2. FIRE FLOW DESIGN GUIDELINES
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD................................................................................................................................3
1. DISCLAIMER AND COPYRIGHT ......................................................................................................3
2. HOW TO USE THESE GUIDELINES..................................................................................................4
PART 1: FIRE FLOW DESIGN GUIDELINES.....................................................................................5
1. GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA FOR FIRE FLOWS IN WATER RETICULATION MODELLING.................5
1.1 Background demand used in assessment..........................................................................5
1.2 Fire flow provision..............................................................................................................6
1.3 Residual pressure...............................................................................................................7
1.4 Reservoir capacity for fire fighting ....................................................................................7
1.5 Minimum pipe diameters...................................................................................................7
1.6 Hydrant spacing.................................................................................................................8
1.7 Design criteria summary table...........................................................................................9
2. MANAGEMENT OF DEVELOPER REQUESTS FOR FIRE FLOW.........................................................9
2.1 Assessment of system for private fire system designers .................................................10
2.2 Caution when providing information to designers ..........................................................10
2.3 Changes to levels of service .............................................................................................11
2.4 Use of LWU street hydrants by developers......................................................................12
2.5 Metering of fire services ..................................................................................................12
3. MARKING AND MAINTENANCE OF FIRE HYDRANTS...................................................................13
3.1 Maintenance....................................................................................................................13
3.2 Marking fire hydrant locations ........................................................................................13
PART 2: FIRE FLOW DESIGN LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................14
1. THE NEED FOR FIRE FIGHTING SUPPLY........................................................................................14
2. RELEVANT LEGISLATION, STANDARDS AND CODES....................................................................14
2.1 Relevant legislation, standards and codes applicable to LWUs ......................................14
2.2 Legislation, standards and codes applicable to development.........................................17
3. ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES ....................................................................................................18
3.1 Local water utility ............................................................................................................18
3.2 Property owner/developer...............................................................................................19
4. NSW FIRE BRIGADE REQUIREMENTS ..........................................................................................19
5. HYDRANT FLOW AND PRESSURE AND TANK STORAGE DESIGN PERFORMANCE........................20
5.1 Flow requirements ...........................................................................................................20
5.2 Pressure requirements.....................................................................................................20
5.3 Tank storage requirements..............................................................................................20
5.4 Determination of design demands ..................................................................................20
5.5 95th percentile demands .................................................................................................21
5.6 Local water utilities..........................................................................................................21
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6. HYDRANT INSTALLATION, INSPECTION, TESTING AND MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS ..........21
6.1 Street hydrants ................................................................................................................22
6.2 Onsite hydrants................................................................................................................22
7. METERING OF FIRE SERVICES......................................................................................................22
8. ADVICE TO BE PROVIDED TO DESIGNERS OF PRIVATE SYSTEMS BY WATER AUTHORITIES.........24
8.1 Minimum residual pressure .............................................................................................24
8.2 Pressure reduction consequences....................................................................................25
9. MODELLING OF FIRE FLOWS.......................................................................................................26
APPENDICES.............................................................................................................................28
APPENDIX 1: NSW DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS HISTORICAL DESIGN STANDARD.................29
APPENDIX 2: SUMMARY OF QUEENSLAND DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT AND RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT FIRE PROVISIONS ..................................................................................................31
APPENDIX 3: NSW FIRE BRIGADE EXPECTATIONS...........................................................................32
APPENDIX 4: DETAILS OF LWUS/WATER AUTHORITIES SURVEYED................................................34
APPENDIX 5: LWUS/WATER AUTHORITIES DESIGN FOR RESIDENTIAL PROPERTIES.......................35
APPENDIX 6: LWUS/WATER AUTHORITIES DESIGN FOR COMMERCIAL/INDUSTRIAL PROPERTIES36
APPENDIX 7: LWUS/WATER AUTHORITIES DESIGN FOR RURAL PROPERTIES.................................37
APPENDIX 8: LWUS/WATER AUTHORITIES PLUMBING REQUIREMENTS FOR FIRE SERVICES.........38
APPENDIX 9: ADVICE PROVIDED BY LWUS/WATER AUTHORITIES TO PRIVATE DESIGNERS...........39
APPENDIX 10: EXTRACT FROM AS2419.1 DESCRIBING FIELD TESTING TO DETERMINE 95TH
PERCENTILE DEMANDS...................................................................................................................40
APPENDIX 11: EXAMPLE FIRE FLOW APPLICATION FORMS FROM LWUS.......................................46
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2. HOW TO USE THESE GUIDELINES
This document is divided into two parts to allow easy reference for the reader: guidelines on
the minimum criteria, design and maintenance of fire flow infrastructure (Part 1) and detailed
background information in the form of a literature review (Part 2).
Part 1 of the document contains guidance:
• on the minimum criteria for designing water reticulation where a LWU desires to make
provision for fire flows in residential, commercial and industrial areas.
• to LWUs in their response to proponents of significant developments seeking to meet
their fire fighting obligations from Council’s water reticulations.
• on appropriate maintenance and management standards for fire hydrants in their
respective reticulations.
Part 2 of the document contains record:
• of the research undertaken in preparation of the Guidelines presented in Part 1
• of the relevant legislation, codes and standards applicable to fire flows applied by
different water authorities plus records of interviews and literature research undertaken.
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PART 1: FIRE FLOW DESIGN GUIDELINES
The NSW Local Government General Regulation 2005 requires LWUs to install fire hydrants to
extinguish fires (refer Part 2, Section 2.1.1) but there are few qualifications to that direction.
The regulation does require the LWUs to maintain hydrants that are installed in working order.
Most importantly, the regulation does not specify flow rates, pressure or spacing of fire
hydrants. There is no other legislation that requires a LWU to do anything more with respect to
fire flows than what is set out in the Regulation.
There is an expectation from the NSW Fire Brigade, building developers and the general
community that water reticulation systems provided by a LWU will be able to be used to fight a
fire.
Given the loose legislative requirements and the expectations of the reticulation users it
appears appropriate that the LWU makes provision for fire flows within reasonable limits. In
response to the need to provide guidance to the appropriate levels of implementation, this Part
is divided into the following sections:
• General design criteria for fire flows in water reticulation modelling
• Management of developer requests for fire flow
• Marking and maintenance of fire hydrants.
1. GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA FOR FIRE FLOWS IN WATER
RETICULATION MODELLING
The basic approach to modelling fire flows using a hydraulic model is:
• determine and apply a background demand across the whole of the reticulation model
• determine and apply the chosen fire demand at the chosen model node(s)
• ensure pipe diameters and pipe configurations are adequate to achieve the chosen
residual pressure in the reticulation
• ensure reservoir capacities are adequate to provide a fire fighting reserve of water.
Further considerations in designing a water reticulation capable of providing reasonable fire
fighting capacity are:
• minimum pipe diameters in the reticulation
• spacing of fire hydrants.
Guidelines for each of the above design criteria are outlined below.
1.1 Background demand used in assessment
Whilst the Australian Standard 2419.1 does not regulate the provision of infrastructure by a
LWU it does provide good guidance to a number of areas of consideration by a LWU and it is
recommended as an appropriate de facto standard for reticulation design.
AS2419.1 specifies that in assessing the capacity of a water supply system to provide for fire
fighting a base demand level must be selected which is defined as the 95th percentile demand.
Fire flows are then superimposed on this base demand with an assessment then carried out to
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determine residual pressures. There are two methods available within AS2419 on which to
assess the 95th percentile demand.
First method
A modelling assessment based on the flows that are obtained for 95% of the time. This must
take into account the varying levels of demand achieved not only on a daily basis but also on a
diurnal basis to assess the flow that exists within the network 95% of the time.
Second method
95th percentile can also be defined as the maximum flow on the day of the year where 95% of
the days in that year have a lower peak demand. This level of demand requires daily demand
to be available for the LWU over an extended period of time so that the assessment of the
95th percentile can be made. Once the daily flow that represents the 95th percentile is
determined, a diurnal model would be imposed and the highest flow rate obtained from the
super imposition of the diurnal pattern on the 95th percentile demand day would be used as
the base design flow within the system.
Where a hydraulic model is available but insufficient flow records are available to determine
the 95th percentile flow, a more basic modelling approach could be undertaken utilising the
NSW Public Works methodology given in Appendix 1. Utilisation of this method requires the
running of an instantaneous model which allows 0.1 L/sec/tenement demand, plus an
appropriate demand allowance for non-residential development throughout the reticulation and
the required fire flow at the node adjacent to the development under consideration.
1.2 Fire flow provision
Once the base 95th percentile flow has been determined, an assessment then needs to be
made on the appropriate level of fire flow required by the development. This fire flow must
then be superimposed on the 95th percentile flow to analyse the water supply network
hydraulics.
AS2419.1 specifies a minimum flow rate per hydrant for fire fighting purposes as 10 L/s. The
previous Department of Public Works Guideline used until the mid 1980’s specified 11 L/s.
Thus it can be seen that adoption of the fire flow provision using AS2419 is consistent with the
previous Department of Public Works standard.
AS2419 specifies the minimum number of hydrants that are required to be assessed for
various building classifications consistent with the BUILDING CODE OF AUSTRALIA. Where a
building development requires additional hydrants each flowing at 10 L/s then AS2419
specifies requirements for the building developer to satisfy in order to meet the development
requirements.
LWUs are not required to meet the fire flow requirements of every development.
