Bridging Research and Action with Knowledge Brokers

HOW TO BRIDGE THE GAP BETWEEN RESEARCH KNOWLEDGE AND ACTION?
EXPLORING THE ENABLERS OF KNOWLEDGE BROKERS’ ACTIVITIES

Hajer Hammami, Laval University, Québec City, Canada
Nabil Amara, Laval University, Québec City, Canada
Réjean Landry, Laval University, Québec City, Canada

ABSTRACT

In the health care system, the issue of knowledge transfer is expanding rapidly and it has become a major
concern for both researchers and decision-makers. However, field observations show that there is still a
significant gap between available knowledge and how to apply it. Among the recommended strategies is
the practice of knowledge brokering. It is performed by knowledge brokers whose role is to bridge this
gap, to help turn research into policies, and to ensure their implementation. In this perspective, the
conceptual framework proposed in this thesis represents an interesting avenue, not only to guide the
actions of brokers, but also to support a broader reflection on their activities and the determinants
associated with them, in order to help develop more effective knowledge transfer strategies in the
decision-making process, and to harmonize the relationship between research and action. The data used
in this research were collected with a questionnaire surveying a community of practice (CoP) of 301
knowledge brokers primarily engaged in professional activities at the Canadian Health Services Research
Foundation (CHSRF).

Keywords: Knowledge brokers, Organizational climate, Organizational culture, interaction social, MES,
Healthcare

1. INTRODUCTION to be provided (Thomas Hutzschenreuter and
Julian Horstkotte, 2010). Furthermore, Carlile
In today's highly competitive business (2004) argued that while transferring knowledge
environment, the importance of knowledge is is a simple information-processing act, and
widely recognized as a critical resource for the interpreting knowledge requires translation, the
competitive advantage of firms (Nonaka et. al., actual transformation of inputs is yet a more
2000). However, the main challenge facing most complex process because the actors involved
organizations is how to manage and use may not share the same interests.
knowledge for better value creation. Indeed,
knowledge is of limited value if it is not shared Therefore, an important role in the knowledge
and transferred throughout an organization. transfer processes is assumed by intermediary
Hence, implementing knowledge transfer actors, generally known as knowledge brokers,
activities that allow firms to effectively leverage that can act as ‘‘bridges’’, positioned at the
their knowledge is a managerial concern. As the interface between the worlds of researchers and
pace of global competition quickens, knowledge decision-makers. They are seen as the human
transfer has been proclaimed as one of the most force behind knowledge transfer, finding,
complex and messy processes which go beyond assessing and interpreting evidence, facilitating
the one-way push of information from interaction, and identifying emerging research
researchers to decision-makers (Graham and questions (CHSRE, 2003; Ward and al., 2009).
al., 2006). These actors are characterized by a high degree
of communication and mediation skills (Dobbins
To transfer knowledge so that it can be and al., 2009), networks’ centrality (Giuliani and
integrated, individuals must be able to access Bell, 2005), absorptive capacity (Cohen and
expertise in order to build on the work of others Levinthal, 1990), and social capital (Boschma
(Murray and O’Mahony, 2007). With regard to and Wal, 2007), which allow them to access a
knowledge transfer from the sender to its wide range of organizations, collect knowledge
receivers, managers must also consider the across researchers, and foster its circulation and
design of the channels over which knowledge is sharing inside local and global networks. This

JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS, Volume 12, Number 3, 2012 48

allows to suggest that the most successful Many studies have assigned specific activities to
knowledge brokers are those who have the knowledge brokers to effectively transfer
capacity to bring together the art and science of research results towards the practice
influence in order to transform research into environment (Howells, 2006; Landry et al.,
action. 2007b; Dobbins et al., 2009; Roy and Fortin,
2009). However, none of these studies have
Nevertheless, despite the growing number of examined all the activities of knowledge brokers
studies dealing with the topic of knowledge in a dynamic process of knowledge transfer.
brokers, little attention has been paid to identify This paper aims to contribute to advance
which factors may support their activities, in knowledge by considering that knowledge
terms of actors’ capability to acquire, integrate, brokering involves a range of different activities
adapt, disseminate knowledge, and create links. that leads us to suggest that it thus means far
Previous studies have proposed several more than simply moving knowledge; it also
definitions of knowledge brokers and identified means transforming knowledge into action.
their main role. However, these studies present Despite a large number of studies on the
two main gaps. The first one regards the determinants of knowledge transfer in
activities of a knowledge broker: what are the organizations (Wu et al., 2007; Landry et al.,
activities of a knowledge broker that could help 2007a; Héliot and Riley, 2010), little research
him to transform research into action? Secondly, has concerned the study of the role played by
these studies do not attempt to identify which the organizational and individual factors in the
factors can determine the realization of effectiveness of brokers’ knowledge transfer
knowledge brokers’ activities. What are the activities. Our study contributes to the
determinants considered as enablers and which advancement of knowledge by exploring the
can influence directly and indirectly the direct and indirect effects to explain the transfer
realization of the brokers’ knowledge transfer of knowledge, taking into account the modeling
activities? of mediating variables such as organizational
climate and social interaction.
The present paper tries to fill these gaps. In
particular, our general objective is double. The paper is structured as follows. The second
Firstly, we wish to develop a dynamic process of section describes the theoretical framework,
knowledge transfer in which the brokers are at introducing the notion of knowledge brokers,
the center and achieve a series of activities in their activities of knowledge transfer and their
order to facilitate the bringing together of explanatory factors. The third section explains
researchers and users. Secondly, we wish to the methodology of the research, including the
build and test a model of determinants of description of the collected data, measuring
knowledge transfer, taking into account the instruments, and the analytical plan. Then, in
direct and indirect effects of the explanatory section four, the results of the measurement and
variables, with the aim of developing levers of structural models are presented. Finally,
actions and of better practices as regards implications, limitations, and further research are
knowledge transfer. described in the conclusion.

