Best leadership Practices1. Challenging Challenge them to do th.docx

Best leadership Practices
1. Challenging: Challenge them to do things better
2. Inspiring: Inspire them to do things better
3. Enabling
4. Modeling: Show them how to act. Show them the way. Lead
by example.
5. Encouraging: Encourage them to do things better. You have
to reward them. Recognize them by rewarding them.
Ex: the pilot from the Ebola flight Airline. He had to sit in that
person’s seat. You have to model the way and show people.
Leaders don’t like to hear bad news. The have to face brutal
facts. They killed the messenger when they brought the facts.
The magnitude for GM to make. GM’s down fall didn’t come on
a Monday morning. All this was revealing over a period of time.
If you’re a leader you must be able to face the brutal facts.
Someone is doing a better job than us. You have to be very
objective. If they take steps to face it.
Another proactive on leadership. Jake Welch. Extremely
successful over performance. He is one of the best leaders in the
USA.
GE company-General Electric
They had their own leadership school outside of NY.
Success from the leadership training.
The 4 E Leaders at GE
A successful leader at GE must have energy. Energize other
people. She must have a competitive edge. They must be able to
execute. Assessment at GE is performance.
1. Energy
2. Energize
3. Edge
4. Execute
Leaders have to make the life and death of decisions. Get rid of
people who don’t live on your values. Leader has to make tough
decisions.

GE puts people into 4 categories
1. Live values: How to treat people. They make the number they
met their goals. They are keepers. Crème and crap
2. Do not live values and they don’t make the numbers. They
are goners.
3. Live values but don’t make the numbers: he would give them
a second chance. But if you live the values. You conduct
yourself the way GE conducts themselves. They will give you a
second chance
4. They don’t live the values but met their goals these people
get canned. They don’t treat customers with respect, late to
meetings, miss days. If he can get away with it then the rest will
go with it. They aren’t behaving in the cord as GE and you need
to find work elsewhere. They contaminate the company.
Another leader Bod latus. A very colorful. Controversial. He
gets away with a lot of things at GM. He got eight laws about
leadership
· Customer is not always right. Customer often don’t know what
they want.
· Primary business is not to make money. If you’re a leader you
can’t start will to often companies, leader’s to start down with
the financial status. The money flows from the product. So start
with the product. Too often leaders neglect the product.
· Do not do what other are doing. Vision. Are innovative. Good
profits. Great visions in doing something different. Ex: Walt
Disney, redefined what cartoon is. henry ford
· Disruptive people are assets: you want that in the company.
Disruptive people challenge you. You don’t want to people who
say yes always….
· Teamwork is not always good. Teamwork without good
leadership is gone to waste.
· Dress for success.
· Leader must make the best course of action. You don’t want to
reach a consensus decisions. Are decisions no one likes. You
can’t please everybody. You have to take all that input and see

what is the best course of action
· Best leadership is come sense. If they don’t make common
sense then they won’t work
Collen Powel
Him and Abraham Lincoln can come from humble beginnings
and reach higher.
Advice for all of us
· Avoid emotional high jacking. You can take your position not
your ego. They can attach your position. Fix skin. You can’t
take everything personal
· Seek information from the front lines: Talk to those people
who know what’s going on. Front line. Get out of the building.
· Reward you best performers and fire those who don’t.
Disloyalty.
· Surround yourself around the best people. Surround yourself
around people who are smarter than you. Surround yourself
around people who can succeed you. Those who can protect
you.
· Treat people as your partners. Walk around front line. Pick
those partners.
If I’m optimistic than everyone will be optimistic. Pessimistic
will bring a lot of nay.
Be optimistic after some time. Give it some time. Rather than
immediately over reacting over the problem.
His biggest mistake was about Iraq’s mass distraction.
When people was giving me a song to dance. His failure when
he was unable to see he was led astray. He went to the United
Nations because he was credited in front of them. Leaders don’t
have formula. It all goes down to experience, knowledge and
gut.
· To be an effective leader, you need to have a lot of
knowledge. As you go up the leader, a leader must be social,
internal and external issues.
Senior officers must learn about the world.