In low rise residential areas it is recommended that the LWU makes provision for fire flows
from one hydrant at 10 L/s. This would normally ensure fire fighting capability for residential
properties is supplied as a minimum.
In high rise residential areas, commercial areas and industrial areas it is recommended that
the LWU make provision for fire flows from two hydrants at 10 L/s.
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1.3 Residual pressure
AS2419.1 outlines the residual pressures required at the design fire flow rates within a building
development. Two key criteria are that 250 kPa is required for a fire hydrant unassisted by
boosters, whilst 150 kPa is sufficient if a fire brigade pumping appliance is to be connected.
These pressures are what a developer is required to provide in a fire fighting system for a
development and there is no legislative requirement that a water utility meet these pressure
requirements in routine reticulation design
The NSW Fire Brigade has an expectation that there will be a minimum pressure at 150 kPa
available at any street hydrant within the reticulation system of the LWU. Again there is no
legislative requirement that such a pressure will be achieved under fire flow conditions. It is
noted that the 150 kPa minimum pressure is selected to ensure that the fire brigades pumps
do not cavitate and experience resultant damage and also that suction hoses between the
hydrant and the fire appliance pump are not sucked flat.
.
Achievement of a 150 kPa residual pressure under fire flow conditions may prove too onerous
and potentially expensive to the LWU. It is therefore appropriate that during routine
reticulation design with fire flows superimposed on the reticulation a positive residual head be
maintained.
Individual LWUs however would be advised to consult with their local fire brigade commander
to determine if there are circumstances within their area of operations where 250 kPa may be
more appropriate, e.g. in locations where a tender is unable to gain access.
1.4 Reservoir capacity for fire fighting
A further consideration when modelling the water reticulation for fire flows is to consider the
quantity of water a LWU should provide in reserve in their water reservoirs for fire fighting.
For a developer, AS2419.1 specifies that the minimum fire flow rates should be provided for
not less than 4 hours. This code requirement is in agreement with the NSW Fire Brigade who
support it as a general requirement.
Once the LWU has selected the fire flow rate that it is prepared to supply, water reservoirs
should be checked to ensure that not less than four hours storage is available to satisfy both
the fire flow requirement and the background 95th percentile demand. This can be done by
hydraulic modelling of the reticulation over a 24 hours period. The modeller should ensure that
the reservoir does not empty and when the reservoir is at its lowest level the residual pressure
in the reticulation is adequate to meet design criteria.
1.5 Minimum pipe diameters
Hydraulic modelling of a water reticulation will reveal the combination of pipe diameters that
are required to achieve the minimum flow and pressure design criteria set for the respective
water reticulation. Whilst there are no codes or regulations that specify minimum pipe
diameter requirements in a reticulation there is ample evidence (refer to Appendices 1, 2, 5, 6
and 7) that precedent has been set in this area and it is recommended that this precedent be
observed.
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The following minimum pipe diameters are recommended:
• Low rise residential 100 mm
• High rise residential 150 mm
• Commercial areas 150 mm
• Industrial areas 150 mm
Rather than installing a single 150 mm main in commercial areas some water authorities install
a 100 mm main on each side of the road to facilitate future development servicing and
minimise disturbance to landscaping that may occur due to road crossings.
Specific analysis may indicate that larger pipe diameters are required in some areas.
LWUs, when considering whole of community costs for new commercial/industrial development
areas, may require installation of infrastructure such as larger diameter water pipes that could
provide additional hydrants flowing at 10 L/s to satisfy the higher fire fighting requirements. If
LWUs made this assessment it would potentially reduce duplication of individual onsite
infrastructure required to service individual customers. This may lead to a lower whole-of
community cost for provision of fire fighting flows. Such an assessment must be made by the
LWU at the planning stage for the new zone development, e.g. a new industrial zone or a new
commercial zone.
1.6 Hydrant spacing
The NSW Local Government Regulation requirement for fire hydrants does not apply to mains
of less than 100 mm diameter nor to areas where the water supply is insufficient for the
operation of fire hydrants (refer Part 2, Section 2.1.1). Note that there are no criteria given for
assessing if a water supply is sufficient to support fire hydrant flows.
With respect to hydrant spacing the Regulation merely says that they should be “at such
convenient distances and at such places”. Therefore it is necessary to look elsewhere for
guidance on fire hydrant spacing.
The various water authorities consulted during preparation of this guideline have considerable
variance in their hydrant spacing (refer Appendix 4, 5, and 6) and vary the spacing between
residential, commercial and industrial areas.
Hydrant spacing is dictated by the need for the Fire Brigade to lay a reasonable length of hoses
between the hydrant, their appliance and the fire. The Fire Brigade has varying opinions on the
resultant fire hydrant spacing with a preference for 70 m and a maximum of 120 m. AS2419
provides further guidance in that it specifies a total fire hose length of 80 m (refer to Part 2,
Section 6.1).
It is recommended that the appropriate spacing for fire hydrants in urban areas is a maximum
of 70 m and for fire hydrants in rural residential areas is a maximum of 120 m.
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1.7 Design criteria summary table
The following below summarises the information given in sections 1.1 to 1.6 above.
Item Criteria Reference
Flow Provision
Background Demand 95th Percentile 1.1
Instantaneous Background Demand 0.1 L/sec/tenement 1.1
Fire Flow Provision
Residential Buildings
(3 storeys or less)
10 L/s 1.2
High rise residential 20 L/s 1.2
Commercial area 20 L/s 1.2
Industrial area 20 L/s 1.2
Residual Pressure
Desirable pressure in the main at the
hydrant
150 kPa 1.3
Minimum pressure in the main at the
hydrant
Must be positive 1.3
Reservoir Capacity
Minimum reserve capacity in reservoir
for fire fighting
4 hours of 95th percentile
demand and fire flow
1.4
Minimum Pipe Diameters
Low Rise Residential
(3 storeys or less)
100 mm 1.5
High Rise residential 150 mm 1.5
Commercial area 150 mm 1.5
Industrial area 150 mm 1.5
Hydrant spacing
Urban Maximum 70 m 1.6
Rural residential Maximum 120 m 1.6
Rural Not normally provided 1.6
2. MANAGEMENT OF DEVELOPER REQUESTS FOR FIRE FLOW
There are no legal requirements for a LWU to make specific provision for the fire fighting
requirements of a developer where that developer is attempting to meet the requirements of
the Building Code of Australia and or other relevant codes and regulations.
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It is therefore up to the LWU to decide what level of responsibility it wishes to accept with
regard to meeting specific fire fighting requirements of specific developments. In making that
decision LWUs should be conscious of the fact that the water reticulation infrastructure is a
community asset and should wherever possible be utilised to support the economic wellbeing
of the community.
2.1 Assessment of system for private fire system designers
Building developers are required to meet the fire requirements of the Building Code of
Australia which specifies AS2419. In some circumstances, the developer’s fire fighting
requirements may be satisfied if sufficient fire flow and residual pressure are available on an
LWU hydrant located in a suitable position for the proposed development (AS 2419 specifies
distances from hydrants to point of attack for fire fighting appliances). However, in many
circumstances, a suitable LWU hydrant will not be available in which case the building
developer will need to design a fire service to meet the requirements of the Building Code of
Australia and AS 2419. In both circumstances, the developer will require specific information
from the LWU on residual pressures in the LWUs pipe network at the required flow rate, which
the developer should specify to meet their requirements under the Building Code of Australia.
2.2 Caution when providing information to designers
Pressure can be derived using hydraulic computer models or onsite flow tests (refer Part 2,
Section 8.2).
LWUs, in providing information to the designers, need to be aware that flow and pressure
information provided will form the basis for design of their private fire fighting system. The
private fire fighting system will require testing and certification on a regular basis. LWUs will
need to calculate the 95th percentile pressure available at the flow rate specified by the
developer. This will require the LWU to determine the 95th percentile demand by one of the
methods specified in 1.1 above, superimpose the fire flow nominated by the developer and
calculate the residual pressure that will remain in the LWU pipe network at the point of
connection.
In some circumstances, the LWU may have to specify a maximum flow rate that the designer
can be entitled to in order to avoid impacting on other customers by reducing pressures below
acceptable levels. If this situation arises, the designer will either have to provide storage or
booster capacity or a combination of both to meet their requirements for fire fighting as
required by the Building Code of Australia and AS2419.1.
To ensure the developer supplies the correct information to the LWU for this hydraulic
assessment to be made, LWUs should develop a standard proforma. Typical proforma for
developers to apply to Council for a statement of available pressures for fire fighting purposes,
are attached as Appendix 11.
Careful consideration needs to be given by an LWU regarding the advice provided to the
designers of private fire systems. Water supply systems are dynamic in nature, with hydraulic
conditions changing over time due to residential growth/decay, commercial/industrial
growth/decay, change in ownership or nature of properties, or changes to the system
infrastructure. LWUs need to carefully word the advice they provide to system designers to
ensure that no guarantee is given as to the adequacy of the flow and pressure information
provided into the future.
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Typical examples of disclaimers used currently can be reviewed in Example 1 and Example 2
below.
EXAMPLE 1:
The above flow and pressure information is a calculated estimate from mathematical models
of the water supply system, and should not be treated as a guarantee of supply in any way.
These values are not representative of conditions at all times of the day or season and are
subject to variables beyond Council’s control, such as a proposed system augmentations,
variations in system demands or changes in hydraulic operation of the network. You should
also be aware that Council is presently undertaking a pressure and leakage management
program that may result in a reduction in water supply flow and pressure in the area.
