Community Environmental Monitoring

Community Environmental
Monitoring
During the Mining Life Cycle
A presentation prepared for
IPCM 2015, Quezon City, Philippines
30 July, 2015
by
Mark Muller
mmuller.earthsci@gmail.com

Scope of presentation – Community monitoring during the mining cycle
Stage in Mining
Life-cycle
Environmental
Impact
Exploration
Construction
Operation and
Production
Closure and
Rehabilitation
Water Pollution
Soil Pollution
Air Pollution
Biodiversity
Degradation

Early-stage exploration: what does it look like?
STREAM SEDIMENT
SAMPLING
AIRBORNE
GEOPHYSICAL
SURVEYS
GEOLOGICAL MAPPING
ROCK SAMPLING
LOW
IMPACT

Early- to mid-stage exploration: trenching
Impacts:
•  Scarring of landscape
•  Loss of vegetation
•  Potential for initiating erosion if
trenching on steep topography
•  Properly rehabilitated?
International Gold Exploration AB, IGE in Burundi.
There is quite a lot that
communities can do at this
stage to understand what the
future might hold….

What non-specialists can do – during early exploration (Years 1 – 2)
Evidence of early exploration (Year 1) activity may take the form of:
• Geologists doing field mapping
• Teams collecting soil samples in fields and on river banks
• Teams with instruments collecting geophysical data on the ground
• Light airplanes/helicopters flying in patterns over the area collecting geophysical data.
Evidence of more advanced exploration activity (Year 2):
• One or two exploration boreholes being drilled in fields
• Digging of exploration trenches, e.g., 2 to 3 m deep, 1 m wide, 50 to 100 m long.
What you (as a non-specialist) can do:
• Speak to the geologists/geophysicists on the ground and with pilots and operators if you
know which airport they’re using. Speak to the drillers. Often contracted drillers/
geologists/geophysicists who may be less reticent in their discussions.
• Local people are often employed to help with sample/data collection – speak to them
too.
• Questions to ask: which company are you working for, which areas are you covering
with the surveys, what geophysical instruments are you using, how deep are you drilling
(or how many drill rods are you using), are you drilling for core or chip samples?
• Take photographs or video records of e.g., drilling rigs and the immediate environs,
exploration trenches, geophysical survey equipment and operations.
Extracts from presentation to CAFOD Workshop on Mining Impacts and Community Responses, 11 July, 2013, London.

What non-specialists and specialists can do – early exploration (Years 1 – 2)
If there is community concern about what is going on at this stage, you
can (as a non-specialist):
(Note: it may or may not be obvious what mineral commodity is being targeted)
• Access exploration licence records from government agencies à will indicate which
company is involved (and sometimes the commodity being explored for).
• Take all information to a specialist for advice if needed.
• Is it the right time to start considering the community’s response to the prospect of
mining? Is it the right time to express community dissatisfaction and concerns about the
project and/or take actions against further work?
What a specialist can do:
Exploration geologist or geophysicist, mining geologist or mining “generalist”:
• Based on knowledge of the geological setting, age of rocks, previous exploration or
mining activities in the area, the nature of the exploration activity à identify the most
likely orebody type or mineral commodity being targeted.
• Based on a reasonable assumption of the type of orebody à anticipate the most likely
mining depths, mining method and processing approaches that will be used à early
indication of potential risks and impacts.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Mud_Pitt_with_Fly_Ash.JPG
Mid- to late-stage exploration: drilling
Mud tank or mud pit:
•  Contains drilling “mud” – a combination of fine rock
material and (often toxic) chemical additives required
to give the drilling fluid the right density and viscosity
properties.
•  Drilling mud poses an environmental risk: Rivers and
soils will be become contaminated if the mud-pit
overflows in heavy rains or if the pit-lining fails.

Mid- to late-stage exploration: drilling
•  Significant modification to
landscape: terraces cut into
hill-sides to establish drilling
pads
→ potential for erosion.
Isolated well pad with access road.

Late exploration: very high drilling density
300 m
2.3 km
1.5 km
Project area and drill-holes overlaid on geological map
Source of image: AngloGold Ashanti Site Visit Guide, November 2011.
La Colosa project (AngloGold Ashanti),
Tolima Province, Colombia:
•  Very high drilling density: 100 x 100 m
spacing. 50 x 50 m planned in anticipation
of feasibility study.
The project is being fiercely resisted.
•  Permanent modification of landscape
through development of support
infrastructure: access roads, exploration
camp.
•  AngloGold Ashanti have in this project, in
fact, placed many of their rigs on stilt
platforms.
•  Drilling on elevated ridge: high risk of river
water contamination if drilling mud is
released though mud-pit overflow or
leakage.
This has not happened yet.

