Matter and Materials

Everything consists of

of elements (except
group 8) are not found
alone.
ts
Chemical

en
on
p d
om de
c n
re bo
bonds

a s
nit
ru .
ge lly
ar ica
fl m
o e
DocScientia p 14
ch

with high Ep bond together,
then existing bonds are broken.
Octet rule:
New bonds join

molecules with
Chemical
bondinto
lower Ep.
Cℓ
s

DocScientia p 14

A chemical bond occurs when bond
together to form a new substance with
new properties and in so doing have a
noble gas electron structure and a lower
Ep.

DocScientia p 14 Chemical bonds

A model
describes an idea
or thought
Bonding
models

DocScientia p 14

Covalent bond

DocScientia p 14

Between non-metals
-
Smallest e are shared
Covalent bond
particle is
a molecule.
have half-filled orbitals that
overlap to form a filled orbital
-
e negativity Polar or
DocScientia p 14

must be the non-polar
same or the bonds form
diff. < 1,9

DocScientia p 15
Ionic bond

Ionic bond Between metal and non-metal
-
e are transferred
Cations →
electrostatic
force/coulomb NON-METALS:
force → anions High electron
e- negativity > 2,1

●

METALS: e affinity
● Low ionisation
cl
i ● Accept e-
art
energy p anions
t ●
● Donate e-
l es
al n
DocScientia p 15

● cation
m o
S i
=

Negativity: Affinity:

e- removed e-
accepted,
Energy
required in Payment
payment in energy

DocScientia p 15

Metallic bond

Between metals
Metallic bond Low ionisation energy – form

cations
+ core and  of delocalised e-

Empty valence orbitals –
e- move from one to the
DocScientia p 15

next

DocScientia p 15

Valence electrons

4 n
3 +

Valence electrons
e-
T
R
A
Outermost energy level
#c
nu orre
mb s p
er ond
N of st
the o
shared
S ele grou
F
E
during a me p
nt
R
reaction
DocScientia p 15

R
E
D

Valency
No sign
# e- involved
DocScientia p 16

in a reaction

DocScientia p 16

Lewis

Lewis Nucleus and core e : -

represented by the atom's symbol

Valence e ( ) are
-

N
placed around the
symbol

placed,
have all been
Until they
One
at a
DocScientia p 16

time
Or all four sides are occupied.

Lewis Choose the central atom
1
2
Determine total # of valence
e- in the molecule or ion
Place the shared electron
pairs between bonded atoms 3
4
Remaining valence electrons drawn as
lone pairs, so each atom (except H) is
surrounded by 8 e-

With double/triple bonds,
5
DocScientia p 16

lone pairs will be less.
Lewis structures

Lewis Determine the smallest
electronegativity – middle.
Rest go around
1

Valence electrons 2
Resonance structures

Bonding electrons between
atoms 3
DocScientia p 16

-
Spread remaining e in octet
around atoms 4

Lewis
[ ]
?
-
ONO NO 3
3,0 3,5

5N

O
Resonance structures
18 O

+1
This can happen to any of the oxygen neg.
atoms. charge
Only ALL 3 structures describes the actual
bond.
This is called resonance structures, and
DocScientia p 16

when drawn, all three options should be
done, with double arrows between to
show the fact that the true structure is a
mix of the three.

Atoms with an empty orbital in the
valence energy level
can share a lone pair with another
H atom/molecule.

H HNH
H
H NH
+

H
[ ]
Dative covalent
DocScientia p 22

VSEPR
HA
A
E
L
E
P
Predict shapes of covalent
L
E E and radicals
E U
molecules C
N L T I S L

R
C O R O I

E L N
DocScientia p 24
N

The
electron
pairs Bonding e-
around the
central
Main
Repel Lone pairs
atom in a
a
molecule
determine 
theshape of the molecule
n
g
le
c a u s es s
e- arrange themselves
as far apart as possible
DocScientia p 24

# electron pairs that
surround an

DocScientia p 24 Electron pair geometry

# that surround a
central

Also coordination number
DocScientia p 24 Molecular geometry

Repulsion strengths
Lone pair-Lone pair > Lone pair-Bond pair
> Bond pair-Bond pair

Triple bond >double bond >single bond

DocScientia p 24

Central atom with Two Electron Pairs

There are two electron pairs in the valence shell of
Beryllium. [1s2 2s2 ]
Molecular geometry-Linear arrangement

