Dai Griffiths University of Bolton

1. Some reflections on formal and
informal learning
Dai Griffiths, TEEM 2014

2. The Council of the European Union, 2012.
“...validation of learning outcomes, namely
knowledge, skills and competences acquired
through non-formal and informal learning can play
an important role in enhancing employability and
mobility, as well as increasing motivation for
lifelong learning...”
Werquin 2008, Former Chief Economist of the OECD, with a strong
influence on EU policy.

3. Systems for the recognition of non-formal
and informal learning...
● ‘...despite being rather convincing in theory, seem
to have trouble taking off and reaching cruising
speed’. (Werquin 2008).
● Werquin encouraged a more pragmatic approach.
● But the problem of adoption persists, despite
years of reports, funding and projects
● “More research is necessary”; or do we have a
deeper problem?

4. CEDEFOP definitions of formality
● Formal learning: Planned and intentional
learning activities
● Non-formal learning: Planned and intentional
activities, no learning objective
● Informal learning: Not planned and non-intentional
learning activities

5. But formality is less clear than we
sometimes assume
● Criteria for planning and intention are not always clear. In
the Meno (Plato, 2008), Socrates improvises to lead Meno
into a state where he doubts what he knows. Informal
(unplanned, sitting under a tree, but using formal logic.
● Formality is associated with modes of expression and
presentation (as in 'formal use of language'), which are
unrelated to planning.
● Formal knowledge of the extensive nested classifications
of heavy metal music may well not be perceived as being
as formal as knowledge of a set of botanical families.

6. An alternative formulation:
● 'Formality' is a function of the degree to which the
educational process is shaped by management
methods
● If so, whatever the intentions of their designers,
competence based systems and systems for the
validation of informal learning both inevitably extend
the reach of educational management into areas to
which it did not previously have access.
● The CEDEFOP description of formality separates
management (planning) from 'learning'. Is this defensible?

7. And so...?
● Extending educational management may be a
good thing, but the way we think of it leads to
confusion and poor design.
● A challenge is “What can we do with technology
to work with informal learning without imposing
management processes on it?”
● But management of learning often responds to
“External stakeholders exerting pressure”.