· It’s all about people. Leadership perceptive. Organizations
don’t get things done only people get things done. People skills
are so critical. That you communicate them effectively.
John Maxwell he is a major researcher. 25 books on leadership.
Interesting ideas.
21 irrefutable laws
1. Law of the lid: you can’t go higher than that. In order to keep
raising you have to develop you interpersonal skills.
2. Law of magnetism we tend to like people who are like us.
Republicans like rep. demo like demo. As leaders you tend to
attract people to your team who are like you. But you have to
guard against this. You need to surround people around you
have different skills and beliefs. You need to seek these people
because these people aren’t going to go after you. Make a
conscious effect to have a well-rounded group of followers
3. Law of connection people don’t care how much you know
until they know how much they care about them. Servant
leadership. Employee oriented. Genuine advancement. Then
they will contribute to your team.
4. Law of empowerment: easy to say easy to understand, I want
you get this job done. Do wants necessary to get the job done.
Theory y vs theory x (don’t give power)
5. Law of sacrifice: keep distance between you and your
followers. You should not be personal friends with them.
Difficult decisions. Give up.
The 21 qualities of leadership
· Quality integrity: ethical value beliefs. This goes back to trust.
If you use their trust they will never trust you again. They will
forgive you if you made a mistake.
· Commitment: like law of sacrifice. First one in and the last
one out. You can’t inspire other people if you aren’t inspired
yourself.
· Communication: you have to be able to communicate with

them. How will get their commitment if you can’t tell why and
how to get things done. Stay with fancy people.
· Focus on your strength: Spend 80% on what your good and
only 20% on improving your weaknesses. You will get more of
your effort on your strength. Ex: if I am weak in finance get a
person who is very good on it.
If you can’t carry the ball then you can’t lead the way. Give me
the ball Michael Jordan was a great leader not just a basketball
player. There’s no I in team but there is in win, Michael Jordan.
· Potion
· Responsibility
· Character and charisma
Charisma is to make other people fill good and well about
themselves.
· Servant hood: Caring for your followers. Showing concern for
their personal and professional needs.
· Vision: when assessing the status quo. Looking for the
solutions for the company. What drives the leader? The leader
drives the organization, the vision drives the leader. All the
goals should be consistent with the vision.
*** What do you need to know about your followers: It depends
on the quantity of your followers? You need to know a lot about
your core people. A leader needs to know what the followers
needs are.
Knows
Needs
Goals/Aspirations
Motivation
Abilities
Values

Commitment
The five basic categories:
Type
1. Alienate: come for the pay check. They are not happy. Don’t
complain. They thing about them self but they have a lot of
energy. They always in the leader side.
2. Conformist: yes man they do what they are told. Not
independent perspective. They need that type of direction no
creativity.
3. Pragmatist they’re ok. They know how to play the political
game in the org. they aren’t really committed but they know
how to play that.
4. Passive. They don’t think for themselves. They passion. They
do what they are told to do. They aren’t people you want to
empower.
5. Exemplary: the critical group. 20/80 group. You have 25
people 5/6 are the ones you count on. The ones who get the
work done. They think independently and think of the best cross
of action.
Maslow Needs Pyramid:
· Self-Actualization
· Esteem
· Belonging
· Security: Job security
· Physiological: Followers need to feel they belong. They care
for you and you care for them. People will have a need to
esteem. Recognizing the team and good work. People love to be
recognized. Self-esteem that comes with other people that you
are a valuable member of the org. That is when you begin to
have self-actualization.
When people are concerned about esteem that’s when
recognition comes in.
Motivation You can motivate people through 4 ways:

· Needs:
· Work Assignments: you want to give people task that they
have the ability to do.
· Cognitive rational approach. Articulate the people what needs
to be done to do the task. Empower them to take the actions
necessary and do reward them when getting the job done
preformed. Transactional –path goal theory
· Situational: Similar to work assignment approach. Consistent
to their values and skills. We can still redesign the matrix. How
can we make this assignment better? More appealing to your
skills? Adds value or perhaps more consistent with your skills.
Discuss the plan and carry out this plan. More acceptable and
more feasible.
You have to lead by example. You have to motivate your
followers by being motivated and inspired. If you could care
less then that’s going to be apparent to your followers and they
will act the same way.
Anonymous surveys
Leaders tend to be happy with the organization (success) they
are responsible how the company operates. I like it, you should
like it. I helped design. If the leader is content with the org that
doesn’t mean the followers feel the same. Don’t transfer your
own feelings unto your followers.
Employees who are alienate. You have to cut them loss. If you
let a bad situation go on and on and on than that’s where the
infection occurs.
People will act differently in teams.
Teams:
A group of collection of people who have common interest
(Baseball/church) but a team is more interdependent and
cohesive and more common interest. Org. rely on teams. Teams
are imp because technology is advancing. We are becoming a
nation of specialist no one can do the whole job. But when you
have a number of specialist you need a team. Ex: a hospital

