1. Roman Imperialism
Author(s): George W. Botsford
Reviewed work(s):
Source: The American Historical Review, Vol. 23, No. 4 (Jul., 1918), pp. 772-778
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Historical Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1836332 .
Accessed: 15/11/2012 10:04
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
.
Oxford University Press and American Historical Association are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize,
preserve and extend access to The American Historical Review.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.52.71 on Thu, 15 Nov 2012 10:04:41 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

2. ROMAN IMPERIALISM'
THE aim of this paper is merely, touch lightly
to upon a few of
themoreimportant problemsof the imperial government admin-
and
istration,beginning with Julius Caesar. For comparisonsbetween
Roman and modern, particularlyBritish,imperialism, those who are
interested should consultthe writingson this subject of the schol-
arly statesmenBryce and Cromer.
The most illuminating fact that has come to me in recentyears
is that the imperialorganization and administration were inherited
more fromthe Hellenistickingdomsthan fromthe Republic. Hel-
lenisticconditionsfound in Sicily, Macedonia, the Seleucid realm,
and Egypt were perpetuatedwith littlemodification and extended
in a varyingdegreeto the remaining parts of the Empire. In other
words it is a fact that the Greeks,whose politicalachievements we
have been accustomedto belittle, created a great and essentialpart
of the imperialfabric. In the centraladministration, well as in
as
the localities,theirinfluencewas largelydeterminative. In spite of
endlessdiscussionthe aims of JuliusCaesar have remaineda riddle.
The solutionhere offered, whichseems to me to accountbetterthan
any otherfor his actions,is that he consideredhimselfa successor
to Alexander the Great. This character appears clearly in the
prospective conquerorof the Parthianrealm,who would have made
the greatbulk of the Empire Oriental,and have reducedthe portion
west of the Adriatic to an insignificant, and perhaps temporary,
appendage. The formof state and government toward which he
was visibly,and perhaps deliberately, movingwas the Hellenistic,
which obliterated nationalityand the senitiment patriotism,
of sub-
stituting thembusinessprinciples the dealingsof the absolute
for in
monarchwithhis high officials, imposingupon the masses with
and
his pretenseof divinity.
Caesar's assassinationwas but a part of the inevitablefailureof
this scheme. Its collapse was due mainlyto the impossibility of
creatinga Hellenisticofficialdom such materialas could thenbe
of
foundin and about Rome. Octavian,his heir,early discoveredthe
mistakeand, to correctit, reverted once to the republican
at idea of
an empiregovernedby the Italian nationality. Religion,literature,
1 [See note i on p. 7.55. The untimely death of Professor Botsford has
deprived the paper of the benefitof any possible revision on his part. ED.]
(772)
This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.52.71 on Thu, 15 Nov 2012 10:04:41 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

3. RomanImperuaism 773
art, legislation,and all other possible means were resortedto for
creatingthe moral and patrioticspiritnecessaryfor the task. The
legionarieswho protectedthe Empire were to be Roman citizens;
and the high military and civil officials
were to be drawn fromthe
republicanaristocracy. But the Italian nationality was too deca-
dent,and the high societyof the capital too ease-loving, dissipated,
and demoralizedto assure the completesuccess of the plan. It was
certainly due to his effort,maintainedby his faithfulfollowerTi-
berius, that throughall the vicissitudesof the centuriesto come
theresurvivedthe one preciousfeelingthatthe statewas a common-
wealth-Res Publica-the inalienablepossession of every freeman
in the Roman world. Claudius was the first break withthe Au-
to
gustan national policy. This lopsided eccentriccreature was the
greatestcreativestatesman betweenAugustusand Hadrian. Itwas
not so,muchhimselfas his Greek freedmen who in his name aban-
doned the Augustantradition and set up a movement definitely a
in
Hellenisticdirection. This policy included (i) the beginning a of
great civil servicewhichenabledthegovernment graduallyto assume
manynew functions, and (2) the rapid politicalassimilation the
of
provincialsto Rome. His successors continuedthe policy till the
goal was finally reachedby Diocletian. The late Empire was thor-
oughly Hellenistic in its administrative machinery and oppressive
taxes, in its denationalized population and the substitutionof
monarch-worship genuinepatriotism.
for
The motivesto the buildingup of the Empire,as set forthsome
timeago in this association,were various,but amongthe mostpow-
erfulwas the predatory interest, plundering subject countries
the of
of theirwealth and theirtreasuresof art. From the conquestthe
administration inherited its predatory motive. Governors plun-
dered; Verres, less an exceptionthan a type,would scarcelyhave
been knownhad it not been for Cicero. The tax-gatherers extorted
more than their due. Under the protectionof Rome swarms of
usurers spread over the provinceslike hungryleeches,to suck the
blood of the innocent. Exceptional was the just governorlike the
elder Cato, or the humanitarian governor like Cicero.
Those portionsonly,as the Nearer Orient,whichproducedluxu-
ries fortheRoman market, and receivedrichcompensation their
for
tribute,in an unendingshower of gold and silver,profited the by
Empire, felt a keen interest the prosperity the City,and be-
in of
wailed aloud her burningin the principateof Nero.2
2 Revelation xviii. II-I9.
This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.52.71 on Thu, 15 Nov 2012 10:04:41 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