Exploration drilling and drilling fluids
•  Drilling mud is, in varying degrees, toxic, depending on the chemicals added.
•  Three types: Oil based mud (OBM) (petroleum products, often diesel or derivatives),
Synthetic (oil) Based Mud (SBM) and Water Based Mud (WBM) (often rock or
mineral powders or gum and sugar polymers).
•  It is difficult and expensive to dispose of in an environmentally friendly manner.
•  It should be noted that no type of oil/synthetic based mud (or drilled cuttings
contaminated with OBM/SBM) may be dumped in the North Sea. Contaminated mud
must either be shipped back to shore in skips or processed on the rigs.
•  It is clear – OBM/SBM and mud cannot be disposed into the environment – it must be
removed from site entirely.

Exploration drilling and drilling fluids
•  Drilling mud is, in varying degrees, toxic, depending on the chemicals added.
•  Three types: Oil based mud (OBM) (petroleum products, often diesel or derivatives),
Synthetic (oil) Based Mud (SBM) and Water Based Mud (WBM) (often rock or
mineral powders or gum and sugar polymers).
•  It is difficult and expensive to dispose of in an environmentally friendly manner.
•  It should be noted that no type of oil/synthetic based mud (or drilled cuttings
contaminated with OBM/SBM) may be dumped in the North Sea. Contaminated mud
must either be shipped back to shore in skips or processed on the rigs.
•  It is clear – OBM/SBM and mud cannot be disposed into the environment – it must be
removed from site entirely.
•  There is clearly some risk of pollution of river systems once drilling starts, and
the risk increases as the drilling effort and density increases.
•  When is the right time for communities to start thinking about water
monitoring?
•  Should monitoring effort be expended when a large number of exploration
projects never become mines, even after a very significant amount of late
stage drilling?

Mineral extraction: from mining to metal
Figure from Spitz and Trudinger, 2009.
MINING
MINERAL
CONCENTRATE
METALLURGICAL EXTRACTION
E.g., smelting
MINE
WASTES
MINERAL
PROCESSING
ROCK DUMP ORE
WASTE
ROCK
TAILINGSTAILINGS DAM
Tailings storage facility (TSF)
METAL
E.g., gold
processing with
cyanide
METAL

Toquepala copper mine
from Google Maps.
Open-pit mine: Toquepala copper mine, southern Peru
MINE
Open-pit
Rock dumps
Processing plant
TAILINGS DAM
10 km

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/3000/3869/
ISS007-E-15222_lrg.jpg
Astronaut photograph taken
from the International Space
Station on September 22,
2003 of the Toquepala
copper mine, showing the
steep-sided, terraced open-pit
mine within the arid slopes of
the central Andes mountains.
At the surface the open pit is
2.5 kilometers across, and it
descends more than 700
meters into the earth.
Image source and permission:
NASA.
Open-pit mine: Toquepala copper mine, southern Peru
Rock dumps
Rock dumps
Processing plant

Image source and permission: NASA.
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/3000/3869/
ISS007-E-15222_lrg.jpg
A very large spatial area (huge in
extent with respect to the size of the
orebody) is appropriated for:
- the open pit itself
- rock dumps and tailings dams
- processing plants.
Physical disruption to the
landscape includes
- Loss of vegetation and flora and
fauna biodiversity.
- Large quantities of dust due to
removal of vegetation and milling of
rock into fine particles easily
transported by wind.
Physical disruption of surface water
drainage systems
- Diversion of rivers around the mine.
- Potential for reduced delivery of
water into rivers.
- Potential for increased sediment-load
in rivers downstream of the mine due
to water runoff from un-vegetated
slopes, with impact on riverine biota.
Large open-pit mine footprint and physical disruption of landscape
2.5 km
Orebody
Open-pit
Direct mine footprint

“False colour” satellite image
from Google Maps.
2.5 km
The dispersion of dust, metallic
sulphides and other aerosols away
from the immediate vicinity of the
mine impacts badly on soil quality
and on agricultural plants and
crops.
Clearly visible is the
wide dispersal of
material (pale blue
and white colours)
away from the mine
by wind, rivers and
vehicle transport
along roads.

“Waste-rock” is rock emerging from the mine that will not be
processed further. It is either “ore” that is below the cut-off grade,
or is simply the barren host-rock to the mineral deposit.
Rock dumps contain an wide variety of different rocks and minerals that
is site specific, depending on the nature of the ore deposit and the
host-rock. If sulphide minerals are present in any of the rocks,
there is the potential for acid mine drainage.
Image from: http://technology.infomine.com/WasteRockDumps/
Generally rock dumps
are not sealed at their
base, and the risk of acid
water incursion into the
surface drainage system or
subsurface aquifers is very
high.
Rock dumps are also
highly porous to water
and oxygen flow, and
therefore increases
significantly the risk of AMD
production.
Waste-rock disposal – rock dumps