operating room.
The down size it becomes dehumanizing if you go to a doc. You
become a hand or bladder they can perform on your whole
health screen.
A team leader has to see if all the pieces of the puzzle are in
place.
The structure of the team will have an effect on the team
members. You need to be cognitive of the team structure.
One thing is to know about the
1. Team size: (Leader has to decide) when you put together the
size of the team. Keeping it as small as possible no people you
need for the teams work gets done. The larger the team it’s
easier to hide…free riding the bigger the team the bigger the
problem. The smaller the team, the harder to hide from
responsibilities. No extras just whose expertise you need
2. Norms: Team norms is a manager role establishing norms.
Team leaders communicates expectation from team members. I
expect everyone to contribute. I want to know what everyone
thinks. You have to voice your opinion. As a team leader, you
can’t allow one or two strong dominate alpha males to
intermediate other people because of their expertise. Ex: even a
spy in the group to kiss ass in front of leader
3. Cohesiveness: you have to create a cohesive team. They have
to cooperate on certain problems. Cohesiveness is a double edge
sword. If the team becomes too cohesiveness it will become an
independent entity pursuing its own agenda….what best for the
team but what’s best for the organization. You have to guard
against. A perfect example: is the republic and democratic
parties….they have become into group thinks very cohesive.
They put the interest in what’s best for them, funds for them.
They put their own interest ahead of the own country.
4. Individual’s member’s roles in the team: you will be
assigning tasks on the team. Making the assignments to certain
representatives. You have to recognize that your individual role
will affect the team. More interest and vocal in the roles will
affect the team. What is expected from these individuals?

What determines the team performance is size, norms,
cohesiveness, roles, team empowerment?
The org. needs to empower the team to develop the most
effective strategy in accomplishing these goals. John I need you
to set up a team. They have to empower him to get good team
performance. A clear strategy and goals. They will fall heavily
on the leader’s shoulders.
I have to make such they have the resources to get the job done.
The team leader is also responsible for external relationships.
The team leader is the mediator Maybe you report back to the
vp …team external relationship. The team should have
resources that you need to get them to complete the job right.
That team isn’t going nowhere if the leader doesn’t know where
he is going. You are responsible for the social integration of the
team.
Why being a wake. Recognizing these are some concepts and
ideas I should keep in mind. I should create norms.
Homework:
Identify two # teams you are in. Norms how they behave, the
cohesiveness and your role. How do they affect your
performance in these two teams? I work so and so in this team
verses the other.
In Class Group Work, Survival: Plane crash…20 miles. Dressed
city clothes. The group is the salvage the important for team.
Rank items in terms of your survival?
Vitamin D: The Many Roles In Our Bodies
Abstract
Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin that contributes to overall
health. Health professionals promote its importance due to its
function in the human body. Several studies and research
observe vitamin D's effects on health and its possible impact

with certain diseases/illnesses; leukemia, hypertension, sickle
cell anemia, and breast cancer to name a few. Findings include
pro-founding information on vitamin D. There seems to be a
coalition between vitamin D deficiency/toxicity and certain
diseases/illnesses. Research has shown that vitamin D dosage
does have an effect on health. However, there remains a gap in
research and uncertainty on vitamin D's role in diseases and
illnesses not related to bone health.
Keywords: Vitamin D, deficiency, disease, health, effects,
research
Introduction
Essential vitamins are what our bodies need at most to function
on a daily basis. They may or may not be as easily accessible as
one would think; depending on the region we live in, along with
the conditions and resources provided, as well as the physical
state an individual might be in pertaining to health. Being one
of the macronutrients that is globally considered to be a
deficiency prone vitamin for some groups or individuals.
Mathebula (2015) states that the versatility of this vitamin in
the human body along with functional roles goes down to the
deepest level. In the long run it will be beneficial for those
individuals who will be needing it more than those who would
be considered at a healthy status. Individuals who are at a
predisposition to chronic health related issues and more
commonly diseases are more likely to not be well aware of some
of the attributes that come with changing something as
significant to their lifestyle. Vitamin D not only utilized for
optimal health in absorption, but also versatile in many of the
major systemic functions, which includes but is not limited to;
muscular, oncological, neurological and vascular functions, all
working together to maintain a balance within one another even
through critical or difficult conditions. They somehow manage
to overcome circumstances that puts health related issues that
are on the rise become more known but more so relevant and