4. 774 G. W. Botsford
ii. And themerchants the earthsihall
of, weep and mourn over her,
for no man buyeth theirmerchandise more,
any
I2. The merchandise gold and silverand precious
of stonesand of
pearlsand fine linenanid purpleand silkand scarletand all sweetwood
and all manner vesselsof ivoryand all manner vesselsof mostprecious
wood and of brass anidironand marible,
13. And cinnamon and odoursand ointments frankincense,
and and
wine and oil and fineflour and wheatand beastsand sheepand horses
and chariots and slaves and souls of men.
I4. And the fruits thatthysoul lustedafterare departed from thee
and all thingswhichwere daintyand goodlyare departed fromthee,
and thoushaltfindthemno moreat all.
I5. The merchants these thingswhichwere made rich by her,
of
shallstandafar off the fearof hertorment,
for and
weeping wailing,
i6. And saying, Alas, alas, thatgreatcity, thatwas/ clothed fine
in
linenand purpleand scarletand deckedwithgold and preciousstones
and pearls!
I7. For in one hour so great richesis come to naught;and every
shipmaster, all the company ships,and sailors,and as manyas
and in
tradeby sea, stoodafar off,
I8. And cried when they saw the smoke of her burning, saying,
What cityis like uinto thisgreatcity!
I9. And theycast duston their heads and cried,weepingand wail-
ing,saying, Alas, alas, thatgrelat wherein
city, were made richall that
had ships in the sea, by reas(on her costliness!for in one hour is
of
she mnade desolate.
Little of the wealth extractedfromthe subject countriesever
returnedby way of imperial improvements.The provinceswere
the estates of the Roman people-praedia, which the school-boy
happilytranslated prey. The benefits protection
of and peace were
largelycounterbalanced the desolatingcivil wars whichraged for
by
many years of the later Republic over the greater part of the
Empire.
The principeschanged this policy to one of improvement. It
was a moreprudent, longer-headed,
a selfishness,
fromwhichdevel-
oped a benevolentpaternalism. In the words of Tiberius: "A
shepherdshears his sheep but does not flaythem." The shepherd
sympathizes with his fellow-creatures.Many a princepswas more
appreciated hisprovincial
by subjectsthan by the historianat Rome;
and in fact those who are canonicallylisted as vicious were often
best-willedtoward the provincials. Such was Nero, whose acces-
sion was announcedin Egypt in the following terms:3
The Caesar who had to pay his debtto his ancestors, manifest,
god
has joined them,
and the expectation hope of the worldhas been
and
declaredautocrator, good genius of the world and source of all
the
good things,Nero,has been declaredCaesar. Therefore oughtwe all,
3 Oxyrhynch Papyri, VII.. no.
s 102I.
This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.52.71 on Thu, 15 Nov 2012 10:04:41 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