180°

H Be H

DocScientia p 24

Central atom with Three Electron Pairs

Three electron pairs in the valence shell of
Boron. [1s2 2s2 2p1 ]
Molecular geometry- Trigonal Planar
arrangement
F

120°
B
F F
DocScientia p 24

Central atom with Four Electron Pairs
Four electron pairs in the valence shell of
Carbon. [1s2 2s2 2p2 ]
Molecular geometry- Tetrahedral
Bond angle -109.5⁰

DocScientia p 24

Central atom with Five Electron Pairs
Five electrons in the valence shell of
Phosphorus. [1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 ]
Molecular geometry- Trigonal bipyramid
Bond angle -120⁰ &90⁰

DocScientia p 24

Central atom with Six Electron Pairs
Six electrons in the valence shell of
Sulfur. [1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 ]
Molecular geometry- Octahedral
Bond angle-90⁰

DocScientia p 24

Electronegativity The pull of an on a shared
pair of electrons. Indication of
Influenced by: bonding ability.
● Size of charge of
# is on your
nucleus periodic
● Size of
table

No units
decreases
increases
Periodic table
DocScientia p 29

Difference predicts what
type of bond will form
between
Bond Difference in
electronegativity
Non-polar covalent =0
Covalent and weak polar <1
Polar covalent >1 <2,1
Ionic – transfer of e- >2,1

DocScientia p 29

Difference in
electronegativity
B
What determines
o
polarity? n
Shape d
of the molecule
DocScientia p 30
s

Repulsive forces

Attractive forces
F
O
R
C
E
S
DocScientia p 36

Chemical bonds
happen
when two or
more nuclei
attract an e-
W
br hen
poea b
en k on
ch tia /fo d
t
stores
an l en rm s potential
g erg ,
es y energy
.

DocScientia p 37

OB – bond length
dissociation
BM – bond energy
Potential energy (kJ)

B Distance between nuclei
0
N P
M
bonding
Molecule most stable position
DocScientia p 37

Bond strength =
measured by seeing
how much energy is necessary
to break the bond between two atoms.

DocScientia p 38

Bond energy =
the energy needed
to break a bond.
DocScientia p 38

Bond energy
size weak

Bond length
strong

Order: 1→2→3
DocScientia p 38

Bond length=
Distance between the
two nuclei of
the atoms bonding
DocScientia p 38

Bond length
Individual radii

Bond order:
The higher the
order, the shorter
the bond length.
DocScientia p 38

Poly-atomic
Diatomic molecules vibrate
molecules Cannot absorb
in different ways.
move by
stretching
infrared Unequal
stretch or
and
contracting Molecules that bend =
equally. can dipole
absorb/reflect moments
infrared =
No dipole greenhouse Infrared =
moments
gases.
absorbed
DocScientia p 39

forces

DocScientia p 46 Intermolecular forces

Ionic and metallic bonds are strong
-1
(400 – 4 000 kJ.mol )
usually found as solids.

IM forces are mainly
found between small
covalent molecules.
DocScientia p 46

Ion-dipole force 1
Ion-induced dipole 2
Types

force

Van der Waals force
DocScientia p 46
3

Types of van Dipole-dipole 1
der waals force
Dipole-induced
dipole force 2
Induced dipole
DocScientia p 46 forces (London) 3

Particles Type of bond

Ions Coulomb forces

Ion and polar molecule Ion-dipole

Two polar molecules Dipole-dipole

Ion and non-polar molecule Ion-induced dipole

Polar and non-polar Dipole-induced dipole
molecule
Non-polar molecules London (dispersion) forces

DocScientia p 47

Ion-dipole forces
Dipole
approaches
a positive or
a negative
ion.

240 pm
84 kJ

DocScientia p 47

Ion-induced An ion approaching an atom or

dipole forces
molecule, it affects the electron
cloud around the atom, causing a
temporary dipole.

+ δ- δ+

DocScientia p 47

Dipole-dipole If two dipoles

forces
approach
each other,
they will turn
so that their
δ- oppositely
charged ends
5 – 25 kJ.mol-1
will be closer.
δ+
An attractive
force will
exist between
these
DocScientia p 47 dipoles.

Dipole-induced Polar molecules can induce a

dipole forces
temporary dipole in a non-polar
molecule/atom. Usually a very
weak force.