1.1. Contribution of the paper
A knowledge broker, one of the popular 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
emerging concepts for knowledge translation
and exchange strategy, can promote interaction 2.1. Process of the knowledge brokers’
between researchers and users. However, little activities
is known of the role which he can play, reducing There are several views concerning knowledge
the gap between knowledge and practice. In transfer. Some researchers considered
order to fill this lack in knowledge, our study knowledge transfer as knowledge shared among
contributes to the advancement of knowledge by people (Huber, 1991). While Szulanski (1996)
focusing on intermediaries operating as brokers, focused on the relationship aspect of knowledge
whose aim is to bring parties together to transfer by defining it as "dyadic exchanges of
effectively transfer useful knowledge for solving knowledge between a source and a recipient in
problems in decision-making (Lomas, 1997; Roy which the identity of the recipient matters",
and Fortin, 2009; Dobbins et al., 2009). others focused on the resulting changes to the
recipient by seeing knowledge transfer as the


process through which one unit is affected by 2000). This would make it flexible in the broker’s
the experience of another (Argote and al.,, mind so that it can easily be applied to a variety
2000). According to the knowledge-based view, of situations and transferred to practitioners. For
certain authors studied knowledge transfer while Hagardon and Sutton (1997), the acquisition of
insisting on the source of knowledge (the new knowledge by brokers provides the
researcher) (Szulanski, 1996; Landry and al., organization with solutions or ideas for future
2007a). Others studied the mechanisms of applications.
practical the application of knowledge
(practitioners) (Landry and al., 2003; Hemsley- Integration
Brown, 2004). However, a relatively recent As an initial recipient of knowledge generated by
literature has highlighted the absence of researchers, the broker must integrate this new
interfaces of communication between research knowledge to better transfer it to practitioners
and practice and, in particular, the absence of (Cillo, 2005; Lomas, 2007). For Hargadon
individuals able to cause the exchange between (2003), the knowledge broker is considered a
the two communities: researchers and experts true integrator of knowledge, as he collects,
(Huberman and Gather-Thurler, 1991; Roy and combines, and tests the most promising ideas.
Fortin, 2009). In addition, the ultimate goal of a knowledge
broker in this integration step is to propose
In addition, even if communication and methods and tools to facilitate the transfer of
information technologies greatly facilitated the knowledge from researchers to practitioners
access of experts to the results of research, (Dobbins et al., 2009). So, knowledge brokers
there remains an important gap between must integrate their knowledge that is shared at
produced knowledge and that which is really the team level to realize its value. Integration
used in practice. Particularly in the health sector, work involves the selection, rejection, and
it is this difference between research and synthesis of disparate ideas and contributions
practice which would be at the base of the into a coherent whole.
undervaluation of scientific knowledge during
decision-making processes. For this reason, Adaptation
several authors have stipulated that a greater The activity of the broker at this stage is to
bringing together of researchers and decision- adjust the content of the results according to the
makers would be likely to increase the use of the characteristics of the target, so as to facilitate
evidence in the health sector (Lomas, 1997; the use of knowledge. In this regard, many
Dobbins and al., 2009; Ward and al., 2009; authors argue that the knowledge broker enjoys
Meyer, 2010). a strategic position to translate research into
plain language, in an accessible manner, and to
It is in such a context that the brokers of provide it to practitioners, using diffusion
knowledge can play a crucial role in innovation techniques (CHSRF, 2003; Dobbins et al., 2009;
and knowledge transfer useful for decision- Roy and Fortin, 2009). For his part, Cillo (2005)
making, and this while effectively contributing to found that through the activity of adaptation,
build bridges, span boundaries, and otherwise knowledge brokers may reduce the cognitive
facilitate the translation and adoption of ideas distance that usually exists between the
(Williams, 2002). communities, using different languages and
concepts. At this stage, brokers collect, adapt,
A major contribution of this work would be to and render timely knowledge accessible to
develop a process of knowledge transfer in decision-makers to make informed decisions
which brokers are at the center, and achieve a (Roy and Fortin, 2009).
series of activities in order to facilitate the
bringing together of researchers and decision- Dissemination
makers. The literature reveals that the release of
research results by knowledge brokers is based,
Acquisition first of all, on determining the appropriate
For knowledge to be managed, it must first of all audience and second, on adapting the message
be captured or acquired in some useful form. and its inherent means of communication
Thus, the broker should be able to acquire (Huberman and Gather-Thurler, 1991; Kirst,
knowledge from multiple sources: explicit 2000). This finding corroborates the comments
(codified) and tacit (non codified) (Nonaka et al, of Hailey et al. (2008), underlining the