current topics of discussion.
The essentiality of vitamin D and how it plays a key role in
maintenance of cell to cell association along with
communication throughout entire systems of the body to keep
levels at a stagnant state. When it comes to Physiological
aspects of vitamin D and conditions related to various body
systems, specifically blood and how toxicity levels can be
altered, maintaining consistency in absorption levels is
impertinent. In regards to muscular health, but more specifically
skeletal muscle, the absorption of vitamin D is crucial for both
the skeletal and muscular aspect, with consumption of this
vitamin, status of previous or known complications can be
monitored to measure levels of pain or previous health related
issues. This not only applies to this systemic aspect, but is
interrelated to all other systemic functions in some way shape
or form.
According to research, the role of vitamin D in individuals with
certain cancers is beneficial to the point where increasing intake
or decreasing exposure can be helpful in the form of
preventative measures. How much vitamin D the body produces
or absorbs and is distributed is based on many factors,
demographically speaking where one lives and how they
accommodate to that living arrangement is based on beliefs and
what one does to improve lifestyle for improvement. Dietary
intake, such as consumption of vitamin D rich foods or food
sources that contain this essential macronutrient, is also a key
player as to how people view or believe that vitamin D can
affect them. According to Holman et al. (2017) affects on how
one’s body, specifically skin, reacts to conditions such as skin
cancer in the case of vitamin D absorption from sun exposure.
In this case, being outside in conditions that individual put
themselves in stresses out the body in which it has to acclimate
under circumstances that are foreign or extreme and whether the
certain limitations affect one's health in the certain situations as
well as long term status.
Without sufficient nutrient absorption needed to maintain

performance of habitual and consistent tasks, insufficiency
intervenes not only on a systemic but also physical and
physiological level as well. According Gonzaga, & Gadini
(2013) and the National Academy of Sciences, some individuals
may be surpassing the safe limit of the daily vitamin D intake,
which indicates toxicity levels over 2000 IU. This not only
alters how one feels internally but externally some features or
details are more prominent to intoxication or deficiencies in the
case of someone not reaching the required needs or levels of
vitamin D resulting in certain health related issues that affect
prolonged overall health.
Improvement of conditions that affect one's health, as well as
promotion in prevention of health related issues, are key players
in awareness of the limitations that come with deficiencies that
are related to vitamin D and conditions of inadequate
absorption for certain macronutrients. Several vitamin D health
related issues and possible factors that affects its function in the
human body will be discussed in this review. Vitamin D’s effect
on bone health is a well known factor, however will not be
discussed in this review.
Vitamin D a Versatile Function
Vitamin D is not just a vitamin that is essential for bone health,
it also has significant roles in non-skeletal health, organ
functions and prevention of disease. Vitamin D is a nutrient that
is needed for optimal health. It is a group of fat-soluble
secosteroids that is derived from cholesterol. Its main function
is to aid in the absorption of phosphate, magnesium and calcium
in the intestines. The ways vitamin D is acquired is through
diet, supplements and from sunlight exposure. Normally we
obtain our vitamins from the foods we eat, but with vitamin D
there is no food source high enough in this nutrient to solely
sustain our bodies requirement. So, in addition to diet the
major natural source is acquired through sunlight under the skin
using a process called ultraviolet B sunlight exposure.
Vitamin D has two major chemically distinct forms which are
D2 ergocalciferol (comes from plant sources) and D3

