2. MINDFULNESS COACHING MODEL
1. Assumptions Underpinning the Model
T
he history and roots of mindfulness is based on Eastern philosophy and religion, such as
Buddhism, Zen, Taoism and similar contemplative traditions where conscious attention
and awareness is cultivated (Brown and Ryan 2003). Brown and Ryan (2003: 822) define
mindfulness as “the state of being attentive to and aware of what is taking place in the present”.
Mindfulness can be defined as bringing an individual‟s complete attention to an experience
occurring in the present moment, in a non judgmental, non reactive and a totally aware manner.
(Brown and Ryan 2003;Kabat-Zinn1990).Nisbett (2003) observed that western science and
philosophy is learning from eastern science and philosophy and spiritual and health practices. Can
this be true with business and the coaching profession? The eastern practices and philosophies, fit
comfortably with the Mindfulness Coaching Model, where the theory and literature reviewed
strongly link and infer the above assertion.
The positive effects and significance of mindfulness practices and techniques in alternative health,
healing, integrative medicine, sports and well being disciplines are well documented. Health
researchers have established that mindfulness practices are significant in managing chronic pain,
health conditions and stress levels, as measured and observed by quantifiable elements such as
cortisol, dopamine and serotonin levels (Kabat-Zinn, Lipworth, Burney 1985; Kabat-Zinn 1990;
Kabat-Zinn, Massion, Kristeller, Peterson, Fletcher, Pbert, Lenderking and Santorelli 1992; Berger
2002; Brown, Ryan 2003; Braham 2006; Tang, Ma, Wang, Fan, Feng, Lu Yusui, Rothbart and Fan
2007; Tang and Posner 2008).The Mindfulness Coaching Model further promulgates the above
findings by applying these principles not only to health practices and well being but to the field of
coaching .
The Mindfulness Coaching Framework is based on a social constructivist approach. This approach
would suggest that the world is to be invented by individuals and “ordinary people”(Putman 2009),
and not discovered objectively by the quantifiable limitations placed on by a logical positivist
construct. The field of Neuroleadership and social cognitive neuroscience also supports the social
constructivist and postmodernist paradigm (Rock and Page 2009; Rock 2009; Ringleb and Rock
2009; Rock, Tang and Dixon 2009; Blakemore, Winston and Frith 2004).
The Mindfulness Coaching Framework has linkages to quantum theory,neuroscience, and the
interdisciplinary field ofNeuroleadership, Seligman‟s Positive Psychology and Daniel Siegel‟s
Interpersonal Neurobiology(Mindsight).These scientific linkages and connections are academically
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3. and theoretically supportive of each other, and facilitate a platform for the Mindfulness Coaching
Model and paradigm to be created, which harnesses holistic and systemic principles.
Love and Maloney (2009)suggest the idea that mindfulness is at “the threshold of leadership‟s
next wave”. Their view states that leaders can move from a continuum of; unconscious, self aware,
self-regulating and systemic leaders, once the transition past the “mindfulness threshold “has
occurred.
Figure 1: (Love and Maloney 2008:98)
With the MindfulnessCoaching Model the coaching professional will access mindfulness practices
and techniques as tools to enhance the coaching experience and coachees will tap into these
methodologies of which some have been available for thousands of years, particularly in the
eastern philosophy and culture.
2. Mindfulness Coaching Model
The coaching framework focuses on the following four key modalities; Mind, Body, Cognition and
Emotion. These are the cornerstones of “integration”(Siegel, 2010). Once the four modalitiesare
integrated, with the influence of The Mindfulness Wheel, “positive change” or “dynamic stability”
may be facilitated. This change and stability is created by the process of Neuroplasticity (Rock and
Page, 2009). The current coaching model has formulated the Mindfulness Wheel, which includes
the “ingredients” that are necessary for integration and for “positive change” to be facilitated.
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4. MIND BODY
COGNITION EMOTION
Figure 2: Mindfulness Coaching Model
Figure 2 represents the Mindfulness Coaching Model, with the four modalities (mind, body,
cognition and emotion) represented at each corner of the square. The centre of the Mindfulness
Wheel represents the state of “positive change” or “dynamic stability” that occurs once the
coaching tools and techniques of the Mindfulness Wheel are implemented by the coachee. There
are six mindfulness coaching tools and techniques on the Mindfulness Wheel that a coachee will
implement in the coaching process. The proceeding paragraphs will discuss “positive change”,
plasticity and the four modalities, and then present the Mindfulness Wheel.