For these reasons <insert council name> cannot guarantee water pressure greater than the
following for use within the property.
Normal Daily Water Demand (Background Demand) – 22 m at the property boundary
Fire System Demand – 12 m residual pressure in Council’s water supply main at the
hydrant with the following maximum flow rates:
residential – 15 L/s for 2 hours duration
commercial/industrial – 30 L/s for 4 hours duration
NOTE: Pressures/ flows quoted above are specific to an existing LWU and were used in this
document in entirety, and may not represent intended compliance with any Australian
Standard or design code.
EXAMPLE 2:
The calculated residual mains pressure quoted above may be used at the applicant’s risk for
the design of the installation of private fire hydrants, fire sprinkler systems, fire hose reels
and domestic fixtures only, in accordance with the provisions of Council’s Policy. The
calculated hydraulic information provided in this letter is valid for 12 months from the date
of the conducted field test.
2.3 Changes to levels of service
The water industry in general is under pressure to manage unaccounted for water. A range of
water service providers have either implemented or are considering implementing pressure
reduction as a means of reducing the amount of unaccounted for water. One of the key issues
that must be considered before implementing pressure reduction is the impact of the pressure
reduction proposal on the fire flow capacity of the water supply system. This needs to be
considered from two perspectives:
• the LWUs’ perspective
• private developments.
From the LWUs’ perspective, system modelling of the proposed pressure reduction should be
carried out to confirm that the LWUs commitment to fire flows, i.e. 10 L/s per hydrant with a
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positive residual pressure superimposed on the 95th percentile demand can still be satisfied (if
these are the flows and pressures adopted by the LWU). In most circumstances a properly
designed pressure reduction system should be able to achieve this requirement.
For building developments, however, reduction in pressure may sufficiently change the
situation such that the fire service installed on that development can no longer meet the
requirements under the Building Code of Australia. This could occur in particular where the
LWU had advised the developer that residual pressures in the LWUs mains were sufficient to
enable the development to take fire flows without the provision of booster pumps or storage or
a combination of both.
By retrofitting pressure reduction, it may mean that when the annual testing cycle for the
development takes place, the developer finds out that their fire service no longer complies with
the requirements of the Building Code of Australia. In these circumstances it can be an
expensive exercise for the owner to retrofit the necessary infrastructure to comply. For
circumstances where commercial/industrial developments may be impacted by proposed
pressure reduction schemes, it is recommended that advance notice be given to building
owners before pressure reduction is implemented to enable them time in which to have their
systems re-assessed and potentially retrofitted to ensure compliance with the lower expected
pressure. Alternatively, the initial advice to developers could include a “minimum guaranteed
pressure” clause, and any pressure reduction measures would be required to take this
guarantee into account.
2.4 Use of LWU street hydrants by developers
A property developer, under some circumstances, in lieu of providing onsite fire services, may
rely on a LWU hydrant installed adjacent to their property to satisfy the requirements of the
Building Code of Australia. This would only occur where the LWU has issued a statement that
confirmed that the required flow and residual pressures are available from that hydrant.
The LWU is not required to make available street hydrants for developers to satisfy the
Building Code of Australia fire fighting requirements of their respective development. In
agreeing to do so, the LWU should give careful consideration to the operational and
maintenance implications of assigning specific fire fighting attributes to a hydrant. The
property developer may be required under their ongoing certification requirements to either
have this hydrant tested on an annual basis or reconfirm with the LWU that the required flows
and pressures were still available. LWUs need to consider this ongoing maintenance/testing
certification requirement and the implications regarding private access to LWU hydrants for the
purposes of testing.
2.5 Metering of fire services
Where metering of the water supply for fire fighting purposes is required by the LWU, a meter
may be installed:
• on a by-pass such as around a backflow prevention device
• inline, provided the meter does not have internal mechanisms that could limit flow,
including in the event of meter failure.
Where inline meters are installed, the meter assembly should not include a strainer and should
have the same nominal bore as the fire service. The hydraulic effect of the meter and
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associated pipework and fittings must be included in flow and pressure calculations of the fire
hydrant system design.
3. MARKING AND MAINTENANCE OF FIRE HYDRANTS
3.1 Maintenance
The NSW Local Government (General) Regulation states the following:
“(1) The Council must maintain the hydrants in effective working order”.
The above direction is not supported by any performance standards. No requirements have
been able to be identified for LWUs that specify inspection testing and maintenance
requirements to be undertaken on fire hydrants installed in a LWUs reticulation.
A LWU should have a programmed maintenance routine that ensures they assess the following
on periodic basis:
• Marking: inspect and make good all hydrant markers on roadways, poles and other
locations.
• Hydrant Covers: Inspect and exercise each cover.
• Hydrant: Engage standpipe. Due to the amount of water that would be wasted it is
recommended that LWUs not exercise the standpipe once engaged.
3.2 Marking fire hydrant locations
The NSW Fire Brigade has advised the following is their desired approach to hydrant marking:
• blue cats eyes to be permanently fixed on the roadway, street or lane adjacent to the
hydrant
• indicator plates are fixed to utility poles
• poles show distance and pipe diameter that should be used in addition to cats eyes
• future location methods may include electronic records e.g. laptop interface with regular
updates showing hydrants.
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PART 2: FIRE FLOW DESIGN LITERATURE REVIEW
1. THE NEED FOR FIRE FIGHTING SUPPLY
NSW legislation specifically identifies the requirement for LWUs to provide a water supply for
the purposes of fire fighting.
There are, however, no legislative requirements for the LWUs to provide a set pressure or flow
rate. It is this separation of responsibility that can, in some cases, lead to a misunderstanding
of the LWUs requirements for the provision of fire fighting supply.
The Building Code of Australia, in combination with and by referencing various Australian
Standards, specifies the flow rate and pressures that must be provided for fire fighting
purposes when a building is designed.
In the case of individual buildings, designed by developers in accordance with the Building
Code of Australia and any other relevant standards, the fire fighting requirements will be
satisfied in order to receive approval. There are however many cases where individual
properties (for example residential homes) may be solely reliant on the street hydrant or a fire
brigade tender for fire fighting flows. In these cases, the Building Code of Australia places no
requirement on provision of fire fighting flows.
It is up to LWUs to ensure that developers are provided with appropriate system performance
data based on the required flow rate for the new development. It is up to the developers to
make alternative (onsite) arrangements if the LWU determines that the required pressure and
flow rate requirements cannot be met.
The design of new water supply systems should incorporate provision for fire fighting supply in
line with proposed land use, as individual augmentations to ensure compliance with the
Building Code may lead to unnecessary duplication of infrastructure and resulting increased
community costs for design, supply and maintenance.
2. RELEVANT LEGISLATION, STANDARDS AND CODES
Several documents refer to provision of water for fire fighting purposes in various levels of
detail. Some of these are legislative, some are design standards, whilst others are guidelines.
The following Acts, Codes and Standards are related to provision of water for fire fighting and
should be read in conjunction with these guidelines.
This section has been subdivided into two sub-sections to differentiate between legislation,
standards and codes directly applicable to LWUs and other legislation, standards and codes
that do not directly apply to LWUs but provide relevant information that may be taken into
consideration when designing for fire flows.
2.1 Relevant legislation, standards and codes applicable to LWUs
2.1.1 NSW Legislation
The NSW Local Government Act 1993 through the NSW Local Government (General)
Regulation 2005, a regulation under the Local Government Act 1993, provide instructions
on the installation, maintenance and removal of hydrants and on keeping water in all
pipes with hydrants (Part 6, Division 2, Clause 142).
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Local Government Regulation clause 142 states:
(1) The council:
(a) must install hydrants in its watermains at such convenient distances, and at
such places, as may be necessary for the ready supply of water to extinguish
fires, and
(b) must maintain the hydrants in effective working order.
This subclause does not apply to a water main that is less than 100 millimetres in
diameter or if the water supply system is not sufficient for the operation of fire hydrants
(in such circumstances the council may provide other means for the ready supply of
water to extinguish fires).
(2) The council may, at the request and expense of the owner or occupier of a building,
install a hydrant (to be used only for extinguishing fires) in or in the vicinity of the
building. If such a hydrant is installed, the council must ensure that it is maintained
in effective working order.
(3) A council may remove a hydrant from any of its watermains if satisfied on
reasonable grounds that the hydrant is no longer needed.
(4) The council must at all times keep charged with water all its pipes to which
hydrants are connected unless prevented from doing so:
(a) by drought or other unavoidable cause or accident, or
(b) while necessary repairs to the pipe or hydrant are being carried out.
(5) Persons authorised to do so by the council may take water without charge for the
purpose of extinguishing fires.
2.1.2 NSW Department of Public Works Guidelines
Many of the water supply distribution systems in NSW Councils would have originally
been designed using guidelines developed by the NSW Department of Public Works. The
only guideline that is available is attached as Appendix 1 and dates to about the mid
1980’s. This guideline recommended fire flows based on the type of building development
as specified in the then Ordinance 70.
The NSW Department of Public Works Guidelines quoted Ordinance 70 as requiring a
minimum residual pressure of 275 kPa and where this cannot be achieved Ordinance 70
specification 10 required the installation of fire pumps. The flow and pressure
requirements of Ordinance 70 align well with the requirements of AS2419.1 Fire Hydrant
Installations.