cholecalciferol (comes from animal sources). Vitamin D will be
converted into a hormonal activity form calcitriol. The vitamin
D prohormone compound plays an important role in the
production of various physiological functions. It is so viable
that most cells in the human body have a receptor for it. An
adequate vitamin D status is important for optimal function of
many organs. The action of vitamin D by the active metabolite
1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25(OH)2D] behaves as a hormone
and binds to the vitamin D receptor (VDR) Stöcklin &
Eggersdorfer (2013). All tissues and cells in the body, including
immune, brain, colon, prostate and breast cells, among many
others, have a vitamin D receptor (VDR) that coincides with
1,25(OH)2 D3. Since the VDR is widely expressed,
1,25(OH)2D3 has effects on many tissues.
It is now known that 1,25(OH)2D3 plays a role in the immune
system and has effects on differentiation and proliferation of
various cell types. Vitamin D is also known to regulate the
immunity by increased production of antimicrobial peptides and
subsequent killing of bacteria. The innate immune system serves
as the first barrier of defense against invading microorganisms.
It is to identify foreign organisms and stimulate a cascade of
events that result in the removal or destruction of the invading
organism. Pattern recognition receptors are expressed by cell of
the innate immune system to identify molecular patterns that are
reserved amongst different classes of pathogens. These patterns
are known as pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs).
Different forms of PAMPs are lipopolysaccharides (LPS), viral
proteins and single/double stranded RNA. The innate immune
system response depends on the specific toll like receptors
(TLRs) or the TLRs that stimulate PAMPs. TLRs include TLR2
which responds to gram-positive bacteria and mycobacteria,
TLR4 which responds to gram-negative bacteria and TLR3
which responds to double-stranded RNA associated with viral
infections. The response to TLR signaling produces the
production of anti-microbial peptides, cytokines and apoptosis
of the host cells among responses (Stöcklin & Eggersdorfer,

2013).
The major form of anti-microbial peptides in humans is
cathelicidin. Cathelicidin serve as a critical role in innate
immune defense against bacterial infection. Cells of the immune
system including neutrophils and macrophages and cells lining
epithelial surfaces that are constantly exposed to potential
pathogens (skin, respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract)
produce cathelicidin. Cathelicidin plays an integral part of the
innate immune response due to its anti-microbial activity
against gram positive and negative bacteria as well as certain
viruses and fungi. Vitamin D activates macrophages and induces
them to increase their production of the antimicrobial peptide
cathelicidin. This breaks down pathogens once the macrophage
has consumed them. It also creates a recursive effect whereby
vitamin D both generates more innate immune cells and makes
them more effective at destroying harmful organisms. The
effect of vitamin D is in connection with the stimulation of
these antimicrobial proteins and UVB radiation, which induces
the production of the vitamin.
The association between vitamin D deficiency and autoimmune
disease is the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory
functions, as well as the presence of VDRs on most immune
cells. The most established link between environmental factors
and autoimmunity is within the interactions between infections
and autoimmunity. Vitamin D deficiency is common in patients
with autoimmune diseases. As seen in patients with Multiple
sclerosis (MS), type 1 diabetes, irritable bowel disease and
rheumatoid arthritis, vitamin D seems to affect the activity and
outcomes of the autoimmune diseases. MS is an autoimmune
demyelinating disease in which the insulating covers of the
nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord are damaged. MS is
most common in women, that are in certain ethnic populations
and living in high altitudes with low sun exposure. Several
genetic and environmental facts have been implicated in its
development. It appears that low levels of vitamin D are
common in patients with MS and has been identified with the

increase relapse of MS (Levin, Theodor, Segal, et al., 2013).
Vitamin D was reported to induce changes in the gene
expression of immune cells within patients with MS. The
autonomic dysfunctions combined with inflammation is a
critical factor in the development of MS. The autonomic
dysfunctions were found to be altered by environmental factors
such as the Epstein-Barr virus and vitamin D and possible the
combined effect of both (Sternberg, 2012).
Several tests were performed on patients with MS and doses of
vitamin D. The first test identified low doses for 6 months and
there were no significant or radiological effects. Another test
was performed with the increase dose for over a 28-week period
followed by and additions 10,000 IU/day for 12 weeks.
According to Levin et al. (2013), This dose appeared to be safe
and the relapse rate showed an apparent decline.
Supplementation was suggested to be beneficial for the primary
prevention of autoimmune diseases as MS and diabetes mellitus.
In the past, the major source if Vitamin D was exposure of
sunlight. One possible cause of vitamin D deficiency is the lack
of unprotected sun exposure. Current barriers to sunlight are the
fear about attaining melanoma and other types of skin cancer
which warrants the avoidance of midday sun exposure. This has
led to an increase in sunscreen, hats and other sun barriers.
Environmental factors such as pollution and fewer hours in the
winter months decrease exposure and ultimately contributes to
the loss of vitamin D synthesis from sunlight exposure. The sun
exposure helps satisfy the body requirements. For people who
live at 33° Latitude these observations in particularly strengthen
the argument for supplementation (Grant, et al., 2009). Another
possible cause is lack of dietary source of vitamin D. It is
difficult for adults and children to obtain high levels of vitamin
through a dietary source without supplementation. Currently
there has not been a specific amount established for a regimen
of vitamin D therapy for immunological homeostasis. Numerous
epidemiological studies have suggested that a 25(OH)d blood