5. RomanImperialism 775
wearinggarlandsand withsacrifices oxen,to give thanks all the
of to
gods.
The firstyear of the'auto,crator Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus
Genmanicus, 2ISt of themonth
the Neos Sebastos. [A.D. 54j1
In his principatethe provincial concilia throughhonoringor
accusing their governorswere exercising a growing influenceat
Rome. And he in part fulfilled promisethroughhis attention
the
to removingthe abuses of tax-farming and throughthe increased
power of the provincialconcilia at Rome.
Hadrian and the Antonines were " fathers of their people.
it
B3ut was a long way betweenthe princepsat Rome and the peas-
ants of Asia Minor in Syria or Egypt. Few of those who were
subjectto extortion and violenceat the hands of local dynasts,trav-
elling soldiers,or imperial officersand agents, dared lift up their
voices in prayerto the divine imperator Rome, and few perhaps
at
of the writtenpetitionsever reached him; but the reply to every
prayer received, no matter what the character of the princeps,
whethera Hadrian or a Caracalla or Philip the ex-bandit, was one
assuring rescue, includinga command to the local authoritiesto
investigate and redress. Little came of these assurances,however,
for the princepswas at the mercyof the administrative machine;
and the problemof givingjustice to the subjects failed.
The sum of all imperial problemswas the protectionof the
world's civilizationfromexternalenemiesand internaldecay. The
decline of ancient civilizationsignifiesthat the problem was too
great or the capability Rome too limitedfor the task. Many are
of
the causes of declinealleged by the moderns;and far too oftenthe
investigator the thinker
or has displayedan inordinatejealousy in
behalf of his own contribution the list. "You are all wrong",
to
each one exclaims," myhorse is the onlygenuinehobby"; and soon
the junk-yardis filledwith mutually broken" one and onlies". It
is reasonable,however,that,as many formscontributed the up-
to
buildingof civilization, too its declinemusthave been due to the
so
co-operation various disintegrating
of movements. All the alleged
causes may in a varyingdegreebe true,onlylet theirclaims be less
intolerantand exclusive. Here two or threeof the moreprominent
suggestions may be considered.
Exhaustion of the soil: Undoubtedlythis holds true of vast
areas throughout Empire. But the ancientagriculturists
the under-
stood well the means of keeping up the soil, and were acquainted
even with artificialfertilizers. While acting as a disintegrating
force,soil-exhaustionwas the resultof a deepercause, of a material
force or psychologicalcondition, which led farmersto neglectthe
up-keepof theirholdings.
This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.52.71 on Thu, 15 Nov 2012 10:04:41 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

6. 776 G. W. Boisford
The degradationof the coloni to the conditionof serfs: This
was perhaps the most characteristic symptomof the decline. It
undoubtedly served as a cause but just as surelyit demandsexpla-
nation; for certainly the emperorsdid not for their own pleasure
reduce rural laborersen masse to serfdom, were drivento it by
but
hard necessity. The colonate, quite as much as soil-exhaustion,
proceededfroma more fundamental source.
One of the more fundamental causes was urbanizationdeliber-
ately pursued by the imperialadministration its most effective
as
means of assimilatingand of governingsubject populations. The
natives were attractedto the cityby its beauties and pleasures,its
theatres, gladiatorialshows,and wine-shops. In thisway the fields
were robbed of theircultivators and the citypopulation,in lack of
sufficient industriesfor theirprofitable employment, became a host
of parasites, dead weightupon the creativeand sustainingenergies
a
of the Empire.
Lack of industry an even moretellingfact. The ancientshad
is
a few simplemechanicaldevices,such as sails fortheirships,horse-
power for grindingsome of theirgrain, and the water-mill, which
they were more inclined to disuse than to develop. In contrast
with presentconditions, however,we can say that the inhabitants
of the Roman worldwere machineless, thateverything requiredhad
to be done by hand with the aid of domesticanimals. What this
meant for the Empire can only be appreciatedby imaginingwhat
the United States would be, or necessarily become,if we Americans
were reducedto the machineless condition the ancientworld.
of
For the maintenance the military
of force,the expensiveadmin-
istrativesystem,and the hosts of semi-parasites, the building
for
and repairof fortifications roads, and of the splendidstructures
and
in all the cities,a proportionallygreaterdemandwas made upon the
laborersthan had been necessaryin the pettystates of earliertime.
Our firstintimateacquaintance with the Roman world shows us
thatthe Empire was not wealthyand prosperous, poor; and the
but
more we studythe societyand economyof the localities,the more
the evidenceaccumulatesbeforeour eyes.
Augustus certainlycould have raised a sufficient number of
troops,withthe concomitant supplies,for the conquestof Germany
to the Elbe-no serious student of Roman historyever doubted
that; but in the end,if not fromthebeginning, concludedthat,in
he
the units of value with which he reckoned,it would not pay. A
vast expenditure lives and moneyin such an object ran contrary
of
to his policyof devoting possibleresourcesto the repairof dam-
all
This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.52.71 on Thu, 15 Nov 2012 10:04:41 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