The NSW Department of Public Works Guideline further recommends that investigators
(reticulation modellers) should ensure that reticulation networks be able to supply the
fire flows appropriate to a building in the zoning of land being served against a
background demand of 0.1 L/s/tenement and achieve a positive pressure throughout the
network. The achievement of the positive head rather than the pressure requirements of
Ordinance 70 was the approach normally undertaken.
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It would appear therefore that the older distribution systems currently maintained by
councils would not satisfy the requirements of the Australian Standard for fire hydrant
installations.
2.1.3 WSAA – Water Supply Code of Australia (WSAA 03-2002 Version 2.3)
The Water Services Association of Australia has prepared standard documentation with
the intent of it being adopted by the major water authorities located around Australia
who belong to this association.
This code, described as a technical reference, has been adopted and modified by several
water authorities for their own design guidelines (e.g. Sydney Water and Hunter Water
Corporation have both adopted the Water Supply Code of Australia but have modified to
suit their own requirements). The WSAA Water Supply Code of Australia in §3.2.4 Fire
Flows states that:
Unless otherwise required by Water Agency’s operating licence, the water supply
system shall not be specifically designed for fire fighting capability. Where a specific
allowance is required, the Water Agency shall specify design requirements.
Sydney Water, in its version of the Water Supply Code of Australia, has left that
particular clause unchanged.
Hunter Water Corporation in their version has included the application of fire flows on top
of design flows and specified minimum pressures that should be available at the hydrant
when the fire flow is being taken on top of their normal design requirements. It is
understood that Hunter Water’s requirements are very similar in practice to that required
under AS2419.1 – Fire Hydrant Installations. It should be noted that this is a matter of
conscious decision by the Corporation not an outcome of a response to a legislative
requirement or operating licence requirement.
2.1.4 Queensland Department of Environment and Resource Management (DERM)
This Department is the regulator of water service providers in Queensland. Some of its
guidelines are mandatory where specified by legislation and some serve only as a
guideline for adoption by the service providers where considered appropriate. DERM have
prepared a document titled Planning Guidelines for Water Supply and Sewerage. Chapter
6 of this document titled “Network Modelling” sets out guidelines for design of water
supply distribution systems including calculations of flows and is very detailed in spelling
out guidelines for fire provisions.
In general this document specifies residual pressures to be assessed at a background
demand of 2/3 peak hour flow with the specified fire flow superimposed on this
background demand. As an additional check, when the specified fire flow is superimposed
on the peak hour flow a positive pressure must still be obtained.
Appendix 2 is a copy of the relevant section of this DERM document. This document
spells out the guideline requirements for flows for different building classifications, the
duration that the flow should be provided and residual pressures.
It is understood this guideline had no regulatory backing and historically was used as a
basis for assessing amount of subsidy provided by the Queensland government to water
service providers. Many Queensland service providers have adopted these guidelines.
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2.1.5 AUS-SPEC
AUS-SPEC is a “framework” document, similar in intent to the WSAA guidelines. AUS-
SPEC allows insertion of relevant clauses on a needs basis, and merely provides the
prompts for ensuring that a specification may be considered robust. The design demand
clause in this document makes no provision for fire flow. The clause on hydrant spacing
states 60 metres.
As such, there are no specific requirements for the design of fire fighting systems, other
than that inserted by the end-user of the specification. The document references many
relevant standards and guidelines, including AS2419.1 and WSAA documents.
2.2 Legislation, standards and codes applicable to development
2.2.1 Building Code of Australia
The Building Code of Australia 2010 Volume 1 outlines the requirements for provision of
hydrants, and the design criteria for those hydrants (Section E1.3). The code is
applicable to new developments. The code references installation in accordance with
AS2419.1.
Volume 2 of the Building Code of Australia deals specifically with single residential
buildings (and non-habitable buildings) and does not mention hydrants nor provision of
fire fighting supply.
2.2.2 Plumbing Code of Australia 2004
The Plumbing Code of Australia 2004, produced by the National Plumbing Regulators
Forum, states in Part B4.0 that the Plumbing Code “sets out requirements … from the
point of connection or other acceptable source(s) to the fire fighting equipment…” i.e. it
does not apply to the LWU’s facilities, rather it applies to the private facilities from the
point of connection with the LWU water supply network.
The Plumbing Code outlines objectives and performance requirements and identifies
relevant other standards and codes which must be complied with. There are no specific
flow or pressure requirements which are unique to the Plumbing Code.
2.2.3 AS3500.1:2003 AS/NZS Plumbing and Drainage
AS3500.1:2003 section 6 deals with fire services. §6.2 states that “Fire services shall
comply with the requirements of the relevant regulatory authority” and further references
the Building Code of Australia and Plumbing Code of Australia for provision of fire
services.
AS3500 also references other standards, including AS2118.1 (Automatic fire sprinkler
systems), AS2419.1 (Fire hydrant installations), AS2441 (Installation of fire hose reels)
and AS2941 (Fixed fire protection installation- Pumpset systems).
2.2.4 AS2419.1-2005 Fire Hydrant Installations
This standard is not applicable to LWU street hydrants. The standard applies to hydrants
provided by developers to satisfy the requirements of the Building Code of Australia.
19. WATER DIRECTORATE JUNE 2011
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The standard outlines design requirements for hydrant systems, including flows,
pressures, location/ arrangement of pipework and hydrants, supply and storage,
pumpsets, boosters, ancillary equipment and commissioning.
One key point made within commentary C3.2.2.1 states that:
Whilst street hydrants may be used to provide coverage in system design if they
can provide suitable performance, most water agencies do not design their systems
to cater for individual property fire fighting flow and pressure requirements.
If a developer of an individual property proposes to utilise a LWUs street hydrant to
satisfy the requirements of the Building Code of Australia, the developer will need
to have documentation from the LWU that specifies the performance of the
respective street hydrant and a commitment to the maintenance of that
performance. It is at the LWUs discretion if it will issue documentation that would
allow the developer to rely on the street hydrant to satisfy their requirements.
With respect to the above, it should be noted that AS2419.1-2005 §1.1 states that:
This Standard also applies to street fire hydrants used in lieu of onsite fire hydrants
or to supplement the coverage by street fire hydrants.
This is of particular interest to water authorities as the flow and pressure statement
provided to a developer for a street hydrant meets the requirements of AS2149 the
developer may rely on this hydrant rather than installing a private hydrant.
3. ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
3.1 Local water utility
The LWU under the Local Government (General) Regulation 2005 has an obligation to install
hydrants in its watermains at such convenient distances, and at such places, as may be
necessary for the ready supply of water to extinguish fires and must maintain the hydrants in
effective working order. In addition, the LWU may, at the request and expense of the owner or
occupier of that building, install a hydrant in the vicinity of the building as part of its own
network i.e. additional street hydrants. If such an additional hydrant is installed, the LWU must
ensure that it is maintained in effective working order or consider requiring the property owner
to accept responsibility for its ongoing maintenance. This would also apply to situations where
the developer relies on existing LWU hydrants for fire fighting certification.
The LWU has no prescribed standards that it must meet with respect to providing minimum
levels of flow or pressure at these hydrants, nor are standards set for the prescribed level of
maintenance.
The LWU is expected to provide developers with information regarding available flow and
residual pressure from the public water supply to enable the private property owners to design
fire fighting systems for the development for which the standards are mandated. However the
format, information content, methodology of fire flow information provided to property
owners/developers are not explicitly stated in any documents.
Design of private fire systems requires initial advice from the LWU typically stating minimum
available pressure and flows from their network. However such advice needs to be
accompanied by assumptions, procedures and any possible supply limitations or restrictions.
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The LWU will need to clarify the ongoing validity of any advice provided. This would normally
be done by means of a disclaimer. This will enable the LWU to avoid claims from private
property owners for compensation where changes to system operations affect the available
system pressures.
LWUs require combined water service and fire service to be metered, however, such metering
should not unduly restrict fire flows and the fire system design should cater for the increased
headloss associated with metering devices.
Dedicated fire services may be monitored for unauthorised or excessive use by typically
installing a small diameter metered bypass with appropriate backflow prevention. Though this
does not necessarily measure volumes accurately, it does indicate that water has been used
through the dedicated fire service.
3.2 Property owner/developer
The property owner/developer must comply with the Building Code of Australia with respect to
fire fighting provisions. The amount of flow required to be provided is specified in the Building
Code of Australia for private properties and is dependent upon the class of building being
erected. The Building Code of Australia requires the property owner/developer to design their
systems in accordance with AS2419 – Fire Hydrant Installations, which has specific
requirements for flow and residual pressure that must be achieved at hydrants installed in
private property. In addition, this Code specified regular maintenance requirements including
testing the private fire system to ensure that the flow and pressure requirements are satisfied
on a 12 monthly basis.
If available flows and pressures are insufficient to be directly supplied from the LWU then the
property owner/developer needs to provide their own infrastructure to ensure compliance with
the Building Code of Australia and AS2419. Additional infrastructure may include fire storage
tanks, booster valve assemblies, fire booster pumps etc. Note that advice and approval from
LWUs is still required.
Under the Building Code of Australia residential properties are not required to install fire
protection systems and are thus totally reliant on the LWUs supply in the event of a fire where
distribution mains are located nearby.
The private property owners’ ongoing compliance is dependent on the continuing availability of
flow and pressure from the LWU upon which they based their original design.
Where the LWU requires backflow protection to be installed as part of the fire fighting service
the property owner has an ongoing obligation to maintain and test the backflow prevention
device. The fire system design should also allow for the additional headloss associated with
backflow prevention devices.