level above 30 ng/ml may have additional benefits in reducing
the risk of common cancers, autoimmune disease,
cardiovascular disease and infectious diseases. (Holick, et al.,
2011)
Vitamin D and Diabetes
According to The International Diabetes Federation, diabetes
affects 425 million adults worldwide, with the total set to reach
629 million by 2045. In the United states, an estimated 79
million people have prediabetes. There is growing evidence that
deficiency of vitamin D is a large contributing factor in the
development of both type 1 and 2 diabetes. Vitamin D improves
glucose tolerance and improved insulin secretion. The b-cells in
the pancreas that secretes insulin express the VDR and respond
to 1,25(OH)2D by increasing insulin production. It does not
participate in generating the new β-cells. Therefore,
1,25(OH)2D3 seems to have a role in the prevention of diabetes
in early age and/or improving of diabetes rather than treating
the disease. The indirect effects of vitamin D may be mediated
via its important well-recognized role in regulating extracellular
calcium and calcium flux through betta cells. Insulin secretion
is a dependent upon calcium process. Alterations in calcium
flux can have effects on b-cell secretory function through the
cell membranes. Therefore low vitamin D may affect calcium’s
ability to affect insulin secretion (Martin & Campbell, 2011).
There is research that speculates the relation between
vitamin D and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Like other
changes that occur during pregnancy, GDM is a common
condition in which many women are diagnosed with. There is
little evidence that links genetics to the occurrence of GDM of
some women. Therefore, diet is the main factor that affects
women’s risk of developing GDM; before and during pregnancy.
However, there are patterns that speculate risk factors for
women before and during pregnancy. Women are often
encouraged by health care professionals to maintain their health
during childbearing years. GDM occurs during pregnancy in
which women develop insulin resistance correlated with

carbohydrate consumption intolerance (Alzaim & Wood, 2013).
Individuals diagnosed with GDM have a fasting plasma glucose
level that reads 126mg/dl and an initial plasma glucose level
that reads 200 mg/dl. Women with GDM also are shown to be
vitamin D deficient, thus raises the possibility of a relationship
between the two. This is furthered explained when considering
the role vitamin D plays during pregnancies.
The placenta, in which the fetus receives nutrients, contains
vitamin D receptors and activating enzyme 1-α-hydroxylase
(Maysa et al., 2013). Despite this knowledge, there is not
enough scientific evidence to prove that vitamin D affects
pregnancy. Therefore, the question still remains as to why
vitamin D is a major nutrient requirement for the fetus, as well
as why many pregnant women have low vitamin D levels and
are diagnosed with GDM. It is also argued that the fetus
requires certain vitamin D dosage throughout development. This
dosage requirement peaks during the third trimester, thus
increases the fetus’ needs of the vitamin. Confusion over the
importance of vitamin D during pregnancy has also affected
people’s knowledge of the benefits of taking vitamin D
supplements while pregnant (Mitchell & Sanders, 2018).
Early prevention and becoming informed as to what certain
diagnosis for these life altering conditions such as diabetes
mellitus or gestational diabetes mellitus; as well as making
changes to previous habits, significantly can bring on a better
outcome. Taking preventative measures to ensure one doesn’t
acquire this diseases as well as other diseases alike early on, but
also maintaining a consistent routine that brings awareness, are
indicators that health status should be a more concerning topic
of discussion.
Blood Health and Vitamin D
Vitamin D plays major physiological roles in the body as a
steroidal hormone. It is critical to note that the Deficiency or in
excess the imbalances result in blood-related problems. When In
excessive amounts within the human body, Vitamin D results in
a rare but potentially serious condition called Hypervitaminosis