importance of knowledge brokers in the this paper we choose to adopt four global
dissemination of research results in health dimensions: autonomy, organizational support,
services organizations. According to these cooperative interaction and innovation (see
authors, knowledge brokers can provide and use appendix 1). In our study, we decided to
relevant information and disseminate it to target construct a generic concept of organizational
audiences, in order to better contribute to climate by choosing to combine these four
decision-making. dimensions into one general index in the
analysis.
Creation of links
The literature shows that it is crucial to promote There are several studies that document the
greater interactions between researchers and importance of organizational climate as a
practitioners through the activities of knowledge determinant of organizational outcomes
brokers (Cillo, 2005; Roy and Fortin, 2009). The (Vijayakumar, 2007; Gagnon and al., 2008;
purpose of this activity, the creation of links, is to Sarros and al., 2008). They suggest that the
increase opportunities for communication existence of certain characteristics of the work
mechanisms between researchers and environment may facilitate and encourage
practitioners, to enhance their impact on learning processes in terms of knowledge
knowledge transfer (Dobbins et al., 2009). The generation and knowledge sharing, as well as
shared knowledge, coming from brokers, is knowledge application (Vijayakumar, 2007;
accessible and sustained through interactions Sarros and al., 2008). Organizational climate,
with others actors (Lomas, 2007). therefore, is thought to exert a strong impact on
individual motivation to achieve work results
As we can see, the role of brokers involves (Gagnon et al., 2008). The organizational
performing a range of different activities that climate has also been found to influence
leads us to suggest that knowledge brokering knowledge and skills by increasing participation
thus means far more than simply moving in activities. Indeed, the literature supports the
knowledge; it also means transforming premise that the organizational climate is an
knowledge into action. important determinant of knowledge transfer
(Chen and Lin, 2004; Chen and Huang, 2007).
In this context, our interest in the concept of
2.2. Explanatory variables organizational climate is mainly explained by its
influence on the knowledge transfer activities
Organizational climate performed by brokers. Hence, it is necessary to
The construct of organizational climate has been have a favourable organizational climate
the subject of thorough discussions concerning characterized by autonomy, support,
definition, content, theory, measurement, and collaboration, and innovation that stimulates
analysis (Schneider, 1975; Denison, 1996; brokers’ interactions and facilitates knowledge
James and al., 2008). Different types of climates transfer.
have been identified with a focus either on the
organizational or the individual, i.e. H1. A positive perception of organizational
organizational climate and psychological climate. climate, characterized by autonomy, support,
These two aspects of climate are considered to cooperation and innovation, has a direct effect
be multidimensional phenomena that describe on knowledge brokers’ activities.
the nature of perception that employees have of H2. A positive perception of organizational
their experiences within their organization climate, characterized by autonomy, support,
(James et al., 2008). In our study, we will focus cooperation and innovation, has an indirect
on the organizational climate which refers to effect on knowledge brokers’ activities by the
employees’ shared perceptions of the types of mediation of social interaction.
behaviors and actions that are rewarded and
supported by the organization’s policies, Organizational culture
practices and procedures (Schneider, 1975). The conceptualization of organizational climate
Researchers face a number of conceptual represents a source of debate when compared
challenges in the measurement of organizational with the concept of organizational culture.
climate (Patterson et al., 2005). It has been Consistent with recent studies, we regard
argued that dimensions represent a useful climate and culture as distinctly identifiable
method of measuring organizational climate. In elements within organizations. Organizational


culture is defined as « the set of values, beliefs
and norms, meanings and practices shared by Asymmetry of information between researchers
personnel in an organization » (Robbin, 2001), and users of research arises when the users
that guides their attitudes and their behaviours, cannot precisely evaluate the applicability of the
and that also constitutes a pervasive context for transferred research until they attempt to
everything they do and think in an organization translate it into new or improved products or
(Mullins, 2005). In the listed literature, services (Landry, and al., 2007c). In a context of
Organizational culture proved to be an important asymmetry, knowledge transfer is unlikely if
factor which makes it possible to influence the researchers and users of research do not have
organizational climate and the attitudes of work frequent interactions. Thus, the knowledge
(Glisson and James, 2002). In this direction, broker, occupying a central position in the social
certain authors think that the organizational network (Van Wijk, 2008), should forge links and
climate represents an important potential of increase the interaction between producers and
mediation between organizational culture and users of research to bridge this information
organizational results (Aarons and Sawitzky, asymmetry and facilitate knowledge transfer
2006). activities. It thus follows that the bonds
maintained between researchers and experts
Thus, it would be judicious to check empirically if are one of the principal determinants of the
an organizational culture will make it possible to transfer of knowledge (Landry and al., 2007a).
create a favourable climate so that the personal This leads us to suggest that the social
reports of the knowledge brokers can support interaction of the brokers with the other actors
the objectives to be reached, and in particular, to will allow the former to facilitate the achievement
carry out their activities of knowledge transfer. In of their knowledge transfer activities
this article, we suggest that the organizational
culture, by its specific beliefs and its values, will H4. The social interaction maintained between
indirectly influence the transfer of knowledge by the brokers and their peers has a direct effect on
the mediation of the organizational climate. their knowledge transfer activities.

H3. The organizational culture has an indirect Type of organizations
effect on the knowledge brokers’ activities by the The organizational structure is frequently
mediation of the organizational climate. mentioned in the literature as a major
determinant of the transfer of knowledge (Landry
and al., 2007a; Chen and Huang, 2007) and it is
Social interaction treated differently depending on the authors.
Researchers of social capital have defined the Several of them emphasize the modes of
concept in various ways, but there is some structure (organic versus mechanical), the size
consensus that social capital means networks of and the types of organization, like
relations (among people) through which certain measurements of the organizational structure
phenomena, such as trust, norms of reciprocity affecting the transfer of knowledge (Dickson,
or fast exchange of information, become 2006; Landry and al., 2007a). In this article, we
possible. These phenomena, in turn, make, for stress the various places of affiliation, in which
example, collaboration and communication the brokers evolve, as major determinants of
easier, and reduce the need for formal knowledge transfer activities.
agreements and control (Auranen, 2007).
H5. The types of organizations have a direct
Prior studies have recognized the importance of effect on the knowledge brokers’ activities.
interpersonal social interaction for enabling
knowledge management behavior among Cognitive capacity
individuals (Chen and Huang, 2007). Landry et The literature on knowledge brokering can study
al. (2002) observed that firms’ willingness to the impact of the level of education on how
innovate is explained by a structural dimension knowledge intermediaries perform their
of social capital, which was measured by activities. However, Landry et al., (2007b) have
participation in business meetings, associations shown that individuals engaged in brokerage
and networks, as well as the intensity of need to have the capacity to evaluate the
personal network ties between firms’ employees collected information for its quality, relevance
and outside actors. and applicability to a given problem. Specifically,