4. NSW FIRE BRIGADE REQUIREMENTS
NSW Fire Brigade has no legislative provisions that require LWUs to provide minimum flows or
pressures. Their main interest is in being able to obtain sufficient water and sufficient positive
suction pressure to fight fires. A summary of these expectations is attached in Appendix 3.
21. WATER DIRECTORATE JUNE 2011
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5. HYDRANT FLOW AND PRESSURE AND TANK STORAGE DESIGN
PERFORMANCE
There is no legislation that specifies the performance requirements for the hydrants a LWU
installs in accordance with the Local Government Act 1993. AS2419.1 provides standards for
fire hydrants installed by developers and these performance standards are with the exception
of pressure residual, suggested as appropriate guidance for a LWU. The LWU would utilise the
flow rate specified in AS2419.1 for a hydrant and superimpose it over the base demand in their
water reticulation model.
5.1 Flow requirements
AS2419.1 §2.3.1 outlines the flow rate requirements for different building classes. The flow
rates are determined by a combination of building use and building floor area, and are
expressed in terms of number of hydrants flowing simultaneously1
. The minimum flow rate per
hydrant is defined as 10 L/s2
5.2 Pressure requirements
.
AS2419.1 §2.3.2 outlines the pressures required at the design flow rates. Two key criteria are
that 250 kPa is required (in NSW) for attack fire hydrants, unassisted by boosters, whilst 150
kPa is sufficient if a fire brigade pumping appliance is to be connected3
These residual pressure requirements may prove too onerous for a LWU undertaking routine
reticulation modelling. It is felt that the NSW Public Works criteria of achieving a positive
residual head throughout the reticulation is more appropriate.
.
5.3 Tank storage requirements
AS2419.1 §4.2 specifies that the minimum flow rates should be provided for not less than 4
hours. If a LWU intends to provide a volume of water in their reservoir(s) for fire fighting
systems designers should assess the maximum guaranteed fire flow rate from the system and
size storage tanks accordingly. Alternatively the LWU may specify the requirement for the
developer to supplement the town water supply with an onsite backup in accordance with
AS2419.1 §5.
5.4 Determination of design demands
Design demands are effectively determined by the system to which they apply. LWUs define
their own average and peak day demands, as well as other factors such as diurnal patterns
and demand allowances for different water use categories.
For example, average day demand for a system can be defined as total annual demand divided
by the number of days in the measured year. Peak day can be defined as the maximum
demand day in a given year. Typical diurnal patterns may be determined by installing flow
meters on key supply pipelines to specific development types e.g. into residential estates or
1
AS2419.1-2005 §2.3.1, Table 2.1
2
AS2419.1-2005 Table 2.2
3
AS2419.1-2005 Table 2.2
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industrial areas. If these methods are not possible, collaboration with similar LWUs could result
in more effective determination of demands.
It is noted that previous prescriptive approaches to determining theoretical demands have in
many cases been superseded as improved demand monitoring capabilities have become
available. These prescriptive demands are not necessarily incorrect, however adoption of
measured consumption patterns would inevitably lead to better management of the water
supply network.
5.5 95th percentile demands
When designing for fire fighting requirements, the system supply capacity must be assessed.
This involves calculation of pressures under a “base” demand scenario, then overlaying the fire
fighting flow rate.
AS2419 §2.3.3 describes the process for determining the “base” water network demands over
which fire flows are imposed. These base demands are calculated by either network modelling
or flow testing. Appendix F of AS2419 contained a detailed description of procedures to follow
when flow testing, however this appendix is informative only and should be used as such.
5.6 Local water utilities
A range of water authorities were surveyed to ascertain their current standards with respect to
fire design in their reticulation networks. The results of the survey are provided in Appendices
4, 5, 6 and 7.
The results of the survey demonstrate that the practices and recommendations of the various
LWUs are inconsistent and vary widely. Despite this, the survey provides insight into the
matters a LWU should consider when designing and supplying fire fighting flows.
6. HYDRANT INSTALLATION, INSPECTION, TESTING AND MAINTENANCE
REQUIREMENTS
Whilst the Local Government Act 1993 requires a LWU to provide hydrants for fire fighting, no
performance standards are specified and accordingly there is not prescription for the location
or maintenance of hydrants.
No requirements have been able to be identified for LWUs that specify inspection testing and
maintenance requirements to be undertaken on fire hydrants installed in the public systems.
AS1851-2005 Maintenance of Fire Protection Systems and Equipment specifies these
requirements for private systems. However, as part of the survey undertaken as part of this
assignment LWUs were requested to provide information on their practices with respect to
maintenance.
Many LWUs have their own guidelines regarding the location of hydrants within the water
supply network. In many cases, these design standards are based on a combination of
Australian Standards and legacy design guides e.g. Department of Public Works design
manual. Appendices 5, 6 and 7 show the results obtained from the LWUs surveyed with
respect to hydrant spacing.
23. WATER DIRECTORATE JUNE 2011
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6.1 Street hydrants
Many LWUs have their own guidelines regarding the location of hydrants with the water supply
network. In many cases, these design standards are based on a combination of Australian
Standards and legacy design guides e.g. Department of Public Works design manual.
Appendices 5, 6 and 7 should the results obtained from the Water Authorities Survey with
respect to hydrant spacing.
The current Australian Standards for fire hydrant design are AS3500.1 (metering requirements
only) and AS2419.1-2005 Fire Hydrant Installations. AS2419.1-2005 only provides advice
regarding onsite hydrant installations (i.e. not street hydrants). WSA03-2002 provides
guidance regarding fire hydrant installation in streets, including installation, purpose, size and
spacing. It is again noted that the WSAA guidelines are intended to be customised to meet the
requirements of the individual LWU, and as such most recommendations are to be in
accordance with the requirements of the respective LWU.
Generally the spacing of LWUs street hydrants are typically based on land zoning definitions
(i.e. residential, rural, industrial or commercial) and maximum hose lengths of a typical fire
fighting appliances, consisting of (AS2419:2005, Figure 3.2.2.2a):
• 20 metres maximum of suction hose length;
• 60 metres maximum of discharge hose length;
• 10 metres maximum of spray distance from the nozzle.
6.2 Onsite hydrants
The current Australian Standards for onsite fire hydrant design are AS3500.1 (metering
requirements only) and AS2419.1:2005 – Fire Hydrant Installations.
AS2419 – Fire Hydrant Installations provides advice regarding onsite hydrant installation (i.e.
not street hydrants) and details the requirements for plumbing installations for hydrant
services. The approach taken by the LWUs surveyed is available in Appendix 8.
7. METERING OF FIRE SERVICES
There is some ambiguity in the ability of LWU to require installation of meters on fire services.
Typically, the metering of fire services may be based on whether the fire service is a dedicated
service (i.e. serving no other function) or whether it is part of a shared service providing
domestic supply.
The metering of fire services may also be based on the likelihood of unauthorised or excessive
use (i.e. testing). LWUs are managing their operations to reduce the amount of unaccounted
water that includes a component of unmetered water and the unauthorised use of water
through unmetered fire services should be included in the management program.
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Photograph 1: Typical Arrangement showing Fire Brigade Booster Assembly Arrangement
The NSW Code of Practice for Plumbing and Drainage has the following clause:
NSW 6.5 Metering of a Fire Hydrant or Sprinkler Service
Water supply to a fire hydrant or sprinkler service shall not be metered unless directed
by the Authority.
Fire hydrant services shall be installed with a double check detector assembly which
incorporates a metered by-pass. An authorised meter shall be supplied, installed and
maintained by the property owner.
Individual meters for hydrant/sprinkler and domestic services may be required by some
authorities.
It should be noted that there is a current proposal to move away from the Code of
Practice and rely on AS3500. AS 3500.1:2003 Clause 6.5 states:
Water supply to a fire hydrant or sprinkler service shall not be metered unless directed
by the network utility operator.
25. WATER DIRECTORATE JUNE 2011
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This clause in AS3500 is not consistent with AS2419.1-2005 which states:
4.1.2 Metering of Water Supply
Where the metering of the water supply for fire fighting purposes is required by the
water agency, inline meters shall not be installed.
NOTE: The preferred method is a metered bypass across a non-return valve.”
NSW Fire Brigade considers the requirements of AS2419 should apply. They have commented,
however, that AS2419 is under review and a revised draft clause on metering has been
prepared as follows:
4.7.2.1. Metering of Water Supplies
Where metering of the water supply for fire fighting purposes is required by the water
agency, a meter shall be installed:
(a) on a by-pass such as around a backflow prevention device, or
(b) inline, provided the meter does not have internal mechanisms that could limit flow,
including in the event of meter failure.
Where inline meters are installed, the meter assembly shall not include a strainer and
shall have the same nominal bore as the fire service. The hydraulic effect of the meter
and associated pipework and fittings shall be included in flow and pressure calculations of
the fire hydrant system design.
NOTE: A LWU may specify requirements differing from the above as a condition of
connection to its reticulated water supply.”
If this clause is adopted, and NSW Fire Brigade is of the opinion that it will be adopted, it will
be clear that LWUs will have the right to enforce metering of fire and sprinkler services.