Acid Mine Drainage
FeS2 + 15/4 O2 + 7/2 H2O Fe(OH)3 + 2 H2SO4 + energy
Water
Atmospheric
oxygen
Pyrite
+ other sulphides
+ bacteria
Sulphuric acid
+ iron and other metals dissolved in water
Mine dump,
St. Kevin Gulch,
Colorado, USA
http://toxics.usgs.gov/photo_gallery/photos/upper_ark/mine_dump_lg.jpg
Pyrite + Oxygen + Water Iron-hydroxide + Sulphuric acid + heat
(solid) (dissolved) (liquid) (dissolved) (dissolved)
Iron plus many other dissolved metals end up in waters

Typically a “plume” of contaminated acidic water and precipitated
waste products is developed below and around a rock dump.
Schematic cross-section of a sulphide waste dump showing a plume of acid water seeping
into the ground. Also shown is how various subsurface minerals (at this particular site) help
to buffer, or neutralise, the acid. The initial highly acidic pH value of 1, directly below the
dump, is buffered back to a neutral pH value of 7 at some depth below the dump.
Figure from Lottermoser, 2007, reproduced from Jurjovec et al., 2002.
Potential for lateral migration
of contaminated or acidic
water within subsurface
aquifers
SURFACE
DUMP
Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) beneath rock dumps

Monitoring of sulphidic rock dumps for oxidation and acid generation
Water analysis to monitor
acid and metallic ion buildup
in drainage channels and
surface water.
Monitoring of
water quality in
aquifers using
boreholes.
Temperature profiles
using electrical probes.
Increasing temperatures
indicate heat generation by
oxidation reactions.
Pore gas sampling
to determine oxygen
concentration. Decreasing
concentrations indicate
consumption of oxygen by
oxidation reactions.
ACQUIFER
DUMP
Sulphidic waste rock dumps and tailings dams need monitoring during operation to
detect at the earliest time whether waste material is “turning acid”.
Rehabilitated waste repositories also need monitoring for decades after mine closure
to establish the effectiveness of the control measures used to curtail oxidation.
DRY COVER
But there is no guarantee, even with best-practice monitoring, that Acid Mine Drainage will not
occur or that remediation measures will be successful if monitoring does indicate acid generation.

Tailings dams – construction
Mature, but active,
tailings dams located
south of Johannesburg,
South Africa. These
dams are receiving the
final tailings products of
the reprocessing of
numerous old mine-
dumps spread around
Johannesburg. The
mines were closed in
the 1960s.
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/2399572

Antamina copper-zinc Mine, Peru. Currently, the dam wall is undergoing its 4th
dam heightening to 215 m height. Final height expected to reach 240 m, with 1.3
km length. Seismic resistance is 0.48g, equivalent to Magnitude 8 earthquake on
the Richter scale with its epicentre beneath the dam at 65 km depth. Designed to
withstand the maximum probable flood even when all dam bypass-channels fail.
Mine will recover 575 million tones of copper-zinc ore over 24 years – producing 570
million tones of tailings.
Tailings dams – construction – valley fill
Figures from: Eldridge et al., 2003. Operation at the
Antamina Copper-Zinc Mine in Central Peru.
1.3 km

Tailings dams – construction
Tailings dam at Chatree
Gold Mine (Thailand)
shortly after
commissioning, showing
under-drains installed in
a herring-bone pattern.
Under-drains significantly
improve water drainage
from the tailings dam,
thereby reducing water
saturation of tailings
sediments and improving
geotechnical strength and
safety of the dam.
Figure from Spitz and Trudinger, 2009.
(i)  drains beneath the dam walls,
(ii)  double liners under the dam, with a leak detection system between layers,
(iii)  under-drains at the base of the tailings and a liquid recovery system.
Best practice tailings dam construction will consist of:

Tailings dams – water balance and acid development
Figure modified from Spitz and Trudinger, 2009.
Drainage
ditch
Liner
Hill-side
SATURATED ZONE
UNSATURATED
ZONE
High potential for sulphide
oxidation and acid development in
area immediately above saturated
zone
Dam-wall may be saturated at its
base, particularly if the decant
pond is too close to it – saturation
weakens the strength of the wall
Water extracted for re-use
from decant pond
Water exchange below the
tailings dam depends on
permeability of the liner
Tailings dams remain wet during their entire operational life, and only start drying out
after decommissioning.
Contamination-plumes below tailings dams are normally much reduced compared to
rock-dumps, due to the low porosity of tailings materials and the low
permeability of the liner at the base of the tailings dams. Not all tailings dams
have linings (e.g., Didipio Mine, Philippines).
Precipitation of salts at
edge of decant pool
Beach