one can assume that the higher the level of the virtual platform of the CoP supported by
education, the greater the capacity to absorb CHSRF (http://www.chsrf.ca/brokering/). This
knowledge (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990). In turn, population was composed of 441 individuals in
a greater capacity for absorption may facilitate October 2005. We decided to exclude 12
the ability of brokers to transfer knowledge to individuals from the study who work for CHSRF
provide practical solutions for members of their in order to avoid response biases. The final
organization. population of the study was therefore made up
of 429 individuals.
H6. The cognitive capacity has a direct effect on
the knowledge brokers’ activities. Questionnaire development
In this study, we used secondary data that were
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY collected through a questionnaire survey
3.1. Data conducted among a sample of knowledge
Studied population brokers involved in the activities of the Canadian
The population of this study consists of the Health Services Research Foundation (CHSRF)
members of the knowledge brokerage and this was pre-tested by a survey firm.
community of practices (CoP) under the initiative The authors of the survey (Landry et al., 2006)
of the Canadian Health Services Research developed the questionnaire, drawing on
Foundation (CHSRF) in Canada. The purpose of theoretical and empirical work conducted in the
this CoP is to share knowledge and expertise on field of study, namely brokerage and knowledge
knowledge brokerage, to focus on learning and transfer. It is organized into three parts: the first
furthering the practice of knowledge brokerage, deals with the knowledge brokers’ activities,
to develop and share a collective repertoire of including: the acquisition of new knowledge,
communal resources (including activities and integration of new knowledge, adaptation of
means of participation), and to operate as an research results, dissemination of research
interdependent network defined by the results, and linkages they have with potential
collaborative efforts of the members. Since its users of research. The second part focuses on
inception in 2003, members of the CoP have the organizational context in which knowledge
participated in national or regional workshops, brokers’ activities take place (i.e., organizational
and have shared knowledge brokering resources climate, organizational culture and
(through forums and directories of experts) organizational structure).
during these face-to-face activities as well as on

Figure 1: Hypothesized structural equation model

Organizational Organizational H1
culture H3 climate
H2 Social
interaction

H4

Types of
organizations H5
Knowledge
brokers
activities

H6
Cognitive
capacity


The final part was devoted to the socio- divided into six activities: acquisition of tacit
professional profile of knowledge brokers knowledge, acquisition of explicit knowledge,
(gender, education level, status, experience, integration of knowledge, adaptation of research
etc.). Most of the items in the questionnaire used results, dissemination of research results, and
5-point Likert-type scales. link creation. Appendix 2 lists all the survey
items used to measure each factor. For each
The questionnaire on knowledge brokering in the statement, a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (never)
health services organizations is considered to be to 5 (very often) is used. The sum of the
the first empirical contribution to this field of response scores for the six factors, which initially
study. To our knowledge, no such questionnaire ranged from 5 to 25, was weighted in order to
has been used so far in this particular context in take into account “does not apply” answers.
Canada. Thus, for each respondent, the sum of the score
Data collection was divided by the number of applicable items.
All individuals included in the population were Even though the initial index has integer values
contacted for an interview. The questionnaire from 1 to 5, once weighted, it can take on non-
and the 429 names composing the population integer values.
were sent to a private survey firm using the CATI Organizational climate
(computer-assisted telephone interviewing) The measure of organizational climate includes
technology, which allows for embedding data 16 items that were divided into four dimensions:
coding and data entry simultaneously within the interactive cooperation, autonomy,
data collection phase. The survey was organizational support and innovation. Appendix
administered by telephone between November 2 lists all survey items used to measure each
2005 and February 2006. Out of the 429 factor. For each statement, a 5-point scale
individuals, 17 respondents were found to be ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (very often) was
ineligible (i.e.. individuals not involved in used. The construction of the four indexes
knowledge brokering activities, or who had associated with the dimensions of organizational
changed jobs and were no longer involved in climate was based on the same logic as the
professional activities related to knowledge knowledge transfer activities.
brokering), and 63 respondents could not be Organizational culture and social interaction
reached after many telephone calls. In order to In this study, the two other variables based on
increase the response rate, 169 individuals were multiple-item scales, and included in the
contacted by e-mail to inform them about the econometric model, are the organizational
study, its objectives and its sponsors. A total of culture which was measured by only one index
39 individuals refused to participate in the study reflecting the frequency with which the brokers
(after one recall). Finally, the survey generated express their degree of agreement on 4 items,
301 usable questionnaires for a net response and the index measuring the intensity of social
rate of 74.69% (301/403). interaction reflecting the frequency of the
contacts which the brokers maintain with several
3.2. Instruments and measurements actors. Appendix 2 lists all survey items used to
Our conceptual framework includes four measure each factor. For each statement, a 5-
constructs measured by several items point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to
(activities of transfer of knowledge, 5 (strongly agree) was used.
organizational climate, organizational culture Since all indexes were based on multiple-item
and social interaction) and two binary scales, we conducted a Principal Components
variables (types of organizations and Factor Analysis (PCFA) with Varimax Rotation
cognitive capacity). The scales of (PCFA) on the construct scales to assess their
measurements associated with the latent unidimensionality (Ahire and Devaray, 2001).
variables are of Likert type in 5 points. All
these measurements are presented in their Types of organizations and Cognitive
entirety in Appendix 2. capacity
These two variables, types of organizations and
Knowledge transfer activities broker’s cognitive assets, were measured with a
In this study, the dependent variable was series of binary variables defined in appendix 2.
operationalized using six indexes relating to 3.3. Analytical plan
knowledge transfer activities. This measure of The data collected were analyzed by statistical
knowledge transfer includes 23 items that are treatments, first, to validate the measurements