δ- δ+ δ- δ+

DocScientia p 47

Induced dipole When 2 non-
forces (London)
The greater the
polar atoms/ molecule, the greater
molecules the attraction. Only
approach, seen in the absence of
there is a other forces.
slight change
in the
electron
cloud of both Ne Ne
molecules or
atoms.
Temporary.
DocScientia p 47

Hydrogen bonds H
F F

δ+ H δ-
δ- H
H
δ+ δ+
F

F
δ-

Hydrogen to a small atom with
extremely high electronegativity. (N,
O, F) Electrostatic force between δ-
atom in the molecule and the H in
the other. Very strong, but weaker
DocScientia p 47
than covalent and ionic bonds.

nfluence of intermolecular

forces on

DocScientia p 55
In
c re

Phase
as
De e
cr
ea
se

In
c re
as
e
De
cr
ea
se

Molecule size only affects

forces on van der Waals forces
DECREASE

F Cl Br I

INCREASE

Molecule size
DocScientia p 55


forces on

DocScientia p 55
Density
Decreasse


forces on
B.P. increase when molecular size increase.
H2S is smaller than H2Se and so on.
All these molecules have weak
100 H2O van der Waals forces.
B.P. Of H2O is higher than expected.
H2O have strong hydrogen bonds.

H2Te
H2Se

-50 H2S

B.P.
DocScientia p 55

nfluence of intermolecular M.P. increase when molecular size increase.

forces on
HCl is smaller than HBr and so on.
All these molecules have weak van der
-25 HI Waals forces.
M.P. Of HF is
HF higher than
expected.
HBr HF have strong
hydrogen bonds.

-75 HCl

M.P.
DocScientia p 55

because IM forces weaken.
Temp. increases, viscocity decreases

forces on
Long, polar molecules: forces =
greater, and viscosity is higher.
Polarity =
stronger
attractive
forces, and
long chains
become
tangled.

Viscosity Indication of
resistance to flow.
DocScientia p 55


forces on
Degree of The more The
expansion energy a particles
depends particle has, separate,
on material the IM force causing an
type. weaken. increase in
volume.

Material expands
on heating.
Thermal expansion
DocScientia p 55


forces on
Covalent structures have no free e-
and therefore are bad conductors.

Exceptions: diamond
and graphite.
Thermal conductors
DocScientia p 55

Microscopic properties of
water. Covalent
bond

DocScientia p 70

water. Angular
shape

DocScientia p 70

water. Hydrogen
bonds

DocScientia p 70

water. Greenhouse
gas

DocScientia p 70

How many water molecules
in 1 ℓ of water? 1 ℓ = 1000 g
-1
M = 18,02 g.mol
(H2O)
n = m/M
= 1000/18,02
= 55,5 mol

DocScientia p 71

Cause of moderate climate on  P
r
o
# of energy needed to p
e
change the temperature r
t
of 1 kg of a substance i
Help organisms to by 1 °C e
effectively regulate s
body temp.
of
Specific heat capacity definition
DocScientia p 71 water

P
Water = high r
latent heat
o
p
e
Heat absorbed/releasedr
during phase changes. t
i
e
Water releases heat slowly s
when it cools down. of
Latent heat

M.P. B.P. P
r
Large amounts of energy required o
to break HB.
Essential for life p
Points are on  – otherwise e
therefore r
H2O would be in
t
higher than the gaseous state. i
expected. e
s
Strong hydrogen bonds of

D P
r
e o
p
n e
s r
t
i i
e
t s

y of

water
DocScientia p 72

Adhesion and cohesion P
r
Forces between two different o
types of molecules p
e
r
t
i
Forces between the same type
of molecule. e
s
of


Surface action P
r
o
Due to the p
cohesive forces e
of molecules r
on the surface of t
a volume i
e
of water. s
of


Capillary action P
r
Tendency to rise in a tube o
as a result of surface p
tension – i.e. adhesive e
properties of water. r
t
i
e
s
of


Ideal
gases
and thermal
properties
DocScientia p 85

v and EK
Small
= different
particles

KMT
for
individual
Continuous motion particles.
Avg. EK =
Empty spaces constant
between particles if temp =
forces constant

lastic collisions
Motion
DocScientia p 85 Of particles

Condensation of
gases
Gases fill the

KMT
whole container
B
R M
O O
W T
N I
I O
A
N N
Di f f u s i o n

DocScientia p 85
Explains

Receive energy

Temperature and
avg. EK

Individual

T α EK EK

Avg. E K
DocScientia p 86 and temperature

2
EK = ½ mv
T α EK
2
T α ½ mv
Avg. E K
DocScientia p 86 and temperature

Properties:
➔Particles = identical in
Real gas:
every way Approach ideal
➔Only occupies volume
gas behaviour
due to motion of when:
particles; ➢ Low

particles themselves temperatures
= no volume ➢ High pressure

➔No forces

➔Collisions are

perfectly elastic
Ideal gas
DocScientia p 86 model

Low temperature:
➔EK decrease
High pressure:
➔Collisions ➢ Particles' own volume
decrease contributes to total
volume of the gas, = larger.
➔Pressure = lower
➢ Larger particles =

➔Move closer stronger intermolecular forces
➢ Liquefaction occurs – gas
together experiences high pressure
➔Attractive forces under critical temp.
increase –
could cause
condensation
Ideal gas
DocScientia p 86 model

pV

Ideal gas
DocScientia p 86 p model

V

DocScientia p 86
P

V

1/p
DocScientia p 86

p

DocScientia p 86
1/V

V

DocScientia p 86
T

For comparisons, temp. and pressure
have to be identical – STP

V&p
0°C/273K, and
101,3 kPa

DocScientia p 91

Pressure = # collisions against a

F
container per unit time.

p= A -2
1 Pa = 1 N.m
DocScientia p 91

Temperature =
constant.
Avg. EK = same

Volume (cm3)
V o l um e
collisions
pV

Pressure

1/p (kPa-1)
Pressure (kPa)

DocScientia p 94

The volume of an
enclosed mass of gas is
inversely proportional to

the pressure of the gas,
provided the temperature
DocScientia p 94 Boyle's Law

V α1/p
More than one set:
pV=k

p1V1 = p2V2
DocScientia p 94

Volume (cm3)
High temp.
Diff. temperatures

Med. temp.

Low temp.

1/p (kPa-1)
DocScientia p 94

Volume and temp. 3
V (cm )

-273 °C

DocScientia p101 T (°C)

Volume and temp. VαT
V = kT

V1 = V 2
K T =T
1 2
DocScientia p 101

The volume of a fixed mass
of gas is directly proportional to the
temperature of the gas,
Charles' Law

provided to pressure remains

constant.

DocScientia p 101

Charle's Law

DocScientia p 101

Temp. and pressure

DocScientia p102

Pressure of a constant volume
Temp. and pressure
of gas with a fixed mass is
directly proportional to the

absolute temperature.

DocScientia p 102

p (kPa)
Temp. and pressure
Absolute
zero

Extrapolation

-273 °C

DocScientia p102 T (°C)

Absolute zero
The absolute zero is the
lowest possible
temperature
that any substance can ever reach.

DocScientia p 102

Because absolute zero is -273°C,
a scale was created where
Temp. and pressure
absolute zero is actually zero.
Kelvin scale (K)
Pressure (kPa)

Temperature (K)

DocScientia p102

Guy-Lussac's Law Temperature in K is
directly proportional
to the pressure of an enclosed
mass of gas, provided the
volume remains constant.

DocScientia p103

Represented
by a t
Kelvin temp scale

-273 0 100 °C
0 273 373 K

T = t + 273
Represented
t = T - 273 by a T

DocScientia p103

Factors that determine the pressure of a
gas:

# of collisions
Intensity of collisions

Pressure, Volume
and temperature
DocScientia p106

Boyle's Law:

p 1V 1 = p 2V 2

Pressure, Volume
and temperature
DocScientia p106

Charles' Law:

V1 = V 2
T1 T2
Pressure, Volume
and temperature
DocScientia p106

Guy-Lussac's Law:

p1 = p 2
T1 T2
Pressure, Volume
and temperature
DocScientia p106

p 1V 1 = p 2V 2
T1 T2
Pressure, Volume
and temperature
DocScientia p106

pV α T
pV = kT

Ideal gas Law
DocScientia p106

k depends on the # of molecules
k can therefore be substituted
with n (the # of moles) and R,
which is the general gas
constant.

pV = nRT
Ideal gas Law
DocScientia p106

mol K

pV = nRT
Pa

3
m 8,31

Ideal gas Law
DocScientia p106

Textbook: DocScientia, Grade 11 workbook, 2013

Images: attempt has been made to acknowledge all
sources, if an image's source could not be found, it was
acknowledged as such.

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