Impacts on surface drainage and subsurface aquifers
OPEN-PIT
ROCK DUMP
TAILINGS DAM
WATER-TABLE
10’s of kilometres
Low pH (acidic) waters with high
dissolved metal content
Dry
borehole
(1)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(1)  Depression of water-table through de-watering of the mine (these waters may subsequently be
used for mineral processing) and/or through the extraction of groundwater for mineral
processing – reduced flow from springs and reduced recharge of rivers by springs. Dry boreholes.
(2)  Accumulation of acidic waters in open-pit – will need to be purified before pumping away from the
mine.
(3)  River waters may also be extracted for processing purposes – reduction in the availability of water
for domestic and agricultural use.
(4)  Erosion and acidic water run-off from rock dumps into rivers and subsequent entry into the
groundwater system – water contamination.
(5)  Percolation of acidic waters into the groundwater system directly below rock dumps. (Note: rock
dumps are seldom lined with impermeable barriers at their base) – water contamination.
(6)  Acidic seepage from tailings dams into rivers and groundwater system – water contamination.
(7)  Acidic seepage from heap-leach pads into rivers and groundwater system – water contamination.
(Note: tailings dams and heap leach pads should be lined with impermeable barriers and equipped with
drainage systems at their base to prevent leakage. However seepage and failure of the lining can and
does occur)
(6)
HEAP-LEACH PADS
(7)(2)
LINING

Water testing and monitoring – how should it be done?
Upstream river water sampling point
Upstream borehole groundwater sampling
Downstream river water sampling point
Downstream borehole groundwater sampling
Mining company’s duties:
•  Monitor water quality in
accordance with their
Environmental Impact
Management Plan (EIMP)
•  Regularly take water
samples for laboratory
chemical analysis from
both “upstream” and
“downstream” sample
localities.
•  Report results to state/
provincial regulatory
authorities.
•  These same localities
should have been sampled
for at least one year before
mine construction started –
to provide a water quality
baseline.
Uncontaminated baseline
Potentially contaminated

Community testing and monitoring for water contamination
What can We do?
•  Use the same strategy!
•  Identify and use “people’s” technology for water testing and
monitoring (to replace laboratory analysis).
•  Accuracy and ease-of-use of available technology is very
variable and tests are not available for all contaminants. But
tools and instruments do currently exist – there is hope!
•  Monitor long-term to identify when changes occur in water quality and to support burden of
proof.
•  Simple tools can provide early warning of problems – that can be followed up with sampling
and laboratory analysis in order to define and understand the nature of the contamination.
•  Laboratory analysis might be necessary if companies and authorities don’t accept the
reliability of communities’ information and to carry greater legal weight.
•  Peoples’ scientists can design a sampling strategy, train community users and can provide
backup and support (data can easily be shared by email/internet). But scientists need to
mobilise more coherently to provide reliable, long-term support to a broad community of
people.

Camlab
Limited.

Camlab
House,
Norman
Way
Industrial
Estate,
Over,
Cambridge
CB24
5WE.

h@p://www.camlab.co.uk/

Disadvantages
•  Low accuracy
•  Some are “qualitative” tests only – yes/no above
a threshold. (Although, can use “dilution-by-half”
for semi-quantitative estimates)
•  Some tests have high detection limit
(concentrations need to be high for detection)
•  Not ideal for long term monitoring
Water testing and monitoring – available technology – testing strips and kits
Test for a wide range of water
constituents
•  pH (acidity)
•  Many different dissolved metal ions
•  Hardness
Advantages
•  Easy to use
•  Relatively cheap £15 – £50
for 100 tests

Water testing and monitoring – available technology – portable digital meters
Hanna
Primo5
Conduc/vity
Tester

-‐  Range
0-‐1999
µS/cm
(0
to
60°C
)

-‐  Resolu:on
1
µS/cm

-‐  Calibra:on
using
standard
solu:on.

-‐  £40.56
incl.
VAT
(Camlab
Ltd.)

Hanna
pH
Checker
1

-‐  Range
0-‐14
pH

-‐  Resolu:on
0.01
pH,
Accuracy
±0.2
pH

-‐  2-‐Point
calibra:on
using
buﬀer
solu:ons

-‐  BaKery:
2
x
1.5V

3,000
hours
baKery
life

-‐  £42.60
incl.
VAT
(Camlab
Ltd.)

pH – Water acidity
•  No WHO standard. pH>10 and pH<4
produces adverse affects on human
health. Clean water 6.5<pH<8.5.
•  Easy to use, objective, accurate
(±0.1to ±0.2 pH), cost effective,
long battery life.
•  Costs: £7 to £199.
Total Dissolved Solids
e.g., Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, Fe2+/3+, Mn2+,
HCO3
-, SO4
2-, NO3
-, Cl-
•  No WHO standard. “TDS concentration
below 1000 mg/litre is usually
acceptable to consumers”.
•  Electrical conductivity measured as
proxy for TDS concentration.
•  Easy to use, objective, accurate,
cost effective, long battery life.
•  Costs: £4 to £220.