7. RomanImperialism 777
ages caused by the devastating civil wars. The conquestof Britain
was littleor no economicgain to the Empire;4 the Danubian prov-
inces and othervast areas cost moreto govern and protect thanthey
were economically worth.
As everything had to be done by hand, with the aid of work-
animals, the marginbetween productionand consumption even in
prosperous seasons was extremelynarrow. Agriculturewas the
principalsource of gain; and we can see the imperialprocurators
painfullystrivingto increase the area of productivelands, as the
provinceof Africa in the timeof Vespasian and his immediate suc-
cessors. This is a leading object of the Lex Manciana drawn up
by orderof the princeps, probably Vespasian. Such measuresseem
to have succeeded in increasing productivity the Empire,but
the of
only for a time. The' heightof prosperity the imperialdomains
on
of Africa was evidently, reachedshortly afterVespasian, but it was
soon passed and the declinehad set in beforeHadrian; forthe chief
conoernof the Lex Hadriana is not so muchthe reclaiming wasteof
lands as of lands once cultivated abandoned. There are reasons
but
for believingthat the change for the worse which took place in
Africa about A. D. ioo was typicalfor a large part of the Empire.
The desertionof farms,however,was no novel phenomenon.
It was active in Sicily under the late Republic,and the cause was
not soil-exhaustion but the extortionsof the governorVerres and
his gang of leeches. Under the principateand Empire the deser-
tions continued. They were due in part to the attractions -the of
cities or of the free bandit life of mountainor border. We know
too that in many instancesthey were caused by oppression. The
predatory motiveof the administration survivedfromthe Republic,
and attainedto a new vigor withthe development a' complicated
of
of
machinery government. Where Bryce says, thatthe peasants of
the Empire were " exemptfromall exactions,save those of the tax-
gatherer he is far fromthe facts. Lacking adequate compensa-
",5
tion for expenses, travellingsoldiers and officials quarteredthem-
selves.on the inhabitants along theirvarious ways, and levied upon
men and work-animals the transportation theirgoods. These
for of
burdens were the moregallingas theywere capriciously levied,and
as the helplesspeasants were exposed in the process to all manner
of illegal extortionand brutal violence. Behind this omnipresent
grindingwas not only the inherent greed of bureaucrats, but with
the diminishing of
productivity the Empire an ever-growing need
of moneyand supplies,a hungerthatnevercould be satisfied.
4 Cf. Appian, Preface, 5.
5 Bryce, Studies in History and Jurisprudence,
p. 20O
This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.52.71 on Thu, 15 Nov 2012 10:04:41 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

8. 778 G. W. Botsford
The conditionabove describedwas intensified depopulation
by
due to the ravages of pestilence,to the great mortality cities
of
under imperfect sanitation,and the existenceof conditionsin city
andcountrywhichdiscouragedmarriage the rearinlg families.
and of
Possibly with greater intelligencesomethingmight have been
devised to lessen the fundamental-evil; but the most deplorable
accompaniment and cause of decline was steady,irresistible dwin-
dling of knowledge and mentality. In pre-Romantimesthe Greek
republicsand local dynasts,whethertyrantsor kings, encouraged
and scienceto such an extentthatthe civilizedworld
art,literature,
was thickly dottedover withintellectual centres. The Roman con-
quest destroyed greaterpart of this intellectual
the life,for example
at Tarentum,Syracuse, and Pergamum; and the Roman adminis-
trationrepressedand discouragedthe littlethat survived. In the
absence of an extensive reading putblic authorshipcannot thrive
withoutthe patronage of the wealthy. The imperialgovernment
refusedpatronageto local talentand, afterAugustus,gave littleaid
to the promotion literature
of and in'telligence the capital. The
in
foundingof an occasional library, the endowment a chair of
or of
rhetoric, was a poor substitutefor the whole-souledco-operation
formerly given by the Republic. Imperial negligencewas attended
and reinforced an almost Egyptian-like
by conservatism, adora-
an
tion of the wisdom of past ages, so that authors almost ceased to
collectnew factsby observation limitedthemselves
but substantially
to .the study of old 'books. Short-cutsto knowledgebecame the
vogue. Compendiaof science and epitomesof historiansmade the
originals unnecessary, that they were not perpetuated. From
so
the verybeginning Roman rule many who were inclinedby na-
of
tureand taste to a literary intellectual
or career devotedthemselves
insteadto money-making.The Empiretherefore lacked the knowl-
edge and the intellectualpower necessary for the solving of its
problems. A mach'inelike the water-mill, instead of developing,
was disused. Skilled work became crude and finallybarbarous;
and in proportion the increase of ignoranceand barbarismthe
to
productsof the Empire declinedin both quantityand quality.
GEORGE W. BOTSFORD.
This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.52.71 on Thu, 15 Nov 2012 10:04:41 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions