsorthe whole shedmaybe clearedatone time.[64]
A similarrearingsystemisusuallyusedforturkeys,whichare lesshardythanchickens,buttheytake
longertogrow and are oftenmovedontoseparate fatteningunitstofinish.[65] Ducksare particularly
popularinAsiaand Australiaandcan be killedatsevenweeks undercommercialconditions.[66]
Aquaculture
Freshwaterfishfarm
Freshwaterfishfarming,France
Main article:Aquaculture
Aquaculture hasbeendefinedas"the farmingof aquaticorganismsincludingfish,molluscs,crustaceans
and aquaticplantsand impliessome formof interventioninthe rearingprocesstoenhance production,
such as regularstocking,feeding,protectionfrompredators,etc.Farmingalsoimpliesindividual or
corporate ownershipof the stockbeingcultivated."[67] Inpractice itcan take place inthe seaor in
freshwater,andbe extensiveorintensive.Whole bays,lakesorpondsmaybe devotedtoaquaculture,
or the farmedanimal maybe retainedincages(fish),artificial reefs,racksorstrings(shellfish).Fishand

12. prawnscan be cultivatedinrice paddies,eitherarrivingnaturallyorbeingintroduced,andbothcrops
can be harvestedtogether.[68]
Fishhatcheriesprovidelarval andjuvenilefish,crustaceansandshellfish,foruse inaquaculture systems.
Whenlarge enoughthese are transferredtogrowing-ontanksandsoldtofishfarmsto reach harvest
size.Some speciesthatare commonlyraisedinhatcheriesinclude shrimps,prawns,salmon,tilapia,
oystersandscallops.Similarfacilitiescanbe usedtoraise specieswithconservationneedstobe
releasedintothe wild,orgame fishforrestockingwaterways.Importantaspectsof husbandryatthese
earlystagesinclude selectionof breedingstock,control of waterqualityandnutrition.Inthe wild,there
isa massive amountof mortalityatthe nurserystage;farmersseektominimisethiswhile atthe same
time maximisinggrowthrates.[69]
Insects
Crickets
Cricketsbeingraisedforhumanconsumption,Thailand
Furtherinformation:Beekeeping,Entomophagy,Insectfarming,andSericulture
Beeshave beenkeptinhivessince atleastthe FirstDynastyof Egypt,five thousandyearsago,[70] and
man had beenharvestinghoneyfromthe wildlongbefore that.Fixedcombhivesare usedinmanyparts
of the worldandare made fromany locallyavailablematerial.[71] Inmore advancedeconomies,where
modernstrainsof domesticbee have beenselectedfordocilityandproductiveness,variousdesignsof
hive are usedwhichenable the combstobe removedforprocessingandextractionof honey.Quite
apart fromthe honeyandwax theyproduce,honeybeesare importantpollinatorsof cropsand wild
plants,andin manyplaceshivesare transportedaroundthe countryside toassistinpollination.[72]
Sericulture,the rearingof silkworms,wasfirstadoptedbythe Chinese duringthe Shangdynasty.[73]
The onlyspeciesfarmedcommerciallyisthe domesticatedsilkmoth.Whenitspinsitscocoon,eachlarva
producesan exceedinglylong,slenderthreadof silk.The larvae feedonmulberryleavesandinEurope,
only one generationisnormallyraisedeachyearasthisis a deciduoustree.InChina,KoreaandJapan
however,twogenerationsare normal,andinthe tropics,multiplegenerationsare expected.Most
productionof silkoccursin the Far East, witha synthetic dietbeingusedtorearthe silkwormsin
Japan.[74]
Insectsformpart of the humandietinmanycultures.[75] InThailand,cricketsare farmedforthis
purpose inthe northof the country,and palmweevil larvae inthe south.The cricketsare keptinpens,
boxesordrawersand fedoncommercial pelletedpoultryfood,while the palmweevil larvae live on
cabbage palmand sago palmtrees,whichlimitstheirproductiontoareaswhere these treesgrow.[76]
Anotherdelicacyof thisregionisthe bamboocaterpillar,andthe bestrearingandharvestingtechniques
insemi-natural habitatsare beingstudied.[76]

13. Effects
Environmental impact
Main articles:Environmental impactof livestockandEnvironmental impactof meatproduction
Cattle
Livestockproduction requireslarge areasof land.
Animal husbandryhasa significantimpactonthe worldenvironment.Beingapart of the animal–
industrial complex,animalagricultureisthe primarydriverof climate change,oceanacidification,
biodiversityloss,andof the crossingof almosteveryotherplanetaryboundary,inadditiontokilling
more than 60 billionnon-humanlandanimalsannually.[77] Itisresponsibleforsomewhere between20
and 33% of the freshwaterusage inthe world,[78] andlivestock,andthe productionof feedforthem,
occupy abouta thirdof the earth's ice-freeland.[79] Livestockproductionisacontributingfactorin
speciesextinction,desertification,[80] andhabitatdestruction.[81] Animalagriculturecontributesto
speciesextinctioninvariouswaysandisthe primarydriverof the Holocene
extinction.[82][83][84][85][86] Habitatisdestroyedbyclearingforestsandconvertinglandtogrowfeed
crops and foranimal grazing,while predatorsandherbivoresare frequentlytargetedandhunted
because of a perceivedthreattolivestockprofits;forexample,animal husbandryisresponsible forupto
91% of the deforestationinthe Amazonregion.[87] Inaddition,livestockproduce greenhousegases.
Cowsproduce some 570 millioncubicmetresof methane perday,[88] thataccountsfor from35 to 40%
of the overall methane emissionsof the planet.[89] Livestockisresponsible for65% of all human-related
emissionsof the powerful andlong-livedgreenhousegasnitrousoxide.[89]
As a result,waysof mitigatinganimal husbandry'senvironmental impactare beingstudied.Strategies
include usingbiogasfrommanure,[90] geneticselection,[91][92] immunization,rumendefaunation,
outcompetitionof methanogenicarchaeawithacetogens,[93] introductionof methanotrophicbacteria
intothe rumen,[94][95] dietmodificationandgrazingmanagement,amongothers.[96][97][98] A diet
change (withAsparagopsistaxiformis) allowedforareductionof upto 99% of methane productioninan
experimental studywiththree ruminants.[99][100]
Animal welfare
Main article:Animal welfare
Since the 18th century,people have become increasinglyconcernedaboutthe welfare of farmanimals.
Possible measuresof welfare includelongevity,behavior,physiology,reproduction,freedomfrom
disease,andfreedomfromimmunosuppression.Standardsandlawsforanimal welfare have been
createdworldwide,broadlyinlinewiththe mostwidelyheldpositioninthe westernworld,aformof
utilitarianism:thatitismorallyacceptable forhumanstouse non-humananimals,providedthatno

