course material

1. DQ1 1) N.L Hi Class, In 2023 we are will
DQ11) N.LHi Class, In 2023 we are will educate about STDs and be aware of how most of
them can be transmitted. HIV or human immunodeficiency virus attacks the body’s immune
system resulting in a compromised immune system and can result in AIDS or acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome if untreated (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
2022). Mandating HIV screening can be tricky depending on where you are mandating
people to get tested at. For example, In Urgent care or hospitals, it should be okay to
mandate everyone to get tested as a precaution due to the atmosphere and environment
one is in. Whereas in a job that doesn’t deal with any exposure it isn’t ethically fair to be
exposed to this when there isn’t a reason to be. In my opinion, it should be offered during
the other mandated vaccinations like the flu shots and Tuberculosis.Reference: Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, June 30). About HIV/AIDS. Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention. Retrieved November 28, 2022,
from https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/whatishiv.html2) E.PRegarding HIV/AIDS
specifically, the duty of confidentiality is nearly ubiquitous in professional codes of conduct.
Patients’ right to privacy and the public’s need to be safe from contagions are in tension
with one another. Presumably, only patients themselves will have a full understanding of
how their disclosures to third parties will affect their personal, social, and professional life
(Rennie et al 2006). Even more so than in other areas of life, the doctor-patient relationship
is one in which a person living with HIV/AIDS has a right to confidentiality. Any intentional
disclosure of protected information to a third party is a crime. One case in which a doctor
divulged his patients’ HIV status to a coworker on the golf course without their permission
resulted in a court awarding damages to the patients. Confidentiality, as a subset of
information privacy, refers to the protection of information shared inside a trusting
relationship from being shared outside of that relationship (Knight et al 2014). Only if the
person (or institution) to whom confidential information was supplied fails to secure the
information or knowingly exposes it to a third party without first party agreement does the
right to confidentiality be violated. A breach of privacy, rather than confidentiality, occurs
when an unauthorized person accesses patient records or other sensitive information
stored in a computer system. No one other than the intended recipient in a confidential
connection may be held liable for disclosure of the information.ReferenceRennie, S., &
Behets, F. (2006). Desperately seeking targets: the ethics of routine HIV testing in low-
income countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 84, 52-57.Knight, R., Shoveller,
J., Greyson, D., Kerr, T., Gilbert, M., & Shannon, K. (2014). Advancing population and public

2. health ethics regarding HIV testing: a scoping review. Critical Public Health, 24(3), 283-
295.3) M.FHello Professor and Class,HIV or human immunodeficiency virus attacks the
body’s immune system resulting in a compromised immune system and can result to AIDS
or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome if untreated (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2022). When questioning if it is ethically justifiable to mandate HIV screening it
is crucial to remember the general guidelines of medical ethics which are autonomy, justice,
beneficence, and nonmaleficience (Singh & Banerjee, 2004). Challenges arise when
justifying if screening for HIV should be mandated to include patient confidentiality and
possible stigmatization and discrimination that a patient positive for HIV might experience.
Certainly screenings for any health issue to include sexually transmitted diseases and HIV
can not only improve early detection of these diseases but also increase opportunities for
treatment of them. Acknowledging the justification questions when analyzing whether to
mandate screening for HIV is also essential. Answering these questions of effectiveness,
necessity, least infringement, proportionality, proportionality and public justification can
help determine whether or not mandating screening protocols are ethical or not (Bernheim,
Childress, Melnick, & Bonnie, 2013). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2020),
has concluded that routine, opt-out screening has been significantly effective for many
reasons to include cost-effectiveness, minimizing risk of transmission, removing potential
stigma associated with HIV testing, as well as supporting earlier diagnosis and treatment.
Thank you for taking the time to read this.ResourcesBernheim, R. G., Childress, J. F., Melnick,
A., & Bonnie, R. J. (2013). Essentials of public health ethics. Jones & Bartlett
Learning.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, June 30). About HIV/AIDS.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved November 28, 2022,
from https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/whatishiv.html Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention. (2020, March 4). Opt-Out Screening. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention. Retrieved November 28, 2022,
from https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/clinicians/screening/opt-out.html Singh Z, Banerjee A. HIV
/ AIDS : Social and Ethical Issues. Med J Armed Forces India. 2004 Apr;60(2):107-8. doi:
10.1016/S0377-1237(04)80096-0. Epub 2011 Jul 21. PMID: 27407599; PMCID:
PMC4923030.REPLY4) B.MHello class,Reading some of the responses by my classmates, I
see that many of you are actively working in a healthcare setting and have had a great
experience in this discussion topic. I have not yet worked in this setting; however, I did
work in a retirement home during my senior year of high school, and part of the hiring
process for all employees was a mandatory tuberculosis test to see if we were positive for
TB. With this in mind, I believe that it is ethical for a mandatory HIV screening, for HIV can
be an extremely life-threatening condition for various individuals, for it prevents your
body’s ability to ward off infections. (HIV/AIDS – Symptoms and Causes, 2022). HIV is
something that needs to be reported by law, which is a strong telling of the significance.
(Bernheim et al., 2013). Mandatory screening is not only crucial for the health of others, but
the health of the individual being tested as well for early diagnosis can have the earlier
treatment and greater health outcomes. (Screening for HIV | Clinicians | HIV | CDC, n.d.). The
conditions that need to be met are things such as if the condition poses a health threat to the
greater population, and in that case, there is a duty to protect the health and safety of