Water testing and monitoring – technology survey
Testing
paper/kits
or
meters
Long-‐term
monitoring

instruments
PRODUCTS
OF
ACID
MINE
DRAINAGE
High
acidity
(Low
pH)
waters YES
-‐
testing
kits
and
pH
meters
YES
-‐
probes Direct
High
concentration
of
dissolved
elements YES
-‐
TDS/EC
meters YES
-‐
TDS/EC
probes (Proxy)
High
dissolved
metals
Aluminium
(Al3+
)
(and
Zirconium,
Zr4+
) YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
Antimony
(Sb3+
) YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
Arsenic
(As3+/5+

and
Arsine
AsH3) YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
Bismuth
(Bi3+
) YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
Calcium
(Ca2+
) YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
Chromium
(Chromate
CrO4
3-‐
) YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
Cobalt
(Co2+
) YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
Copper
(Cu+/2+
) YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
Iron
(Fe2+

+
Fe3+
) YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
Iron
(Ferrous
Fe2+
) YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
Molybdenum
(Molybdate
MoO4) YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
Nickel YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
Lead
(on
surfaces) YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
Potassium,
Rubidium,
Caesium
and
Thallium YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
Silver
(Ag+
) YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
Tin
(Sn) YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
Zinc
(Zn) YES
-‐
test
stick (Direct)
High
sulfate
concentration
(Sulphate
SO4) YES
-‐
test
stick (Proxy)
Low
dissolved
Oxygen
(LDO
technology) Yes
-‐
probes (Proxy)
High
Hardness
(for
Ca2+

+
Mg2+

and
Ca2+
) YES
-‐
testing
kits (Proxy)
What
to
test
for
Are
"peoples'"
technologies
available Direct
or

"proxy"

indicator

Water testing and monitoring – technology survey
Testing
paper/kits
or
meters
Long-‐term
monitoring

instruments
WATER
CLARITY
(TURBIDITY)
High
turbidity YES
-‐
perspex
tubes,
Secchi
Disks YES
-‐
probes Direct
PRODUCTS
OF
MINERALS
PROCESSING
Cyanide
and
metal-‐cyanide
complexes
"Cyanide" YES
-‐
test
stick Direct
Hydrogen
Cyanide
(HCN) YES
-‐
test
stick Direct
PETROLEUM
POLLUTANTS
Petroleum
ether
YES
-‐
test
stick Direct
Gasoline YES
-‐
test
stick Direct
Fuel
oil
YES
-‐
test
stick Direct
Lubricating
oil YES
-‐
test
stick Direct
What
to
test
for
Are
"peoples'"
technologies
available Direct
or

"proxy"

indicator

http://www.camlab.co.uk/hach-hq30d-single-channel-meter-for-ph-conductivity-and-do-p16474.aspx
Product Specifications
pH range 0 to14pH
EC range 0.01µS/cm-200mS/cm
DO range 0.00 to 20.0mg/l Dissolved Oxygen
Size 9.5x19.7x3.6 cm (HxWxD)
Weight 323g
Cables 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, 30 m lengths
Water testing and monitoring – available technology – digital monitoring probes
Hach HQ30d Single Channel multiparameter meter.
“Lighten your load with a single meter to measure either pH, Conductivity, or
LDO interchangeably”.
Plug and Play
Easy swapping of parameter/probe without re-calibration
Password-protected data for tamper proof reporting
500-point event log
•  Digital probes are available to record:
pH, electrical conductivity (EC for TDS concentration), dissolved oxygen (DO), hardness
•  Battery powered, rechargeable
•  Continuous data recording on memory inside the probe.
•  Retrieve probe every 1 – 3 months and download data onto digital meter or computer (or
smartphone?)
One measurement every 2 hours
→ 40 days of continuous recording
Cost:
Meter and 3 probes
Approx. £1,760

Water testing and monitoring – digital monitoring probes – possible application
(1.) COMMUNITY DEPLOYS PROBES IN WATER BODY
(2.) COMMUNITY RETRIEVES PROBES AFTER 1 – 3 MONTHS
DOWNLOADS DATA ONTO METER
RECHARGES PROBE BATTERIES, REDEPLOYS PROBES
(3a.) COMMUNITY
DOWNLOADS DATA TO
COMPUTER
TIME
MEASUREMENTVALUE
LAST MONTH’S DATA THIS MONTH’S DATA
pH
EC (TDS)
DO
Low pH
Low DO
High TDS
(4.) COMMUNITY PLOTS UP
DATA USING EASY-
TO-USE PROGRAM
(3b. or 5.)
COMMUNITY EMAILS
DATA OR RESULTS
TO SUPPORTING
HYDROGEOLOGISTS

Biodiversity monitoring
•  Full biodiversity surveys require
much knowledge and experience
of different species of flora and
fauna.
•  But often enough there is one
particular “marker” species that
can be used as an indicator of
ecological health, that
communities could be (easily
enough) trained to identify and
trained to count in a statistically
meaningful way.
•  Long-term monitoring probably
most useful.
Biodiversity survey in 1 m square grid