2.1. POSITIVE CHANGE,DYNAMIC STABILITY AND PLASTICITY
Neuroplasticity refers to the brain‟s capacity for change beyond childhood and adolescence. The
brain and more particularly neurons in the brain are not hardwired permanently, in neurological
pathways that are established in early childhood. Through focused attention, and repetition the
neural pathways of the brain have some plasticity and ability to change (Restak 2004; Rock and
Page 2009).
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5. Neuroplasticity facilitates positive change in a system, allowing it to evolve and develop, and not
remain static and inflexible to change. The Schwartz-Rock Dynamic Stability formula is a
mathematical expression of positive change and in understanding neuroplasticity (Rock and Page
2009: 171-190).
Dynamic Stability- this is known as the Schwartz–Rock formula for dynamic stability (Rock and
Page 2009, 171-190) Expressed as follows:
DS= (exptn + exprnce) x AD+ x VP
DS= Dynamic Stability or positive “change” and
exptn = expectancy and exprnce= experience
AD+= attention density
VP= veto power
And described as follows By Rock and Page (2009:171)
“….dynamic stability equals a combination of expectation and experience multiplied by positive
attention density multiplied by veto power. Dynamic stability is another way of saying “positive
change,” change that allows a system to adapt and develop, rather than remaining inflexible and
unable to respond, and to do this without becoming overwhelmed by chaos.
In the above formula expectation(associated with placebo) plus experience can be likened to
mindfulness techniques that use imagery, heightened levels of suggestibility such as in
hypnogogic states , hypnosis and visualization techniques .Furthermore the coaching question
“What do you want” often repeated makes clear and triggers the coachee‟s desires and intentions,
and the coach allows the client to „expect‟ a good outcome (Rock and Page 2009,176).The next
variable in the Schwartz–Rock formula is “attention density”, which can be described as exerting
focused and conscious energy. By applying this focused energy, the higher the “attention density”,
there is a multiplier effect to the dynamic stability formula, and this may establish new neural
pathways and facilitate for a “potentiating brain” and a “mind creating brain” effect. Mindfulness
practices such as meditation, contemplation, introspection often deploy high levels of focused
energy, which can be conceptualized as creating or facilitating the “attention density” variable of
the above formula.
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6. Finally “veto power” in the formula has also got a multiplier effect to the dynamic stability outcome.
In mindfulness practices self-regulation particularly in managing emotional, cognitive and even
physical states have been clinically tested and observed (Refer further to Kabat-Zinn1994; Kabat-
Zinn 2003; Kabat-Zinn 2010 ; Langer 2009;). So in fact “veto power” may be conceptualised as the
self-regulatory benefits of mindfulness practices. Mindfulness practices or techniques such as
meditation, tai chi, yoga, qigong, practices which all require focused attention equivalent to
“attention density”, and areassociated with self regulatory outcomes which may be represented by
“veto power”.
2.2. MIND
Daniel Siegel (2010) in collaboration with a UCLA interdepartmental peer group formulated a
definition of the Mind in 1992. Siegel defined the mind as follows:“The human mind is a relational
embodied process that regulates the flow of energy and information.”
Breaking down this definition Siegel(2010:52) commences the analysis by explaining that energy
is the “capacity to carry out an action”- this may be physical or mental action.He further explains
that this energy can be conceptualized in differing forms such as potential, kinetic,radiant, and
neural energies.Information is described as “anything that symbolizes something other than
itself”.The meaning of information is created and defined by the mind.Siegel (2010:53) further
elaborates that “energy and information go hand in hand in the movement of or minds”. He further
explains that the regulatory aspect of the mind allows for monitoring and modification.The
embodied aspect of the mind essentially describes that the mind is encapsulated in the body,
neural system and the brain.The relational aspect of the mind describes the fact that the energy
and information flow happens in relation to other objects, people or experiences. This definition of
the mind gave rises to the interdisciplinary study of Interpersonal Neurobiology.
2.3. BODY
Progressing into the 21st Century the necessary connections and links are made between mental
and physical health and mind and body. Questions we need to ask of ourselves and ourbodiesare
(Rock and Page 2009):
How do our bodies in harmony with our minds achieve optimal functioning as a whole?
How do we develop our bodies to achieve greater potential and experience peak
performance?
How do we manage greater achievements and minimize stress?
What are truly healthy lifestyles for our bodies over the long term?