3. others. (Bernheim et al., 2013). With this in mind, I still believe that those screened are
informed about why they are being tested, for everyone deserves the right to control their
health. References:Bernheim, G. R., Childress, J. F., Melnick, A., & Bonnie, R. J.
(2013). Essentials of Public Health Ethics (Essential Public Health) (1st ed.). Jones & Bartlett
Learning.HIV/AIDS – Symptoms and causes. (2022, July 29). Mayo
Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hiv-aids/symptoms-causes/syc-
20373524Screening for HIV | Clinicians | HIV | CDC.
(n.d.). https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/clinicians/screening/index.htmlREPLYDQ25) W.SHello
Class!I can see a lot of benefits to things such as vaccinations, screenings, and testings.
Vaccines have allowed protection and prevented illness for not only the people vaccinated,
but others around them, especially the immunocompromised. A good example of this is the
Polio Vaccine. The US had many outbreaks from the years 1948-1955, averaging roughly
16,000 cases a year in the 20th century, the first vaccine for polio was made in 1955, 2020
was documented as zero cases of polio and is considered eradicated from north and south
America. I can see how screenings and testings for genetics based diseases or alignments
are positive and extremely helpful, especially when it comes to planning children, examples
of this are down syndrome, cystic fibrosis, and the HER gene in breast cancer. Above all, as
positive and informative and protective some of these abilities medicine has, I believe in
bodily autonomy and having the choice in what you put in your body, and what you allow to
be done on your body. I do not believe anything medical wise should be “mandated”. We live
in a world where we preach and stand on beliefs such as free speech, but then turn around
and force someone based on work policy, school policy, and pandemic issues to inject
something into their body. I apply this every day at work. I have had patients who have
refused life saving measures due to religious beliefs, personal beliefs, and would never try
to force something on them, simply based on “this will help you so why not do it”, everyone
has their own reasons and it’s not my place to judge.Thank you for taking the time to read
this,WhitneyMayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (n.d.). History of polio:
Outbreaks and vaccine timeline. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved November 29, 2022, from
https://www.mayoclinic.org/coronavirus-covid-19/history-disease-outbreaks-vaccine-
timeline/polio REPLY6) I.MHello Class,The importance of screening for any type of public
health use is extremely vital to the community. I know this because in one aspect one of the
jobs that I am tasked with is to test patients on a regular basis for any STDs / HIV And get
the results back to them within about 24 to 48 hours. Not only do we do this but We keep
track of this for our department and for the state department to keep track of numbers in
the community. Screening is an important part of preventive medicine. Ideally, screening
tools identify patients early enough to provide treatment and avoid or reduce symptoms
and other consequences, improving health outcomes of the population at a reasonable cost.
Cost-effectiveness analyses combine the expected benefits and costs of interventions and
can be used to assess the value of screening tools. Screening represents a cornerstone of
preventive medicine. Its rationale is to identify disease during an early and pre-
symptomatic stage. With appropriate treatment, screening can result in disease prevention
for those patients identified as at-risk. Early disease may be easier and less expensive to
treat, which positions screening strategies as potentially sound investments for healthcare