What non-specialists can do when facing mining projects
Vigilant observation and documentation throughout the mining life-cycle
• Photographic evidence
• Video evidence
• Records of discussions with exploration and mining staff/contractors employed
by mining companies – talk to them – a potential wealth of information
• Written/recorded personal testimony of affected peoples
Such observation and documentation:
• is invaluable to “specialists” – if/when specialist involvement is helpful/required.
• provides strong evidence of “baseline” conditions if recorded before mining, if mining
does proceed either with consent or against communities’ wishes.
If “technical” issues (that impact on environment, health, safety, livelihoods)
might or are likely to form a significant component of resistance to the mining
project, then initiating this observation as early as possible (e.g., during
the mining company’s exploration phase) would be very advantageous.*
* But note, if “technical” issues are the only objection to a project, the strength of
the case against mining may be weakened if mining companies can respond with
“solutions” to these technical objections.
Extracts from presentation to CAFOD Workshop on Mining Impacts and Community Responses, 11 July, 2013, London.

What non-specialists can do – during early exploration (Years 1 – 2)
Evidence of early exploration (Year 1) activity may take the form of:
• Geologists doing field mapping
• Teams collecting soil samples in fields and on river banks
• Teams with instruments collecting geophysical data on the ground
• Light airplanes/helicopters flying in patterns over the area collecting geophysical data.
Evidence of more advanced exploration activity (Year 2):
• One or two exploration boreholes being drilled in fields
• Digging of exploration trenches, e.g., 2 to 3 m deep, 1 m wide, 50 to 100 m long.
• Speak to the geologists/geophysicists on the ground and with pilots and operators if you
know which airport they’re using. Speak to the drillers. Often contracted drillers/
geologists/geophysicists who may be less reticent in their discussions.
• Local people are often employed to help with sample/data collection – speak to them
too.
• Questions to ask: which company are you working for, which areas are you covering
with the surveys, what geophysical instruments are you using, how deep are you drilling
(or how many drill rods are you using), are you drilling for core or chip samples?
• Take photographs or video records of e.g., drilling rigs and the immediate environs,
exploration trenches, geophysical survey equipment and operations.

What non-specialists can do – during late exploration (Years 3 – 4)
Company activities that characterise late exploration (Years 3 - 4):
• Mining company may announce a “discovery” (in the general press, mining press,
financial press, on their website, in their annual report).
• Significant increase in drilling activity. Boreholes may be drilled at 100 m (or closer)
intervals, hundreds of boreholes my be drilled (the impact of drilling activities on the
environment may now start to become a concern – often poorly legislated/regulated)
• Company may initiate “community engagement” activities (sponsorships of local events
and amenities, tree plantings, early discussions and selective information releases, etc.).
• Often many local people employed to assist with exploration drilling activities.
• Identify important/critical natural resources for food and livelihoods – river and lakes
(water provision, fishing), agricultural lands, pastoral land, forests (and cultural sites).
• (Selectively) photograph/video/document these critical resources (as well as other
sensitive ecosystems present) – to provide a baseline, for information for specialists, for
possible publication in reports written for or on behalf of communities.
• Do not rely on the mining company as the sole source of information about the
technical/environmental impacts of any potential mine.
Company information will be selectively released, more often characterised by
what is not said than what is said or revealed.

What non-specialists can do – during late or mature exploration (Years 3 – 4)
What you (as a non-specialist) can do (continued):
• If strategically appropriate, ask the mining company the difficult questions.
• Questions to ask the company: how will the orebody be mined (surface or
underground), how will the ore be processed and what chemicals will be used, where are
wastes to be dumped (both rock dumps and tailings), where is water to be sourced for
mining and processing, how much water will be used, where will electrical power for the
mine be sourced?
• Dig for more company information that might cast light on the company’s intentions –
company annual reports, company quarterly reports, company releases of information to
investors.
• Speak to drillers or local people that are employed to assist with drilling.
• Questions to ask drillers: are there any groundwater indications (particularly water
released from boreholes under pressure), what drilling fluids/chemicals are used, what is
water source for drilling, depth of drilling (or number of drill-rods used).
• Establish community position on mining and take actions accordingly (community
position may be contingent on better information and understanding of the
impacts/risks).
• Take all information to a specialist for advice if needed.

What specialists can do – during late or mature exploration (Years 3 – 4)
What specialists can do:
Mining geologist/ mining “generalist”/ mining engineer:
• Establish a better conceptual model of how the orebody might be mined, the scale of the
potential mine and the scale of waste disposal dumps and dams, provide an assessment
of the impacts/risks that are specific to the site/locale.
• Might visit the site, might examine and assess the mining company’s geological and
environmental data and reports (if made available) à identify shortcomings in company
work (particularly in baseline studies).
• Provide a broad educational/advisory function – perhaps through meetings with
communities.
• Estimate the financial value of the resource in the ground and out.
• Advise on whether more focussed expertise is needed.
Hydrologist/ hydrogeologist/ hydrochemist:
• Advise on and assess likely mining impacts on all hydrological systems.
• Advise on necessity for photographic/video documentation (and what and where to
document).
• Advise whether independent baseline water testing is necessary.
• Involve these specialists if water is a critical community resource: if sources of
drinking water and irrigation water are derived from rivers or lakes and boreholes or
drop-wells into groundwater aquifers.
• Might consult with minerals processing chemist/ geochemist to determine nature of
water wastes from processing and mine effluent.