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7. Ratey and Hagerman (2009) in their book Spark, identify that the brain, and the biochemistry of
the brain are integrally interconnect to the body and the biochemistry of the body. They succinctly
explain how physical exercise expended by the body can keep the balance between mind, brain
and the body.Ratey and Hagerman(2009:4-5) state:To keep our brains at peak performance, our
bodies need to work. In Spark, I'll demonstrate how and why physical activity is crucial to the way
we think and feel. I'll explain the science of how exercise cues the building blocks of learning in the
brain; how it affects mood, anxiety, and attention; how it guards against stress and reverses some
of the effects of aging in the brain; and how in women it can help stave off the sometimes
tumultuous effects of hormonal changes”.
According to the historian Sigerist(1961,9), Greek and Indian cultures placed high value on the
medicinal and health promoting aspects of physical exercise. Rock and Page(2009) claim that
neuroscience propagates treating the mind and body as a whole, and not as separate and
independent entities. They suggest that this is what has generated interest in coaching with a
systemic and whole holistic approach.Rock and Page(2009) further state that individuals who are
involved in peak performance and wanting to reach their full potential, need to be us physically
healthy as possible, so as to push their minds and bodies to the limits without affecting their health.
They suggest that a balanced diet, exercise, enough sleep, and manageable levels of stress may
improve health and life expectancy. Rock and Page(2009:124) also endorses the notion that
mindfulness exercises put people in touch with significant messages from their bodies on how to
keep healthy. In Siegel‟s (2010:11) triangle of well-being the mind, body and attuned
relationshipconnections are clearly identified and the necessary linkages are made with each other.
2.4. COGNITION
Rock and Page (2009) approach cognition as follows; memory, awareness, mapping and
predicting, dilemma model and finally decision-making and problem solving.
Memory use is divided into short-term and long-term memory as reported by Rock and Page
(2009). Short-term memory they report according to Miller‟s article at the onset of the cognitive
revolution in the 1950‟s can manage up to seven items. Short-term memory involves
understanding by focusing the flow of energy and attention of our minds. Short-term memory
involves decision-making and Rock and Page (2009:250) state “Decision-making doubles the flow
of energy required to attend to the variables.” Short-term memory is also particularly associated
with memorizing. Memorizing suggests newly established neural pathways, for recall purposes at
later stage. Rock and Page (2009) state that with memorizing we require to “regulate the flow of
energy.” Working memory also involves recalling information from long-term memory banks to
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8. current attention. This process also suggests a focus flow of energy and attention. Inhibiting is the
process of filtering information that does not require being stored in the working memory.
The three areas of working memory improvement are visualising, chunking and ordering. They
suggest that seeing something in one‟s mind‟s eye and experiencing it in real life creates the same
effect. Therefore visualisation techniques have positive outcomes, which can be successfully
utilised in the Mindfulness Coaching Model.
What is particularly relevant to cognition and particularly reference to memory is the level of
awareness as described by Rock and Page (2009). They suggest that the level of attention often
associated with practicing and activity with a level of focus and attention can “induce brain
hardwiring” and they quote Donald Hebb “the neurons that fire together wire together.”
The necessary link of cognition and mindfulness as analysed above, is that cognition in general
requires focused attention, awareness and repeated practice to facilitate insight and “positive
change”. Mindfulness practices generally apply the same principles of attention focus. Often the
insights, as described in esoteric and metaphysical literature are closely related to notions of
“enlightenment” and cognition arising from protracted states of contemplation or “thinking about
thinking” Rock(2006).
2.5. EMOTIONS
Rock and Page (2009:347) state “Emotions are an evolutionary adaptation that motivates
organisms to respond to environmental changes.” They further suggest that emotions are an
integration of mind, body, brain and social information, which can aptly be described as a “state or
frame of mind.” Neurological pathways firing in a particular pattern become hardwired and
ultimately formulate a human‟s personality. The emotional state of a person will affect the ability
for a leader (coachee) to act appropriately or otherwise in an organisation and work environment.
Mindfulnessstrongly correlates with emotionalawareness
(Bishop,Lau,Shapiro,Carlson,Andeson,Carmody,Segal,Abbey,Speca,Velting,Devins 2004) and
Emotional Intelligence as conceptualised by Goleman (1995). Brown and Ryan (2003) and
Hassed (2008) also support this view. Hassed (2008) reports that there is a positive relationship
with people who rate highly on mindfulness scales and individuals rating highly on Emotional
Intelligence (EI) measures.The converse is said to be true regarding mindlessness, which is
defined as “relative absence of mindfulness” (Brown and Ryan 2003:823)
Goleman(1995), in his book Emotional Intelligence, strongly suggests that a human‟s capacity to
succeed in a social or organisational situation is dependent not on the measure of intelligence
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9. quotient (IQ), but more so on “emotional intelligence” (EQ). Rock and Page (2009:352-353)
describe Goleman‟s “amygdala hijack” as follows: generalisations, reducing metabolism in the
prefrontal cortex, erring on the side of pessimism, confusing psychological and physical threats”.