of the variables and, secondly, to establish these Exploratory factor analysis
causal relationships to validate the research An exploratory factor analysis was performed
hypothesis. Next, a structural equation modeling with SPSS 13.0. A principal component analysis
(SEM) was conducted with the EQS program, with varimax rotation was used to examine
assessing confirmatory measurement models measures. Factors with eigenvalue above 1.0
(confirmatory factor analysis) and confirmatory were extracted in each construct; these
structural models (structural equation) to test the cumulatively explained over 56% of the total
dependency relationships between the variables. variance (see appendix 2). Items with low
loadings on the intended factor or high cross-
The structural equation modeling technique loadings on other factors were removed. The
(SEM) was employed to assess the fit and to resulting scales were then evaluated for
compare the hypothetical competing models reliability using Cronbach’s α. All had an
between them. A popular SEM program, EQS acceptable reliability (α > 0.65).
6.1 (Bentler, 2005), was used for modeling to
test statistically, in a simultaneous analysis, the Confirmatory factor analysis
entire system of variables, and to then determine A confirmatory factor analysis was performed
the extent to which it is consistent with data with EQS 6.1. The fit of the four measurement
(Byrne, 2006). EQS 6.1 operates upon the models, namely knowledge transfer activities,
normalized variance-covariance matrix derived organizational climate, social interaction and
from the raw database (Bentler, 1995). In our organizational culture, were estimated by
study, the maximum likelihood method was used various index (see table 7). The ratio of to
as the estimation procedure because our data degrees-of freedom does not exceed 2.5 for the
were normally distributed (Byrne, 2006). four measurement models, which was within the
recommended value of 3. RMSEA showed the
To evaluate the measurement and structural discrepancy between the proposed model and
models, a mix of recommended fit index was the population covariance matrix, ranging from
used. Table 2 presents the limits of the 0.038 and 0.68, which was lower than the
validation of measurement which must respect recommended cut-off of 0.08. All other index
certain thresholds. Therefore, the convergent (CFI, NNFI) exceeded the commonly
validity, the degree to which multiple attempts to acceptance levels (0.90), demonstrating that the
measure the same concept are in agreement, measurement models exhibited a good fit with
was evaluated by examining the factor loading the data. In addition, all composite reliabilities of
within each construct, the composite reliability the four constructs exceeded the recommended
and the variance extracted (Hair et al., 1998). level (0.7). Table 1 summarizes the results of the
The recommended cut-off values should exceed fit index and the convergent validity of the
0.7 and 0.5 respectively. The significance level measurement models. The measurement
of the regression parameters for the relationship models exhibited a good level of model fit as
between the latent variables in the estimated well as evidence of convergent validity.
models (path coefficients) was denoted by the
critical ratio or t-value (t-value >1.96, p < .05). 4.2. Structural model
The structural model analysis was conducted to
4. RESULTS examine the hypothesized relationships among
constructs. All indicators were fixed with the
4.1. Measurement model loadings and corresponding error coefficients
The reliability and validity of measurement for obtained from the measurement model to avoid
each construct associated with the activities of possible effects of measurement-structural
knowledge transfer, organizational climate, interaction on parameter estimation (Bentler,
organizational culture and social interaction were 1995). The results from the structural model
tested by using an exploratory and confirmatory used to test the hypothesized research model
factor analysis based on the 301 samples are shown in figure 2.
collected from knowledge brokers.


Table 1: Fit index and convergent validity of the measurement models
Absolute fit Incremental Parsimonious Convergent validity
Constructs index fit index fit Index
RMSEA CFI NNFI dl / dl Composite Validity
reliabilities
( )
Knowledge 372.1 0.049 0.935 0.926 224 1.66 0.932 0.75
transfer
activities
Organizational 214.5 0.065 0.937 0.923 99 2.16 0.925 0.71
climate
Organizational 4.296 0.064 0.995 0.984 2 2.14 0.871 0.80
culture

Social 4.830 0.028 0.998 0.994 4 1.21 0.753 0.82
interaction

To be considered adequate, the individual item reliability should be greater than 0.5 and/or a significant t-value
should be observed for each indicator (Jöreskog and Sörbom, 1996). Table 2 summarizes the structural path
between the indicators and constructs. The results indicate that all factor loadings exceed 0.5 and each indicator is
significant at 0.05 levels.

Table 2. Structural path between the indicators and constructs
Structural path Path Standardized t-values Significance
coefficients Path
coefficients

AT K KTA 1 0.34 ---- ----
AE K KTA 1,77 0,56 5,01 Sig.
Knowledge

activities

INTEG KTA 1,67 0,67 5,08 Sig.
transfer

ADAPT KTA 2,72 0,81 5,20 Sig.
DISSEM KTA 2,62 0,74 5,14 Sig.
CRELINK KTA 2,63 0,72 5,02 Sig.
INTCOOP OC 1 0,79 ---- ----
Organizat

AUTON OC 1.05 0,74 11,19 Sig.
climate

0.47 0,47 6,12 Sig.
ional

ORGSUPP OC 0.66 0,57 8,28 Sig.
INNOV OC
MISSION OCU 1 0,66 ---- ----
Organizat

VISION OCU 1.17 0,79 11,72 Sig.
culture

1.46 0,99 11,62 Sig.
ional

OBJECT OCU
0.86 0,66 8,71 Sig.
VALUES OCU
SI1 SI 1 0,70 ---- ----
intercatio

SI2 SI 0.84 0,60 8,81 Sig.
SI3 SI 0.94 0,68 10,16 Sig.
Social

SI4 SI 0.78 0,56 7,23 Sig.
1.04 0,73 11,78 Sig.
n

SI5 SI
KTA: knowledge transfer activities, ATK: acquisition of tacit knowledge, AEK: acquisition of explicit knowledge,
INTEG: integration, ADAPT: adaptation, DISSEM: dissemination, CRELINK: creation of links, OC: organizational
climate, INTECOOP: cooperative interaction, AUTON: autonomy, ORGSUPP: organizational support, INNOV:
innovation, SI: social interaction, Sig: significant.


Table 3. Structural path between the exogenous and endogenous variables
Structural path Path Standardized t-values signification
coefficients Path
coefficients

OCU OC 0,55 0,64 9,92 Sig.
OC SI 0,45 0,40 4,31 Sig.
OC KTA 0,66 0,66 2,34 Sig.
SI KTA 0,20 0,63 4,60 Sig.
ADM KTA -0,08 -0,14 -2,43 Sig.
RECH KTA -0,06 -0,10 -2,00 Sig.
FOND KTA -0,12 -0,15 -2,64 Sig.
PRIV KTA 0,001 0,001 0,02 Non Sig.
BACH KTA -0,11 -0,15 -2,44 Sig.
MAST KTA 0,10 -0,20 -3,28 Sig.
OC 41,5
SI 15,8
KTA 64,8
OC 0,76
Residulas SI 0,92
KTA 0,59
KTA: knowledge transfer activities, OCU; organizational culture, OC: organizational climate, SI: social interaction,
ADM: administrations of health, RECH: university or another research organization, FOND: non-profit foundation or a
funding agency, PRIV: private firm, BACH: bachelor’s degree, MAST: master’s degree, Sig: significant.

Thus, we could proceed to examine the path accounted for 64.8% of variance and provided
coefficients of the structural model presented in support for hypothesis H2. Hence, it is
table 3, the structural path between the reasonable to conclude that organizational
exogenous and endogenous variables. This climate in terms of autonomy, support,
involved estimating the path coefficients and R² cooperation and innovation, positively influences
value. Path coefficients indicated the strengths the effectiveness of brokers’ knowledge transfer
of the relationships between the independent activities.
and dependent variables, whereas the R² value
was a measure of the predictive power of a In the full model, there was no significant direct
model for the dependent variables. effect between organizational culture and
knowledge transfer activities (path coefficient =
As can be seen in fig. 2 and table 3, the 0.019, p = 0.152). However, the indirect effect
relationship of organizational climate and through organizational climate was significant
knowledge transfer activities is divided into a (path coefficient = 0.64, t = 9.92). Therefore,
direct path (path coefficient = 0.66, t = 2.34) and organizational climate was a mediator between
an indirect one through social interaction (path organizational culture and knowledge transfer
coefficient = 0.40, t = 4.31). Thus, social activities, which together explain 41.5% of the
interaction was a mediator between dependant variable’s variance, providing support
organizational climate and knowledge transfer for hypothesis H3.
activities. These results attest to the direct and
indirect relation between organizational climate The relationship between social interaction and
and knowledge transfer activities by the knowledge transfer activities was statistically
intermediation of social interaction. significant (path coefficient = 0.63, t = 4.60).
Additionally, the relationship between three of
As shown in fig. 2 and table 3, organizational the four types of organization and knowledge
climate significantly influences, on the one hand, transfer activities were statistically significant,
social interaction, accounting for 15.8% of the respectively, for the administration of health
variance and providing support for hypothesis (path coefficient = 0.-0.14, t = -2.43), for
H1; on the other hand, it had significant university and research organization (path
influence on knowledge transfer activities; it coefficient = -0.10, t = -2.00), and for foundation