14. unnecessarysufferingiscaused,andthatthe benefitstohumansoutweighthe coststothe livestock.An
opposingviewisthatanimalshave rights,shouldnotbe regardedasproperty,are notnecessarytouse,
and shouldneverbe usedbyhumans.[101][102][103][104][105] Live exportof animalshasrisento meet
increasedglobal demandforlivestocksuchasin the Middle East.Animal rightsactivistshave objectedto
long-distance transportof animals;one resultwasthe banningof live exportsfromNew Zealandin
2003.[106]
DavidNibert,professorof sociologyatWittenbergUniversity,positsthat,basedoncontemporary
scholarshipbyethologistsandbiologistsaboutthe sentienceandintelligence of otheranimals,"we can
assume that,for the mostpart, the other animals'experience of capture,enslavement,use,andslaying
was one of sufferingandviolence."Muchof thisinvolveddirectphysicalviolence,butalsostructural
violence astheirsystemicoppressionandenslavement"resultedintheirinabilitytomeettheirbasic
needs,the lossof self-determination,andthe lossof opportunitytolive inanatural way."He says that
the remainsof domesticatedanimalsfromthousandsof yearsagofoundduringarcheological
excavationsrevealednumerousbone pathologies,whichprovideevidence of extremesuffering:
Excavationsfrom8500 BCE revealedbone deformitiesinenslavedgoatsandcowsand provided"some
indicationof stress,presumablydue tothe conditionsinwhich these earlydomesticanimalswere kept."
Remainsof sheepandgoatsfrom the earlyBronze Age show a markeddecrease inbone thickness,
reflectingcalciumdeficiencies"resultingfromthe combinedeffectsof poornutritionandintensive
milking."[107]
In culture
Cartoonof JohnBull givinghisbreechestosave hisbacon
Openingof the budget; – or – John Bull givinghisbreechestosave hisbacon[note 1] byJamesGillray(d.
1815)
Since the 18th century,the farmerJohnBull hasrepresentedEnglishnationalidentity,firstinJohn
Arbuthnot'spolitical satires,andsoonafterwardsincartoonsbyJamesGillrayandothersincludingJohn
Tenniel.He likesfood,beer,dogs,horses,andcountrysports;he ispractical and downto earth,and
anti-intellectual.[108]
Farm animalsare widespreadinbooksandsongsforchildren;the realityof animal husbandryisoften
distorted,softened,oridealized,givingchildrenanalmostentirelyfictitiousaccountof farm life.The
booksoftendepicthappyanimalsfree toroaminattractive countryside,apicture completelyatodds
withthe realitiesof the impersonal,mechanizedactivitiesinvolvedinmodernintensive farming.[109]
Illustrationof dressedpigs

15. DressedpigsinBeatrix Potter's1913 The Tale of PiglingBland
Pigs,forexample,appearinseveralof Beatrix Potter's"little books",asPigletinA.A.Milne'sWinniethe
Poohstories,andsomewhatmore darkly(withahintof animalsgoingtoslaughter) asBabe inDick King-
Smith'sThe Sheep-Pig,andasWilburinE. B. White'sCharlotte'sWeb.[110] Pigstendtobe "bearersof
cheerfulness,goodhumourandinnocence".Manyof these booksare completelyanthropomorphic,
dressingfarmanimalsinclothesandhavingthemwalkontwolegs,live inhouses,andperformhuman
activities.[109] The children'ssong"OldMacDonaldHad a Farm" describesafarmernamedMacDonald
and the variousanimalshe keeps,celebratingthe noisestheyeachmake.[111]
Many urban childrenexperience animal husbandryforthe firsttime ata pettingfarm;inBritain,some
five millionpeopleayearvisita farm of some kind.Thispresentssome riskof infection,especiallyif
childrenhandle animalsandthenfail towashtheirhands;a strainof E. coli infected93people whohad
visitedaBritishinteractivefarminanoutbreakin2009.[112] Historicfarms suchas those inthe United
Statesofferfarmstaysand"a carefullycuratedversionof farmingtothose willingtopayfor it",[113]
sometimesgivingvisitorsaromanticisedimageof apastoral idyll fromanunspecifiedtime inthe pre-
industrial past.[113]
See also
Agribusiness
Animal science
Dairyindustryinthe UnitedKingdom
Dairyindustryinthe UnitedStates
Fishery
Foodvs. feed
Wildlifefarming
Zootechnics
Notes
Both the name Bull and the reference tobaconindicate the archetypal livestockfarmer.
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