What specialists can do – during late or mature exploration (Years 3 – 4)
What specialists can do (continued):
Aquatic biologist:
• Involve these specialists if fishing/fisheries are critical to food supply and
livelihoods.
Soil scientist/ ecologist/ environmentalist/ botanist:
• Involve these specialists if contamination of soils by airborne pollutants is
anticipated and agricultural lands and productivity are a critical community
resource – particularly problematic if the proposed mine is likely to be open-cast.
• Involve these specialists if agriculture and livestock husbandry is critical to food
supply and livelihoods or if there are sensitive/important/endangered ecosystems
present in the area.
Mining engineer:
• Involve these specialists if there are concerns about the safety, stability and
impacts of the physical elements of the mine design – e.g., placement of rock dumps
and tailings dams in areas of steep topography, the mining depth of underground mines
and associated surface subsidence.

•  Mining companies seeking a mining license on a property are required to
submit a full ESIA (Environmental and Social Impact Assessment) to
national regulatory authorities/agencies: e.g., Departments of Mining,
Minerals, Energy, Environment as appropriate.
•  In principle, full consultation with communities and indigenous peoples
should have taken place prior to submission of the ESIA.
In practice, the “community engagement” process prior to ESIA submission may
not have been full, open, fair and “complete”….. and dissenting voices may not
have been heard and may not be represented in the ESIA.
It is often only after submission of the ESIA, that the full intentions of the mining
company and their mining plans are clearly stated and apparent to all parties.
•  Typically a two or three-month window only is open for communities to
fully digest the mining plans and potential impacts and to reach
agreement on how to respond to the ESIA and to submit a written
response/report.
(this is a document that will have taken mining companies and their consultants perhaps
6 to 12 months to prepare, will have involved the technical input of perhaps a dozen
experts in various fields, at a cost of several million Dollars/Euros).
The ESIA process (End Year 4 – Year 5)

Regulatory processes in mining project approval:
•  In principle, it is the responsibility of the national regulatory authorities/
agencies (e.g., Departments of Mining, Minerals, Energy and
Environment, etc.) to fully assess the technical issues/proposals
presented in the ESIA and identify all aspects of (and flaws in) the mine
design that present risks or impacts on peoples affected by the proposal.
•  In practice, rigorous and impartial oversight by regulatory authorities
in developing (and developed) countries cannot always be relied on:
due to lack of manpower, lack of necessary expertise and lack of political
will.
•  Places a burden on communities to independently assess the ESIA.
While as much specialist information as early as possible is advantageous, it
might make better sense strategically and financially not to engage (much)
specialist advice during the late exploration phase – the exploration project
may collapse and never get to an EISA if the project proves unfeasible.
Possibly better to do the necessary and appropriate specialist work only after
the ESIA process has started and live with or manage the greater time
pressure.

What non-specialists can do – during the ESIA process (End Year 4 – Year 5)
Non-specialist community and civil society effort might at this critical stage focus
less on mining technicalities and more on developing the community response to
the proposal: resist, accept, accept under certain conditions, etc.
Mining technicalities could at this stage effectively be considered by specialists.
• (Continue to) photograph/video/document the environment, focusing on areas that host
critical resources and other sensitive ecosystems present.
• If advice from specialists has been taken earlier – use this advice to focus the photo/
video documentation process.
• Documentation gathered now may inform strongly the community’s written response to
the ESIA.
• ESIAs are long, complex documents – consider taking advice from specialists in
assessing the validity of the material in the ESIA and in helping draft the community’s
response/report.

What specialists can do – during the ESIA process (End Year 4 – Year 5)
•  It should not be necessary for communities and specialists working on
their behalf to conduct scientific baseline studies of:
-  surface and subsurface water quality and characteristics
-  ecosystem fauna and flora biodiversity
-  soil quality and characteristics
-  air quality
In principle Scientific baselines are the responsibility of the mining company – and
scientifically complete and robust baseline measurements must be presented in the
ESIA.
In principle It is the responsibility of the regulatory authorities to scientifically and critically
assess the baseline studies and proposed mining plan specified in the ESIA.
•  Assess the EISA for technical flaws in mine plan and advise community/help
communities develop response to flaws. Help draft technical aspects of report.
•  Specialist advice helpful if communities are in favour of the mining project but would
like aspects of the mine design modified or re-designed to reduce particular risks or
impacts.
•  Assess quality and completeness of baseline studies and argue for additional
baseline measurements to bring work to acceptable scientific standard if necessary.