D. This condition is popularly known as the “Vitamin D
toxicity”. This type of Vitamin D toxicity is caused by large
amounts of Vitamin D in the body which results from mega-
doses of Vitamin D supplements. It is critical to note that
Vitamin D toxicity is not caused by the conventional ways of
obtaining the nutrient through diets and sun exposure. This is
because the body has mechanisms in place that regulate the
amount of vitamin D produced and obtained through the sun
exposure or continuous intake of fortified foods and diets.
These two sources do not contain copious amounts of the
mineral and hence cannot results in Vitamin D toxicity. Vitamin
D toxicity is characterized by consequences such as an
excessive buildup of calcium in the circulatory system affecting
the blood . This is a condition referred to as Hypercalcemia.
Hypercalcemia is characterized by symptoms such as nausea,
vomiting, weaknesses and frequent urination. Healthy blood
contains the right amount of calcium hence a deviation affects
functionality and can result in disorders that are systemic such
as formation of calcium stones.
The normal human has a blood pressure of between 120/80
mmHg and 140/90 mmHg. A deficiency in Vitamin D disrupts
this normalcy to levels that are considered high blood pressure.
Vitamin D deficiencies in Healthy people have been linked with
the development of stiffer arteries and the inability of some
blood vessels to relax. This results in deteriorating vascular
health. A problem in the vascular system affects what is
referred to as healthy blood or circulatory system. According to
these assertions, it is reasonable to infer that lack or
efficiencies of vitamin D impair the individuals vascular health
which contributes to high blood pressure as well as risks of
cardiovascular disorder. Higher blood pressure is linked to
several blood complications such as the formation of blood
clots. Blood clots, or as commonly referred to as a thrombus,
obstructs the flow of blood to other areas and is defined as the
final product of coagulation step in hemostasis. The process of
hemostasis in uninjured vessels is a critical health concern

considering it obstructs blood flow and can result in lower
levels of blood flow into the brain.
Another growing blood health issue is leukemia. Leukemia
is known as that the cancer of the body’s red blood cells.
Leukemia has in the recent past been linked to Vitamin D
deficiency. This is mainly associated with people who are
exposed to minimal or no sunlight at all. A number of studies
has shown that vitamin D metabolites have something to do with
the growing cases of Leukemia in people living far from the
equator. This is because Vitamin D has a metabolite in blood
known as the 25-hydroxyvitamin D, or 25(OH)D. This is the
indicator used to measure the levels of Vitamin D levels in a
human body. These metabolites interact with the Acute Myeloid
Leukemia cells (AML). To add to this argument majority of the
studies involving people with Leukemia have noted a lower
level of Vitamin D. Skin photosynthesis accounts for a large
proportion of 25(OH)D concentration. As a result, the inverse
association between cloud-adjusted solar UVB exposure and
incidence rates is likely to be mediated by circulating 25(OH)D,
which is highly dependent on solar UVB irradiance. In simpler
terms, this study suggests that an increased level of UVB
irradiance and Vitamin D are critical in ensuring that people
away from the tropics and the equator who receive minimal
sunlight can prevent the development of Leukemia.
It is critical to note that Vitamin D has been known for its
role in Calcium regulation. However, the implications in
hematological cancer pathogenesis have provided a major
challenge and an insight into anti-cancer therapy. Serum levels
of 25(OH)D3, the precursor to the active form of vitamin D,
calcitriol, are frequently lower in patients with the
hematological disease compared to healthy individuals. This
correlates with the worst of the disease outcomes. In the same
context, the diseased cells also exhibit a higher level of Vitamin
D reception which causes abnormalities in blood cells.
However, not all side effects of the lack or presence of vitamin
D are bad. This is because supplementation of Vitamin D