8. ADVICE TO BE PROVIDED TO DESIGNERS OF PRIVATE SYSTEMS BY
WATER AUTHORITIES
AS2419- Fire Hydrant Installations requires designers of fire hydrant systems to base their
designs upon information provided by the LWU. In the absence of such information or the
absence of a public system, the designer must provide storage and pressure facilities to meet
the requirements of the standard. In most circumstances, the designer acting on behalf of the
developer will approach the LWU requesting information about available flows and pressures.
As has been discussed above, the required flow for development is found within AS2419 and
varies depending on the class of building. The residual pressure is also specified in AS2419 but
these pressures relate to the private fire hydrants.
8.1 Minimum residual pressure
AS2419 spells out the pressure requirements and describes the basis for determining the base
water network demands over which fire flows are imposed. These base demands, defined as
95th percentile demands, are calculated by either network modelling or flow testing.
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The 95th percentile demands are defined as:
• the pressure at a particular point that can be maintained for 95% of the time based on
system modelling4
• either the minimum pressure available on the day of the year where 95% of the days in
that year have a lower peak demand (approximately equates to the 18th highest demand
day in any year), or the minimum pressure available on the highest demand day
excluding the lowest 5% of pressures on that day
or
5
Alternate to modelling, the pressures may be determined by testing the water supply system
using approved methods
.
6
The minimum residual pressure/flow rate information must be provided by the LWU. The
designer of the development should normally provide the fire flow that they have determined
applies to their development as part of their request for the pressure statement from the LWU.
such as the testing methods outlined in Appendix F of AS2419.1.
Hydrant testing is preferable when there is no available system model or the model does not
represent the system as designed. Examples of this situation are if the model is not at system
design capacity or when it is known that friction characteristics could produce unreliable results
without field verification.
Appendix 9 presents the results of the information provided by LWUs to designers of hydrant
systems.
8.2 Pressure reduction consequences
In discussions with some of the respondents to the Water Authorities Survey, the key issue
with respect to the advice provided is the ongoing (i.e. future) accuracy of the information
provided. This is particularly the case for LWUs where pressure reduction has been undertaken
in association with leakage management strategies. Depending on previous advice provided,
the implications of pressure reduction programs are greatest when the minimum pressure
under 95th percentile demands is reduced, due to this being the AS2419.1 design pressure.
It is possible to install pressure reducing valves which reduce pressures to the 95th percentile
pressure across the whole day and not impact on supply pressures. This is due to the ability of
the pressure reducing valve to open (i.e. throttle the flow less) in response to increased
demand. If the fire flow within a system designed as such occurred at the theoretical 95th
percentile minimum pressure, the pressure reducing valve would already be fully open (no flow
restriction) and the system performance would be equal with a system without pressure
reducing valves.
If the pressure reduction program results in minimum pressures below the 95th percentile
demand minimum pressures, then end users will potentially receive reduced system
performance in comparison with the original fire fighting design (assuming that the original
design was based on higher minimum pressures). In this case, it is recommended that careful
consideration is given to pressure reduction in areas where fire fighting system design advice
was previously given. This consideration could include consultation with end users to whom
previous advice was given to ensure that fire fighting system designs can comply with
4
AS2419.1-2005 §2.3.3 item (a)
5
AS2419.1-2005 §2.3.3 item (b), further explained in Note 2
6
AS2419.1-2005 §2.3.3 item (c) and item (d)
27. WATER DIRECTORATE JUNE 2011
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standards under the reduced pressures. It could also include revising the area of rezoning such
that only areas where design pressures were not provided experience pressure reduction.
An alternative to this (more relevant to new design approvals) is to cover the provided flow @
minimum pressure design information with an indemnification clause against future area
rezoning.
One clause clarifying the accuracy of provided information is as follows:
The above flow and pressure information is a calculated estimate from mathematical
models of the water supply system, and should not be treated as a guarantee of supply
in any way. These values are not representative of conditions at all times of the day or
season and are subject to variables beyond Council’s control, such as a proposed system
augmentations, variations in system demands or changes in hydraulic operation of the
network. You should also be aware that Council is presently undertaking a pressure and
leakage management program that may result in a reduction in water supply flow and
pressure in the area.
For these reasons <> cannot guarantee water pressure greater than the following for use
within the property.
Normal Daily Water Demand (Background Demand) – 22 m at the property boundary
Fire System Demand – 12 m residual pressure in Council’s water supply main at the
hydrant with the following maximum flow rates:
• residential – 15 L/s for 2 hours duration
• commercial/industrial – 30 L/s for 4 hours duration
NOTE: Pressures/ flows quoted above are specific to an existing LWU and were used in
this document in entirety, and may not represent intended compliance with any
Australian Standard or design code.”
An alternate clause is:
The calculated residual mains pressure quoted above may be used at the applicant’s risk
for the design of the installation of private fire hydrants, fire sprinkler systems, fire hose
reels and domestic fixtures only, in accordance with the provisions of Council’s Policy.
The calculated hydraulic information provided in this letter is valid for 12 months from
the date of the conducted field test.
Please find enclosed a duplicate copy of this letter which must be returned to Council
with the design calculations.
These clauses provide a means by which the LWU can modify their system. It is however
considered prudent that LWUs provide advice to development designers outlining potential
system changes (i.e. potential pressure reductions) that should be allowed for in fire fighting
system design.
9. MODELLING OF FIRE FLOWS
In addition to being an effective tool for general system planning and operational assistance,
computer models representing a LWUs water supply system can be used to assess fire flow
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capacity. Models can be used to assess instantaneous flow/pressure relationships under fire
flow condition. Extended period simulations can also be used to assess reservoir performance
whilst the system is drawing flows for fire fighting.
A variety of modelling packages are available on the public market, and range in functionality
and useability, depending on the requirements of the LWU. Models can be based on the LWUs
asset data, with some modelling packages allowing direct interface with GIS. SCADA
integration is becoming more common, which (if available) allows validation of modelled
systems utilising data logging devices (reservoirs, flow meters, pumping stations) already
present within the water supply network.
Modelling of system performance under fire flow conditions can provide more accurate system
performance than hydrant testing in the field, as it allows direct estimation on a 95th
percentile day, rather than whatever day the hydrant testing happens to occur on. A 95th
percentile day can set up as a single base case, with variations on that model then allowing
pressure and flows to be assessed at specific points within the network. Alternatively, some
modelling packages allow fire flows to be assessed, in turn, across an entire water supply
system.
It is noted however that the key to achieving reliable results from any computer model is
correct construction of the model, verification against observed data, and adequate updating of
the model to ensure changes to the system are accurately represented.
LWUs have previously used a variety of methods for setting up a system model, ranging from
using in-house resources (if available) to sub-contracting the task to external consultants. It is
recommended that, as part of the model setup process, sufficient training is provided to LWU
staff such that the model may be utilised as required, rather than simply constructing a model
which is never again utilised.
A non-exhaustive list of companies that produce water supply system modelling packages is
given below. It is recommended that the LWU makes careful consideration of the modelling
software to be used, as features of different packages can vary widely. LWUs should
specifically check the fire flow simulation options with the software providers to determine if
the software is capable of such simulations.
• Water Network Modelling Software
• Bentley (WaterCAD, WaterGEMS)
• DHI (MIKE NET, MIKE URBAN)
• EPANET
• HCP (WATSYS)
• MWH Soft (H2ONet, H2OMap, InfoWorks)
• WaterCom (Pipes++)
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APPENDIX 2: SUMMARY OF QUEENSLAND DEPARTMENT OF
ENVIRONMENT AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FIRE PROVISIONS
Table 5.5 from Department of Environment and Resource Management Planning Guidelines for
Water Supply and Sewerage – Chapter 6 – Network Modelling.
33. WATER DIRECTORATE JUNE 2011
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APPENDIX 3: NSW FIRE BRIGADE EXPECTATIONS
Fire Fighting Meeting Summary
The following is what is generally aimed for once fire crews arrive onsite. In general:
• a standard hose length is 30 m. This can however be as short as say 23 m due to hose
repairs
• standard hose diameter is 70 mm
• a single hydrant standpipe connects to two hoses, each hose drawing 10 L/s
• fire pumper has capacity of 1800-2000 L - for rescue and rapid suppression purposes
only- tender must then be refilled from street mains (can be done whilst pumping from
fire pumper)
• adequate residual pressures under required flow is essential- lower can pressures cause
soft suction hose to collapse. The higher the pressure the better
• preference is for 25 - 30 m head before drawing fire flow
• watermains must provide a minimum residual pressure of 150 kPa at required fire flows,
however the NSWFB believes 200 kPa is preferable (this is to minimise pump cavitation
and associated risk of damaging pumps)
• fires are generally extinguished within 4 hours- any extended time could be due to
nature of fire (fuel load) or unavailability of adequate water
• hydrant spacing of 90 m permits connection within one to two hose lengths to nearest
hydrant
• maximum hydrant spacing of should be no greater 120 m.
Residential areas:
Flow Preferences:
• usually two connections to a single hydrant (20 L/s)
• alternative is two separate hydrants (10 L/s each).
Industrial areas:
• up to three separate hydrant connections (20 L/s per hydrant- 60 L/s total).
Rural areas:
• large rural fires (sheds etc.) could use up to 2 hydrants (40 L/s total)- usually restricted
due to available supply.
The maintenance and inspection of hydrants are the responsibility of the LWU, however the
NSWFB carry out inspections and minor maintenance such as vegetation removal and indicator
plate replacements as part of their preparedness role. The possibility of a register (uncertain
what format) is currently being explored to reduce duplicate inspections by Sydney Water and
the NSWFB.