What specialists can do – during the ESIA process (End Year 4 – Year 5)
What specialists can do (continued):
• Suggest alternative mine designs to minimise or remove potential impacts: e.g.,
underground mine rather than open-pit, in-mine tailings storage rather than surface
disposal.
• Identify key risks associated with mine plans and forcefully argue for appropriate
monitoring of these risks during and after mining in the community ESIA response.
• Examples of mine monitoring (during and after mining) include:
- surface and subsurface water monitoring away from the mine
- atmospheric dust/aerosol levels monitoring if open-pit
- soil quality monitoring
- installation of strain meters in buildings/dwellings that will be undermined by
underground mining – to monitor structural stresses induced on buildings
- high resolution topographic elevation measurements and monitoring – to detect/monitor
surface subsidence from underground mining
- monitoring of rock dumps for acid generation
- monitoring of tailings dam walls for stability
(the above monitoring is or should be the responsibility of the mining company)

What non-specialists can do – during mine operation
•  It is the responsibility of the mining company to carry out all monitoring
activities.
•  It is the responsibility of the mining company to report monitoring results to
regulatory authorities – for assessment of conformity with regulations.
•  Mines will (in principle) be instructed by regulators to undertake remedial work
if monitoring data show results not conforming with regulations.
•  Monitoring data should be made available to communities (depending on
legislation and terms of mine licensing agreement).
Nevertheless – highly advisable for communities to keep a close watch for signs
indicating that problems may be arising during mining:
•  Vigilant observation and documentation on camera, video, recording of testimony.
This is very important at this stage
•  Request information from the mine (or regulatory authorities) about the results of their
monitoring activities. Pass information on to specialists if needed.

What signs to look for (as a non-specialist):
Compare with pre-mining “baseline” data and evidence
Surface hydrological systems (respond relatively fast to mining)
• Iron-staining on rocks close to water discharge points from the mine into rivers or lakes
• Changes in erosion and deposition patterns along the river, changes in river volumes or
changes in normal seasonal variation of river flow, obvious changes in sediment load
carried in rivers (water becomes muddy)
• Changes in vegetation patterns along rivers
• Changes/reductions in quantity/diversity of fish species and fish catches
• It may be possible to measure water pH with simple water testing kits – results would be
“indicative” only.
Subsurface (groundwater) hydrological systems (respond relatively fast to mining)
• Drying up of water-wells and boreholes or reduction in water production from wells/
boreholes
• Reduction in drinking water quality producing health problems.

What signs to look for (as a non-specialist) (continued):
Soil quality and agricultural productivity (slower response time to mining, may be
imperceptible at first, becoming noticeable/worse with time)
• Reduction in crop yields,
• Reduction/changes in vegetation cover and biodiversity in non-agricultural ecosystems
• Slower than normal recovery of grazing lands after grazing or changes in normal
seasonal variation of vegetation growth.
Surface subsidence (relatively fast response to mining)
• Cracks in houses, tilting of houses and foundations
• Loss of groundwater, drying up of rivers, change in river run-off patterns (particularly in
flat areas where small changes in topographic gradient can affect water flow direction
strongly.
Air quality (fast and long, slow cumulative effect from mining)
• Regular occurrence of high visible dust levels around open-pit operations, or blown off
tailings dams.
• Obvious accumulation of fine dust within a several kilometre radius of the mine.
• Increased incidence of respiratory and other health problems (change in incidence rates
may be imperceptible at first and it may take some time for the statistics to become
apparent/obvious).

What specialists can do – during mine operation
• Assess significance of the evidence of mining impacts presented/compiled by
communities/civil society and recommend and/or facilitate action
• It may be necessary to conduct independent tests and monitoring if mine’s own
monitoring results are unconvincing or unavailable for scrutiny, and to convince
regulators/authorities to take action.
• Examples of monitoring and tests at this stage:
- measurement of heavy metal concentrations in fish
- water sampling and analysis
- soil sampling and analysis
- air quality sampling
• Assess significance of mine’s monitoring data (or community’s/specialist’s own
independent monitoring measurements) against pre-mining baseline measurements.

Availability of specialists to affected communities and civil society:
Quote from Center for Science in Public Participation (CSP2), USA, about
provision of technical support to “grassroots” groups:
http://www.csp2.org/what-we-do
“Because experts are not readily available, groups must often use
whatever volunteer technical assistance is available locally; or rely on
technical consultants that, if available, are expensive.
In addition, because of the very close relationship between the mining
industry, its technical consultants, and the academic community, it is
very difficult for non-profit groups to gain access to technical and
financial expertise on mining.”

General
water
cons3tuents

Source:
Lecture
notes,
Dr.
Andre
Banning,
Ins:tute
of
Hydrogeology,
Ruhr
University
Bochum

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
Electrical conductivity (EC) often used to measure TDS

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