A common theme in emotional intelligence and coaching literature (Goleman 1995; Rock 2009;
Ringleb and Rock 2008; Rock, Tang and Dixon 2009; Rock and Page2009) is emotional regulation,
which can be described as the ability to manage one‟s emotions appropriately, which is a highly
desirable quality in business. Emotional regulation is cultivated in the coaching process and in the
Neuroleadership field this quality is defined as “keeping cool under pressure.”
The necessary link between emotions and mindfulness is the concept of facilitating or cultivating a
desired “state of mind” and emotional regulation. Ideal states of mind are expressed with particular
brainwave activities; Alpha, Beta, Delta and gamma brain waves for the hypnogogic and
hypnopompic states. More significantly, gamma waves are associated with deep meditation,
indicative of neurons firing rapidly in harmony, and associatedto increased emotional regulation.
3. THE MINDFULNESS WHEEL
The Mindfulness Coaching Wheel has six coaching tools and techniques to be utilized with the
coachee:
Figure 3: The Mindfulness Wheel
Figure 3 describes The Mindfulness Wheel which involves six recommended coaching tools and
techniques to be implemented by the coachee. These are Relaxation, Meditative Breathing,
Visualisation, Contemplation (Thinking about Thinking), Narratives and Metaphors, and Aerobic
Exercise and Nutrition. The six coaching tools and techniques are discussed in further detail in the
proceeding paragraphs.
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10. 3.1. RELAXATION
Smith (1999) provided the first evidence-based description of relaxation outcomes, and
demonstrated the relationship between personal beliefs and relaxation.He further suggests that
world religions have offeredexplanations of mental and psychological states claimed to be linked
to relaxation.
Various relaxation techniques extend from visualisation, imagery, meditation, prayer to ordinary
muscular relaxation. Smith (1999) states that in the academic literature there are over 200 benefits
in every realm of life that have been documented from relaxation techniques. He further states that
relaxations is a professional tool that can be utilised extensively by clinical psychologists, sport
coaches, social workers councillors, organisational and industrial consultants.
According to Smith (1999) the key to relaxation is sustaining attention while diminishing overt
behaviour and covert cognitive processes.Relaxation techniques include muscle relaxation,
breathing, stretching, imagery, and autogenic training.
Berger (2002) suggests that hypnosis and relaxation techniques are important ancillary skills for
the suitably qualified coach. These techniques facilitate for the Schwartz Rock Dynamic Stability
formula variables to create a platform for “positive change” or “Dynamic Stability”
3.2. MEDITATIVE BREATHING
Any form of meditative practice that focuses on the breath. This can be a formof moving
meditation such as Tai Chi, Qi Qong, Yoga, alternative-nostril breathing or any other breath based
meditation. This meditation approximates the Attention Density (AD) and Veto Power(VP)variable
in the Schwartz Rock Dynamic Stability formula.
Reiner (2009) reports that regular deep meditation changes the brain in positive ways. Meditation
seems to be associated with gamma waves, the electromagnetic rhythm of neurons firing very
rapidly in harmony. Neuroscience describes meditation as a series of mental exercises by which a
person strengthens control over the working of their brain and emotional regulation.
Studies have described the benefits of evenshort term meditation. Benefits include better
performance on rapid fire visual tests, Meditation practises are known to increase parasympathetic
activity which has a calming effect on the respiratory system and metabolism. (Berger 2008),
Brahan (2006) documents how meditation practices can benefit both the coach and coachee.Tang
et al (2007) and Tang and Postner (2008) conducted research to establish body-mind aspects
ofmeditation and meditative practices.They established that the beneficial effects are self-
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11. regulation, increased attention,and ability to be present in the moment and reduced overall stress
levels.
3.3. VISUALISATION
Visualisation techniques focus on coaching outcomes based on the“expectancy” and “experience”
variables as described in the Schwartz Rock Dynamic Stability formula.Visualisation techniques
include visualising desired positive changes, imagery, and hypnosis. Berger (2002) describes how
“transitional visualisation” which includes hypnosis and relaxation theory is a useful tool in the
coaching process, and assists coaches in positive coaching breakthroughs.”Transitional
Visualisation is a process where the coachee visualises the true reality of a situation and then
develops motivation to move from it to something better. This is a process of transition and
“positive change”.