Inspections of Hydrants:
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Recycled Water:
• program currently in place to start acceptance of recycled water (three schemes in
Sydney Water area have been accepted e.g. Rouse Hill uses hydrants with recycled water
provided quality acceptance is satisfactory)
• quality has to meet Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and
Environmental Risks, and consistent with individual Recycled Water Quality Management
Plans for each scheme.
Hydrant Marking:
• preference is for blue cats eyes to be permanently fixed on the roadway street lane
adjacent to the hydrant
• indicator plates are fixed to utility poles
• pole also show distance and pipe diameter that should be used in addition to cats eyes
• future location methods may include electronic records e.g. laptop interface with regular
updates showing hydrants.
Domestic/Home Sprinklers (AS2118.5 – 2008):
The following strategies are being considered:
• could be suitable remote areas where response times are longer
• a minor reduction may not significantly affect NSWFB operations as sprinkler operation
could potentially contained fires to affected rooms
• cost savings could be obtained by reducing street pipe size requirements due to lower
required flow rates (although 100% installation of sprinklers would be necessary).
Metering of Fire Services:
NSW Fire Brigade considers that Clause 4.1.2 of AS2419.1-2005 which states:
“Where the metering of the water supply for fire fighting purposes is required by the
water authority, inline meters shall not be installed.” is applicable.
They have advised however that this Standard is currently under review and an alternate
clause has been proposed as follows:
“4.7.2.1. Metering of Water Supplies
Where metering of the water supply for fire fighting purposes is required by the water
authority, a meter shall be installed:
(a) on a by-pass such as around a backflow prevention device, or
(b) inline, provided the meter does not have internal mechanisms that could limit flow,
including in the event of meter failure.
Where inline meters are installed, the meter assembly shall not include a strainer and
shall have the same nominal bore as the fire service. The hydraulic effect of the meter
and associated pipework and fittings shall be included in flow and pressure calculations of
the fire hydrant system design.
NOTE: A LWU may specify requirements differing from the above as a condition of
connection to its reticulated water supply.
35. WATER DIRECTORATE JUNE 2011
Page 34
APPENDIX 4: DETAILS OF LWUS/WATER AUTHORITIES SURVEYED
LWU/Water Authority Contact Name Basis of Standard Contact Phone Number/web address
Hunter Water Corporation S Horvath In - House/AS2419 (02) 4979 9481
Sydney Water Stephen Kay Nil (02) 4172 21597
NSW Public Works Kamal Fernando In - House 1985/based on
Ordinance 70
(02) 9372 7869
Tweed Shire Council
Dubbo City Council Stewart McLeod AUSSPEC which nominally calls
up the Building Code of
Australia.
(02) 6801 4800
Tamworth Regional Council Doug Hill Old DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC
WORKS standard now modified
to 10 L/s at 15 m head
(02) 6767 5809
Shoalhaven City Council Ljupco Lazarevski Local Government Regulation (02) 4429 3255
Queensland DERM In House http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/water/regulatio
n/pdf/guidelines/water_services/wsguidelines
.pdf
Gold Coast Water Bruce Douglas In-house and Based on
recognised Community Service
Obligation and Qld Guidelines
(07) 5582 8164
NSW Fire Brigade Superintendent Chris Jurgeit (02) 9742 7400
36. FIRE FLOW DESIGN GUIDELINES
Page 35
APPENDIX 5: LWUS/WATER AUTHORITIES DESIGN FOR RESIDENTIAL PROPERTIES
LWU/Water
Authority
Base Design Flow Fire
Flow
(L/s)
Residual
Pressure
(m head)
Duration
of Flow
(hours)
Hydrant
Spacing
(m)
Minimum
Pipe Size
(mm)
Comments
Hunter Water
Corporation
95% demand 10 15 not
specified
100-120 100
Sydney Water Peak Day None
Specified
None
Specified
120 100
NSW Public Works 0.15 L/s per tenement
except if more than
1000 tenements use
0.10 L/s
11 28 not
specified
not
specified
100
Tweed Shire Council
Dubbo City Council Peak Day 10 13 60 100
Tamworth Regional
Council
Peak Day 10 15 not
specified
75 100
Shoalhaven City
Council
0.05 L/s/ET None
Specified
None
Specified
80 100
Queensland DERM 2/3 Peak Hour 15 12 2
Gold Coast Water 2/3 Peak Hour 15 12 2 80 100
NSW Fire Brigade 20 total positive 70-75 with
max 120
Flow is total not
necessarily from one
hydrant
37. WATER DIRECTORATE JUNE 2011
Page 36
APPENDIX 6: LWUS/WATER AUTHORITIES DESIGN FOR COMMERCIAL/INDUSTRIAL PROPERTIES
LWU/Water Authority Base Design Flow Fire Flow
(L/s)
Residual
Pressure
(m head)
Duration
of Flow
(hours)
Hydrant
Spacing
(m)
Minimum
Pipe Size
(mm)
Comments
Hunter Water
Corporation
95% demand 20 15 70-120 150
Sydney Water Peak Day None
Specified
None
Specified
120 100
NSW Public Works 0.15 L/s per
tenement except if
more than 1000
tenements use 0.10
L/s
15 or 22 28 not
specified
None
Specified
None
Specified
Tweed Shire Council
Dubbo City Council Peak Day 20/40 13 60 150
Tamworth Regional
Council
Peak Day 10 15 not
specified
75 150
Shoalhaven City Council 0.05 L/s/ET None
Specified
None
Specified
80 150
Queensland DERM 2/3 Peak Hour for
zone or peak hour
localised
30 12 4
Gold Coast Water 2/3 Peak Hour 30 12 4 80 150
NSW Fire Brigade 60 total positive 4 hours 70-75 with max120 Flow is total not
necessarily from one
hydrant
38. FIRE FLOW DESIGN GUIDELINES
Page 37
APPENDIX 7: LWUS/WATER AUTHORITIES DESIGN FOR RURAL PROPERTIES
LWU/Water
Authority
Base Design
Flow
Fire Flow
(L/s)
Residual
Pressure
(m head)
Duration
of Flow
(hours)
Hydrant
Spacing
(m)
Minimum
Pipe Size
(mm)
Comments
Hunter Water
Corporation
95%demand 10 15 180-220 150
Sydney Water Peak Day None
Specified
None
Specified
120 100
NSW Public Works 0.15 L/s per
tenement except
if more than
1000 tenements
use 0.10 L/s
11 28 not
specified
None
Specified
None
Specified
Tweed Shire
Council
Dubbo City
Council
Peak Day None
Specified
Minimum 1 120 100
Tamworth
Regional Council
None Specified None
Specified
None
Specified
not
specified
None
Specified
None
Specified
Shoalhaven City
Council
0.05 L/s/ET None
Specified
None
Specified
up to 150 100
Queensland DERM 2/3 Peak Hour 7.5 12 2 small community
Gold Coast Water 2/3 Peak Hour 7.5 12 2 80 100 small community post
2009 - 15 L/s pre 2009
NSW Fire Brigade up to 40 total positive up to 4
hours
70-75 with
120 max
Flow is total not necessarily from one
hydrant
39. WATER DIRECTORATE JUNE 2011
Page 38
APPENDIX 8: LWUS/WATER AUTHORITIES PLUMBING REQUIREMENTS FOR FIRE SERVICES
LWU/Water Authority Metering Backflow
Fire hose reels Hydrants Sprinklers Fire hose reels Hydrants Sprinklers
Hunter Water Corporation Y Y Y Y Y Y
Sydney Water Y Y Y Y Y Y
NSW Public Works
Tweed Shire Council
Dubbo City Council Y Y Y Y Y
Tamworth Regional Council Y Y Y Y
Shoalhaven City Council
Queensland DERM
Gold Coast Water Y Y Y Y
40. FIRE FLOW DESIGN GUIDELINES
Page 39
APPENDIX 9: ADVICE PROVIDED BY LWUS/WATER AUTHORITIES TO PRIVATE DESIGNERS
LWU/Water Authority Information
Requested from
Designer
Information Provided Comments
Fire Flow
(L/s)
Residual
Pressure
(m head)
Flow Flow
(L/S)
Residual
Pressure
(m head)
Pipe Size
(mm)
Duration
of Flow
(hours)
Hunter Water Corporation Y Y Y Detailed disclaimer
Sydney Water Y Y Y Y Y Statement valid for twelve months.
Direct notification if system
reconfigured.
NSW Public Works Not applicable
Tweed Shire Council
Dubbo City Council
Tamworth Regional Council Y Y Y Recognise need to qualify statement
re changes in system configuration.
Shoalhaven City Council Y Y Y Y Statement valid for twelve months
and states that changes can take
place from time to time
Queensland DERM Not Applicable
Gold Coast Water Y Y Y Detailed disclaimer
41. WATER DIRECTORATE JUNE 2011
Page 40
APPENDIX 10: EXTRACT FROM AS2419.1 DESCRIBING FIELD TESTING TO
DETERMINE 95TH PERCENTILE DEMANDS
47. WATER DIRECTORATE JUNE 2011
Page 46
APPENDIX 11: EXAMPLE FIRE FLOW APPLICATION FORMS FROM LWUS
• Coffs Harbour City Council - Water Pressure Reading
• Coffs Harbour City Council - Fire Flow Test Results
• Dubbo City Council - Fire Flow Investigation Form
• Dubbo City Council – Water Pressure Template
• Griffith City Council – Flow Rate Application Form
• Griffith City Council - Flow Rate Test Form
• Riverina Water County Council – Network Analysis Report
• Tamworth Regional Council – Flow Pressure Template
• Tweed Shire Council – Mains Pressure and Flow Rate Inquiry
• Wyong Shire Council – Water Pressure Test Request
50. S:Data - WATER DIRECTORATEAction PlanFire FlowsAppendix 11Dubbo Fire Flow Investigation Form.docx
FIRE FLOW INVESTIGATION FORM
CUSTOMER NAME:
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
POSTAL ADDRESS:
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
PHONE NUMBER:
……………………………………………………………………………………………...