and funding agency (path coefficient = -0.15, t = development of personal autonomy, and the
-2.64). However, private firm had no significant establishment of an innovative climate.
effect on knowledge transfer activities (path Our results showed that organizational
coefficient = -0.001, t = -2.64). Finally, the level climate can foster the skills and abilities
of education and knowledge transfer activities of brokers to develop interactions and networks
were statistically significant, respectively, for of links between researchers and decision-
bachelor’s (path coefficient = -0.15, t = -2.44) makers, which in turn has a direct influence on
and master’s (path coefficient = -0.20, t = -0.13). the achievement of knowledge transfer activities.
As hypothesized, knowledge transfer activities
were significantly associated with social Another finding emerging from the analysis
interaction, three of organization types and level highlights the importance of social interaction
of education. It explained 64.8% of the developed by knowledge brokers in achieving
dependent variable’s variance. All paths had their knowledge transfer activities. As a result,
significant effects. Hypotheses H4, H5 and H6 networks and mechanisms of links allow greater
were supported. exposure to two communities, researchers and
decision-makers, which increase the level
The overall validity of the model results was of knowledge transfer between them.
evaluated with respect to goodness-of-fit index
(see table 4). The GFI and AGFI exceeded the A fourth finding that emerged from our
commonly acceptance levels (0.80). The chi- analysis refers to the indirect influence of
square/degrees of freedom ratio was 2.71, which organizational culture on the achievement
was within the recommended value of 3. The of knowledge transfer activities mediated by a
RMSEA showed the discrepancy between the favourable organizational climate. In other
proposed model and the population covariance words, the organizational culture that relates to
matrix to be 0.069, which was lower than the the common realities, symbols and rituals
recommended cut-off of 0.08. All other index shared by members of an organization, including
(NNFI, NFI, CFI) exceeded the commonly brokers, contributes significantly to shape the
acceptance levels (0.90), demonstrating that the norms and expectations of their behaviour. This
overall model exhibited a good fit with the data, consequently influences the perceptions that
and therefore, provided support to the overall knowledge brokers maintain with regard to their
validity of the hypothesized models and organizational climate.
hypothesis testing results.
A fifth report to be noted is that relating to the
5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION direct effects that can be exerted by the types of
organizations to which the brokers are attached,
The structural equations modeling enabled us except for the private company, on the
to identify major findings that are discussed realization of knowledge transfer activities. Our
in the following. The first findings show that results showed that the brokers affiliated to the
organizational climate can be a major services providing care are more willing to carry
determinant to promote brokers’ knowledge out their activities of transfer of knowledge than
transfer. their counterparts who work in health
In a second step, emphasis was placed on administrations, universities and organizations of
organizational climate as a significant predictor research or in foundations and organizations of
of brokers’ knowledge transfer activities. To do financing. It is in such a place of practice, of the
so, a better understanding of the relationship clinical type, that the knowledge brokers will be
between organizational climate and brokers’ more suitable for carrying out their transfer of
transfer of knowledge activities was first knowledge activities.
developed.
Thus, our study aims to contribute to the A last observation indicates that the level of
advancement of knowledge by developing a education, i.e. bachelor’s or master’s, is, in
better understanding of the scope of an turn, significantly and negatively related to the
organizational climate that fosters the ability of achievement of knowledge transfer activities by
brokers to effectively conduct their activities of brokers. These results highlight that brokers with
transfer knowledge, and this can be achieved Ph.D. have more ability to engage and to carry
through activities that focus on organizational out their knowledge transfer activities.
support, interaction between staff, the


Table 4 : Fit index of the structural model
GFI AGFI NNFI NFI CFI RMSEA / dl
Index 0.811 0.828 0.986 0.980 0.987 0.058 2.71
values
Recommended limits: GFI and AGFI 0.8; NFI and NNFI 0.90; CFI 0.90; RMSEA ≤ 0.08; / dl ≤ 3

Figure 2 : Results for the structural equation model

Organizational Organizational
culture 0.64* climate

0.40*
0.66*
0.019

Type of the organizations Social
interaction
ADM
0.63*
‐0.14*
RECHE Knowledge
‐0.10* transfer
activities
FOND 0.001

‐0.15*
PRIVE

‐0.15*

Cognitive capacity
‐0.20*
BACH

MAST

Service delivery organization is the reference category. Indicates significant relationship

Ph.D. is the reference category Indicates non‐significant relationship


Above all, the findings of this paper should be Conference, 30 August - 1 September
considered as exploratory in an area where 2007, Dublin, Ireland: The Research
empirical studies are still scant. In particular, this Mission of the University, 2007.
exploratory study embodies two limits that need Argote, L., Ingram, P. J., Levine M. and
to be pointed out. The first limit is that the study Moreland R.L., « Knowledge transfer in
did not examine the effect of organizational organizations : Learning from the
climate and its dimensions on each broker’s experience of others », Organizational
knowledge transfer activities separately. That Behavior and Human Decision Process,
would have yielded precise results and rigor Volume 82, Number 1, Pages 1-8, 2000.
regarding the relationship between Bentler, P. M., EQS, Structural Equations
organizational climate and brokers’ knowledge Program Manual , Encino, CA:
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Boschma, R. A. and Wal A. L. J., « Knowledge
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organizational attributes, including organizational an industrial district: the case of a
climate, organizational culture, and social footwear district in the South of Italy »,
interaction and organizational structure, to Industry and Innovation, Volume 14,
explain the achievement of knowledge transfer Number 2, Pages 177-199, 2007.
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AUTHOR PROFILES:

Hajer Hammami: Ph.D. candidate, Department Réjean Landry: Professor, Department of
of Management, Faculty of Business, Laval Management, Faculty of Business, Laval
University, Québec City, QC, Canada, University, Québec City, QC, Canada

Nabil Amara: Professor, Department of
Management, Faculty of Business, Laval
University, Québec City, QC, Canada,

Appendix 1. Summarization of organizational climate dimensions and literature basis

Organizational climate Definitions References
dimensions
When cooperative climate exists in companies, Janz and
Cooperative members of a group are more inclined to working Prasarnphanich, (2003)
interaction together to share and develop tacit knowledge and
try to promote each other’s performance and
learning.
The degree to which the task provides substantial Hackman and al., 1999
Autonomy freedom, independence, and discretion in Chung-Jen (2007).
scheduling the work and in determining the
procedures to be used in carrying it out.
This dimension refers to the various actions to Eisenberger and al.,
Organizational encourage and motivate individuals as monetary (2002)
support rewards, promotion opportunities, moral
support and resources.
Innovative climate may allow subordinates to more Bock et al. (2005);
Innovation fully engage in, and focus on, creative endeavors, Jaw et Liu (2003).
instead of on external worries or concerns about
how such behaviours will be viewed by the larger
organization.