4. systems. Several countries have developed national screening programs that have led to
increased disease detection rates and prevention. However, screening is not entirely risk-
free and usually represents an immediate economic burden for systems with tight budget
constraints. Some screening tools are associated with direct health risks (X-rays and
radiation), and others might not provide a real additional value if, for instance, no follow-up
treatment is available. Additionally, tests need to be sufficiently reliable and accurate, since
high proportions of false negatives or false positives might represent worse health
outcomes and unnecessary diagnostic costs. To maximize value, an economic evaluation is a
useful tool to compare the potential benefits, risks, and costs of different strategies and to
inform resource allocation decisions. All health systems have scarce resources and are faced
with opportunity costs; this means that any investment in a screening tool will come at the
cost of other health services to the detriment of those patients who would have been
treated.References:Principles, methods, applications and organisation of screening for early
detection, prevention, treatment and control of disease (no date) Principles, methods,
applications and organisation of screening for early detection, prevention, treatment and
control of disease | Health Knowledge. Available at:
https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/disease-causation-
diagnostic/2c-diagnosis-screening/principles-methods-applications (Accessed: November
28, 2022). REPLY7) B.MHello class,I believe any testing should be voluntary and have the
patient’s full consent. The patient should be informed about every aspect of the procedure
by creating a mandatory screening; there will be individuals who avoid it free of cost and
the possibility of illness. (New Survey Finds Large Number of People Skipping Necessary
Medical Care Because of Cost | NORC.org, n.d.). Screenings, however, are a critical part of
public health, for screenings allow medical professionals to detect cancer, viruses, and
various diseases that impact the patient and the whole population. (Get Screened –
MyHealthfinder | health.gov, 2021). Screenings allow for early detection and treatment of
health issues before they can be unmanageable; therefore, it is crucial to ensure people are
not forced into procedures and understand the test. (Get Screened – MyHealthfinder |
health.gov, 2021). Before public health professionals mandate something, they must
understand the risks and rewards of mandating a test or screening. (McKenzie et al.,
2016). References:Compulsory and mandatory medical examinations.
(n.d.). https://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu08ie/uu08ie0t.htmGet Screened –
MyHealthfinder | health.gov. (2021, January 1). https://health.gov/myhealthfinder/doctor-
visits/screening-tests/get-screenedNew Survey Finds Large Number of People Skipping
Necessary Medical Care Because of Cost | NORC.org.
(n.d.). https://www.norc.org/NewsEventsPublications/PressReleases/Pages/survey-finds-
large-number-of-people-skipping-necessary-medical-care-because-cost.aspxMcKenzie, J.,
Neiger, B., & Thackeray, R. (2016). Planning, Implementing & Evaluating Health Promotion
Programs: A Primer (7th ed.). Pearson. BibliU – ReaderA simple, intuitive reader app that
makes learning more effective8) N.L Hi Class, Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most
common sexually transmitted infection (STI) in the United States. HPV vaccines can prevent
some of the health effects HPV causes. This fact sheet answers basic questions about HPV.
(CDC, 2022) The testing for this disease is currently optional for all ages. It is known to be a

5. higher risk in teens than in adults and studies have shown that about 3 million people a
year are diagnosed with HPV. With that information having such high rates I think it should
be mandatory during physicals for all ages. It is the easiest way to input this for all patients
not to feel like they are being picked on due to age, sex or race. It is important to try to
properly educate patients with this STI as it is so common and can cause many different
side effects to the body from genital warts to cancer. As public health providers, it is our job
to promote the importance of the testing of HPV and the continuation of getting yearly
testing as it can be transmitted at any given time. Reference:Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention. (2022, April 12). Std Facts – Human papillomavirus (HPV). Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention. Retrieved November 29, 2022, from
https://www.cdc.gov/std/hpv/stdfact-hpv.htm