3.4. CONTEMPLATION“THINKING ABOUT THINKING”
The contemplation process will engage the cognitive processes of the coachee in order to better
understand his behaviours and thinking. With the contemplative practices, short term and long
term memories of the coachee are accessed, interpreted, and reinterpreted with narrative stories
and metaphors that may also be co-created. Attention levels and focus is applied to decision
making, and problem solving with the contemplation techniques, where often
visualization,chunking and ordering exercises are undertaken to achieve desired cognition.
Prochaska‟s (1979) transtheoretical analysis and Prochaska,Norcross and DiClemente(1994) that
studied more than 1000 people who had made permanent and positive changes in their lives, with
particular interest to coaching presented the following “contemplative model” for change:
Pre –contemplation. There s no intent to take action or change(in the next six months)
Contemplation.There is intention to take action within the next six months.
Preparation. Prepared to take action within thirty days and behavioural changes are
contemplated.
Action. Overt behaviour has changed for less than six months.
Maintenance.Behaviour has changed for more than six months.
Termination.There is a belief that the overt behaviour will never return and there is confidence
without fear of relapse.
Rock (2006) describes six steps to transforming performance.He states the first step to
transforming performance is learning to “think about thinking”.Alternatively stated if a coachee is
struggling to perform at their best they have not mastered “to think their way out of a
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12. situation”.Rock(2006) describes this process as “improving not what people are thinking about, but
the way they think” (Rock 2006:35).Rock describes this as “stretching peoples thinking”, and the
process is closely linked to contemplation.
3.5. NARRATIVES AND METAPHORS
Narratives and metaphors serve to construct events and to join them together in a timeline. They
make stories the source of „meaning making‟, coherent and as a result, life makes sense.
Coachees are focused on positive expectations even in negative situations. The coach
emphasises the elements of success and thereafter, connects stories with an experiential and
embodied implicit. i.e. often circumstances hide implicit issues which need to be explored. The
coach will often ask the coachee to give the story a name. This is deemed according to White
(2007), landscapes of consciousness. The coachee is encouraged to enrich the story by relating to
values and questions of identity and thereafter link the stories to other events. Finally the coachee
requires to re-author his story and build a bridge between the story and the imagined alternative
future scripts or storylines.Stelter and Law (2010) state that coaching narratives and metaphors
create a reflective space for the coachee. The three elements relevant to coaching narratives are;
focusing on values, giving opportunity to meaning making, creating opportunity for unfolding
narratives.
3.6. AEROBIC EXERCISE AND NUTRITION
Coacheesmust receive a clear bill of health from their medical
professional.Thereafterideallycommence on mild intensity aerobic exercise(walking), and increase
the tempo to intermediary(fast walk, slow jog) and higher intensities (fast jogging, running)over a
12 week period. Aerobic exercise is recommended to start off at initially 50% to 60% of a
coachee‟s maximum heart rate, and to increase intensity to up to 80% of a coachee‟s maximum
heart rate (Ratey and Hagerman, 2009). A rule of thumb to calculate maximum heart rate is the
number 220 and subtract the coachee‟s actual age, and this represents the maximum heart rate.
Recommended aerobic exercise includes walking, jogging, running, cycling and swimming, or any
other form of physical exercise that can increase heart rate from as low as 50% to 80% of
maximum.
The coaching model facilitates and encourages the coachee to engage in all the other techniques
to facilitate asuccessful coaching outcomesie visualization, contemplation and introspection,
creating narratives and metaphors whilst exercising. Particularly in the low and intermediary
intensity aerobic exercises, the coachee will experience the benefits of visualizing, contemplating
and creating narratives and metaphors of his or her expected or ideal outcomes.The nutritional
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13. aspects of the coachee are addressed with a qualified nutrionist to address the nutrional
requirements of the coachee.
Aerobic exercise and nutrition have substantial and quantifiable benefits for the four modalities
namely mind,body, cognition and emotion, which require integration for “positive change” and
“Dynamic Stability” to occur in the Mindfulness Coaching Model. (Ratey 2003; Ratey and
Hagerman 2009; Crow and Eckert 2000).
Through the ongoing application of the six coaching tools and techniques of the Mindfulness
Wheel the coachee will experience an integration of the four modalities namely mind, body,
cognition and emotion with “positive change” or dynamic stability being facilitated through the
process of plasticity.
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