LOCATION TO BE INVESTIGATED FOR FIRE FLOW:
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………… ……………………………….
APPLICANT SIGNATURE DATE
Office Use Only:
Fee Paid: Date: Receipt No. CSO.
Receipt Type: - 462
Receipt Code: - 30
GL: - 02.05010.3051.550
51. WS7.7,
RM:SC
L:WSASSETFireflowsWater Pressure template.doc
(date)
ATTENTION:
(address)
Dear Sir/Madam
WATER PRESSURE: address
In reply to your request received by Council on ………., you are hereby advised as follows:
1. The maximum available water pressure in Council’s …. mm main adjacent to the site,
running along ………….. is approximately …. kilopascals at periods of low
consumption, eg overnight or wet weather.
2. The expected minimum water pressure is approximately …. kilopascals. This will
occur under normal system operating conditions at a time of peak demand, eg late
afternoon on a hot summer day, and does not take account of abnormal conditions that
may result from a broken main, empty reservoir, or the like.
3. The pressure in the main for various fire flow rates is as indicated below:
Flow (L/s) Pressure (kPa)
0
5
10
15
20
4. Council has no surveyed ground levels available near to the site, but from airborne laser
survey maps held by Council a level of R.L. ……. has been adopted and these pressures
are related to that level.
5. Please note that these results have been obtained from an uncalibrated water supply
hydraulic model and this should be taken into account when reviewing results.
Yours faithfully
Water Asset Planning Engineer
52. FORM
(Blanks not to be photocopied. Print direct from DAKS)
(Printed on 24-Jun-11 at 10:06)
(WS-FO-206) Application for a Flow Rate Test
Approved: Quality Systems Manager Group / System: Water, Sewerage & Drainage Document ID: WS-FO-206 Version: 2
Relevant To: Date Issued: 23-Jul-08 Revised: 17-Dec-09 Status: Approved Page: 1 of 2
APPLICANT DETAILS:
Applicant Name:
Applicant Postal Address:
Contact Phone Number:
Contact Email Address:
PROPERTY TO BE TESTED
Street Address:
Lot: Assessment no:
DP: Parcel:
Description:
(e.g. 6 x Residential Flats)
(see note 1)
Does Building Exceed 25 metres? Yes No
PURPOSE OF FLOW TEST
Fire Service Yes (see note 3) No
Connection to Town Supply Yes No
Mains extension Yes No
Other Yes No
Is a street hydrant required? Yes No
If Fire Service:
Internal Hydrants Yes No If Yes, how many? (see note 3)
Hose Reels Yes No If Yes, how many? (see note 3)
Sprinklers Yes No If Yes, how many? (see note 3)
Applicant Signature: Date: / /
NOTE:
1. Attach plans or draw plan overleaf, include as much information as possible.
2. Applicable fee (see current Management Plan – Fees & Charges) MUST be paid with lodgement of application.
3. Hydraulic Calculation Report will be required for connection/part connection to a fire service.
4. Test results are valid for 6 months.
5. Please work off 40-60mts head pressure to accommodate future installation of pressure reduction valves.
OFFICE USE ONLY:
Receipt Code 215 Fund: 141117.0521 (Fee MUST be paid with lodgement of application)
Payment Amount:$ Receipt Number: Date: / /
Applicant NAR: Applicant Notified: Yes Date: / /
Requires Hydraulic Calculation Report? Yes No
53. FORM
(Blanks not to be photocopied. Print direct from DAKS)
(Printed on 24-Jun-11 at 10:06)
(WS-FO-206) Application for a Flow Rate Test
Approved: Quality Systems Manager Group / System: Water, Sewerage & Drainage Document ID: WS-FO-206 Version: 2
Relevant To: Date Issued: 23-Jul-08 Revised: 17-Dec-09 Status: Approved Page: 2 of 2
SITE PLAN:
54. FORM
(Blanks not to be photocopied. Print direct from DAKS)
(Printed on 24-Jun-11 at 10:06)
(WS-FO-211) Flow Rate and Pressure Testing
Approved: Quality Systems Manager Group / System: Water, Sewerage & Drainage Document ID: WS-FO-211 Version: 2
Relevant To: Date Issued: 14-Sep-09 Revised: 17-Dec-09 Status: Approved Page: 1 of 1
Name:
Address of Premises to be Tested:
Lot: _______ DP: ________________ Parcel:____________ Assessment: ______________
Actual Location of Test:
Size of Main:
Date: Time:
Weather: Temperature:
Static Pressure Before Test: kPa
Residual Pressure at Flow Rate of 5.0 L/s (300 L/m) kPa
Residual Pressure at Flow Rate of 10 L/s (600 L/m) kPa
Residual Pressure at Flow Rate of 15 L/s (900 L/m) kPa
Residual Pressure at Flow Rate of 20L/s (1200 L/m) kPa
Residual Pressure at Flow Rate of L/s: kPa
Static Pressure After Test kPa
Maximum Pressure: kPa
Minimum Pressure: kPa
Comments:
55. Address Lot No.
Available
Flow Rates
(L/sec)
Residual
Pressure
(m)
0 64.07
5 62.81
10 59.68
15 54.9
20 48.55
25 40.72
30 31.44
35 20.75
40 8.69
43.29 0
Model Software: H2ONet Analyzer 6
Hydrand Flow Graph
Comments / Notes
The above is the available hydrant flow at this node without additional fire demands
Job / Description:
Above information based on an uncalibrated model of the system.
The required minimum residual pressure to be maintained at any one time is 20 m head.
Pipe Diameter NB (mm) Location:
Date:
Attention:
Pipe/Node/Hydrant ID
Elevation AHD (m)
Street Name Sect. No. DP. No.
Address:
Riverina Water County Council
Network Analysis Report - Node Hydrant Flows
Client:
Ref: Fire Flows
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
ResidualPressure(m)
Available Flow (L/s)
HYDRANT FLOW CURVE
56. S:Data - WATER DIRECTORATEAction PlanFire FlowsAppendix 11Tamworth Flow Pressure Template - May 2011.docx
TAMWORTH REGIONAL COUNCIL
Postal Address
P.O. Box 555
Tamworth NSW 2340
Ray Walsh House
437 Peel Street
Tamworth NSW 2340
FACSIMILE TRANSMISSION WATER ENTERPRISES
TO: FROM:
FAX No: FAX No: (02) 67675849
ATTENTION: TELEPHONE: (02) 67675
DATE: LAND FILE:
No of PAGES: TRIMMED TO LF
(Initial when Complete)
SUBJECT: FLOW AND PRESSURE TEST –
Dear Sir
In reply to your enquiry of concerning the above it is advised that the following test results
were achieved at the locations shown on the ATTACHED plan.
Date :
Time :
Water main size:
Summary Results: Flow & Residual Pressure Results:
Location (A) Location (B)
Static Pressure: (KPa) Asset No: Asset No:
Maximum Flow obtained during test:
(Litres/second)
(Flow - Litres/second) (Residual Pressure – Kpa)
You are advised that these figures apply only to the flow and pressure available at this particular time
and the results will vary from time to time depending on several factors including, reservoir head and
usage by others in the reticulation system.
Council is not able to guarantee these results will be available at all times or that these are minimum
results and therefore they should be used as a guide.
Please contact Mark Brodbeck should you wish to discuss this matter further.
Regards
57. Customer Service | 1300 292 872 | (02) 6670 2400
PO Box 816 Murwillumbah NSW 2484
Fax (02) 6670 2429 | ABN 90 178 732 496
tsc@tweed.nsw.gov.au | www.tweed.nsw.gov.au
Mains Pressure and Flow Rate Inquiry - Water April 2011.doc Page 1 of 1
Mains Pressure and Flow Rate Inquiry 2010 - 2011
Requested by
Phone Mobile
Email
Postal Address
Location of Test (plan attached)
Date
Tests Required Pressure: Yes No Hydrant Flow Rate: Yes No
Specify Flow Rates Required (L/s)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Other Tests (specify)
Test Results – Operator Use Only
Flow Rate (L/s) Nil
Pressure (Kpa)
Maximum Flow Rate L/s
Operator’s Name
Asset Location - Hydrant
No.(s)
Comments
Office use only
Date Fee Paid $
Receipt No Officer
MNEMONIC BackFlowHydTest
Minimum Test Fee of $255.60 must be paid prior to issue of Certificate ($399.40 if traffic control required).
Job No. B0852.0004. Enquiries to Gary Cain (02) 6670 2600.
Instructions Print Clear Form
58.
59. Water Directorate Incorporated
Gary Mitchell, Executive Officer
Office: Level 12, 447 Kent Street, Sydney 2000
Telephone: 02 8267 3010
Facsimile: 02 9283 5255
Email: info@waterdirectorate.asn.au
Web: www.waterdirectorate.asn.au