Appendix 2. Definitions of exogenous and endogenous variables

Exogenous and Operational definitions Eigen Explained Chronba-
endogenous variables value Variance ch’s
Alpha

Brokers’ knowledge
transfer activities

Acquisition of tacit In conducting your day-to-day professional activities over the 1.76 58.69 0.65
knowledge last twelve months, how frequently did you acquire studies
and research reports:
 From other organizations
 From consultants
 From professional associations
Acquisition of explicit In conducting your day-to-day professional activities over the 1.79 59.73 0.67
knowledge last twelve months, how frequently did you acquire studies
and research reports:
 From professional magazines
 From bulletins and newsletters
 From Electronic Databases (PubMed, Science Direct, Proquest,
etc.)
Integration of new Please indicate how frequently, in your day-to-day 2.5 62.66 0.80
knowledge professional activities over the last twelve months, you have:
 Read research information, studies and research reports
 Understood research findings, studies and research reports
 Cited research information, studies and research reports to your
colleagues
 Discussed research information, studies and research reports
with colleagues
Adaptation of research Please indicate how frequently, in your day-to-day 2.95 59.00 0.82
results professional activities, over the last twelve months, you have:
 Presented research findings into non-technical language for
potential users in your organizational unit
 Prepared appealing reports for potential users in your
organizational unit (graphics, colour, humour, packaging)
 Prepared research syntheses and summaries on specific topics
for potential users in your organizational unit
 Discussed, with users in your organizational unit, implications of
research results utilization
 Provided examples to people in your organizational unit on how
to use research findings
Dissemination of Please indicate how frequently, in your day-to-day 2.56 63.96 0.819
research results professional activities, over the last twelve months, you have:
 Sent research findings, studies and research reports to target
users in your organizational unit
 Organized meetings to discuss current research projects with
target users in your organizational unit
 Organized meetings to discuss preliminary results with target
users in your organizational unit
 Discussed the implications of research results with target users
in your organizational unit 2.67 66.83 0.834
Creation of links Please indicate how frequently, in your day-to-day
professional activities over the last twelve months, you have:
 Facilitated the involvement of individuals from your
organizational unit into research projects
 Facilitated the creation of research projects’ advisory
committees
 Facilitated person-to-person contact between people in your
organizational unit and researchers
 Organized seminars, meetings, conferences or other events to
provide opportunities for exchanges
between people in your organizational unit and researchers.


Organizational climate

Cooperative interaction To what extent does your organization invest resources in the 2.79 69.88 0.85
following activities:
 To ensure effective communication channels so that priorities,
evidence and ideas are exchanged across all organizational
units
 To promote linkages between people of your organization and
researchers
 To promote partnerships involving people of your organization
and researchers
 To encourage people in your organization to participate in
scientific conferences

Autonomy Please indicate to what extent you agree with the following 2.57 64.43 0.81
statements: in my organizational unit, individuals are
encouraged to undertake, as they see best:
 Acquisition of research findings, studies and research reports
 Adaptation of research findings, studies and research reports
 Dissemination of research findings, studies and research reports
 Linkages development between researchers and decision-
makers
Organizational To what extent does your organization invest resources in the 2.65 66.42 0.82
support following activities:
 To provide training on how to better share knowledge
 To provide training on how to better use research findings in
your day-to-day professional activities
 To update databases to make sure that individuals in the
organization have access to the latest research findings, studies
and research reports
 To prepare written documents such as lessons learned, training
manuals, best work practices, etc.
Innovation Please indicate to what extent you agree with the following 2.60 73.77 0.88
statements:
 People in my organizational unit are encouraged to search for
fresh, new ways to acquire, adapt,
disseminate research findings, studies and reports
 People in my organizational unit are encouraged to come up
with new ideas or recommendations
on how to increase the acquisition, adaptation, dissemination of
research findings, studies and reports
 People in my organizational unit are encouraged to put into
action new strategies or ideas to improve the acquisition,
adaptation, dissemination of research findings, studies and
reports
People in my organizational unit give high value to change and
continuous quality improvement
Organizational culture Please indicate to what extent you agree with the following
statements: My organization has: 3.554 71.08 0.90
 A clear mission statement regarding the acquisition,
adaptation, dissemination of research findings, studies and
reports,
 A clear vision regarding the type of research findings, studies
and research reports it needs to achieve its organizational
objectives,
 Clear objectives regarding the acquisition, adaptation,
dissemination of research findings, studies and reports,
Strong values promoting the acquisition, adaptation,
dissemination of research findings,
Social interaction Please indicate how frequently, in your day-to-day
professional activities, over the last twelve months, you 2.913 56.25 0.80
provided studies and research reports to people in the
following types of organizations:
 Funding agency
 Federal Ministry
 Provincial Ministry
 University
 Other research organization


Appendix 2 (Suite). Definition of exogenous and endogenous variables

Cognitive capacity Composed of three binary variables:
BACH is a binary variable coded 1 if the broker has completed a bachelor’s degree and coded 0 otherwise;
MAST is a binary variable coded 1 if the broker has completed a master’s degree and coded 0 otherwise;
PhD is a binary variable coded 1 if the broker has completed a PhD and coded 0 otherwise. This last
category was used as the reference category in the structural model.
Types of organizations Composed of five binary variables:
ADM is a binary variable coded 1 if the broker primarily carries out his professional activities in a Federal or
Provincial ministry, or in a Regional health authority, and 0 otherwise;
RESEAR is a binary variable coded 1 if the broker carries out his professional activities in a university or
another research organization, and 0 otherwise;
FUND is a binary variable coded 1 if the respondent carries out his professional activities in a Non-profit
foundation or a Funding agency, and 0 otherwise;
PRIVATE is a binary variable coded 1 if the respondent carries out his professional activities in a Private
firm, and 0 otherwise; finally,
SETTING is a binary variable coded 1 if the broker carries out his professional activities in a Hospital, long-
term care facility or other service delivery organization, or in a Community organization, and 0 otherwise.
This last category was used as the reference category in the regression models.


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