improves apoptosis which is a systematic and body induced cell
death especially damaged or worn out cells, induces
differentiation of cells in the body, prohibits proliferations and
most importantly Vitamin D in blood health helps to sensitize
the tumor cells in conjunction with other cancer therapies. It is
however notable that the control of Vitamin D levels is critical
because the amounts that are required to achieve these functions
listed successfully can induce hypercalcemia in humans.
It is critical to note that blood health is dependent on the
health of individual cells. For example, a small deviation from
the normal blood cells is considered abnormal. A good example
is a change in the shapes of red blood cells in sickle cell anemia
patients. This is a genetic disease that is characterized by
abnormal hemoglobin which is the primary constituent of the
red blood cells. It is notable that people with Sickle cell disease
have severe nutritional deficiencies. One of these deficiencies is
Vitamin D. The symptoms of Vitamin D deficiency in sickle
cell patients include chronic pain. This means that the levels of
Vitamin D in the system affect the severity of sickle cell anemia
resulting in more complications. Considering the basic fact that
Vitamin D deficiency and sickle cell anemia share the same
clinical manifestations for bone health, chronic inflammation,
and pain, it is reasonable to infer that the Vitamin D deficiency
contributes to the growth of the sickle cell anemia condition. In
simpler terms, by optimizing Vitamin D nutrition, we achieve
an inexpensive strategy to improve blood health as far as sickle
cell disease is concerned.
Lastly, it is important to consider the effects of Vitamin D
deficiency on the basic functionality of blood clotting. As
explained before Vitamin D is associated with the regulation of
calcium levels in the system. Calcium ions are critical for the
entire process of clotting. Calcium ions are basic elements for
clotting to occur. Lower levels of Vitamin D means that there
will be lower levels of calcium which results in hemophilia
commonly referred to as the bleeder disease. This affects the
entirety of blood health in several aspects; entry of

microorganisms considering that clotting blocks entry of
pathogens and the loss of blood which is also a critical element
of blood health and general blood health. This is because the
basic elements of the human immune system are anchored in the
blood which holds the white blood cells.
Vitamin D and Skeletal Muscle Tissue
Vitamin D has been established for some time as an important
factor for bone mineralization however, when it comes to the
skeletal muscle tissue, new research on vitamin D’s positive
functions and effects are still being uncovered. The method
researchers are using to uncover the process of communication
between skeletal muscle and vitamin D is VDR (Vitamin D
Receptor). The VDR is a transcription factor that is activated by
1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D that regulates gene transcription in the
body. Depending on the amount of 25(OH) D in the tissue they
can focus in on that specific location to examine VDR’s
process. VDR however, is difficult to find which is why this
method of confirming a deficiency of vitamin D in skeletal
tissue remains in its experimental phase. Limited research have
been published that examines an association between muscle
pain and vitamin D stores in humans, in addition to lab mice.
In one study, they conducted an uncontrolled study that
examined 150 patients with chronic, musculoskeletal pain that
uncovered 96% of the patients had vitamin D deficiency, with a
mean of 25(OH) D of 10.49 ng/ml. (S. Bobo Tanner and Susan
A. Harwell, 2015). This allowed the researchers to gather data
on patients that were at higher risk of hypovitaminosis D
meanwhile, extending the risk for deficiencies of vitamin D in
other populations as well. In another randomized trial that
contained a sample size of 30 women with fibromyalgia, that
ensues widespread muscle pain and tenderness, also measured
25(OH) D levels. Depending on the womens vitamin D baseline
levels they were either given 1 of 2 doses of 1200-2400 IU
cholecalciferol (Vitamin D3) a day. This study however did
uncover a decrease in pain in relation to vitamin D status
compared to the control group. The researchers concluded that

the patients in the experimental group has less muscle pain
overall. The researchers however, did comment on the limitation
of their 30 person sample size and how improving health-
related quality of life and disease impairment scores were not
statistically significant for reducing overall pain with the
supplementation of vitamin D (Wepner, et al. 2014).
Myopathy and sarcopenia also remain as a focal point for
certain studies that associate vitamin D and the benefits the
vitamin can do for the tissue. These ailments pertain to muscle
weakness and low muscle mass in the skeletal tissue. As a
population continues to grow old and or living farther from the
equator, bone mass decreases in density and strength due to
reduced sun exposure and non fortified vitamin D foods.
Researchers are exploring vitamin D’s benefits and effects on
the muscle tissue by uncovering the physiology of vitamin D
receptors (VDR) in the skeletal muscle and how vitamin D is
being used by these receptors. This however remains as an area
for opportunity for researchers because certain studies question
that VDR even exists in the muscle tissue.
A very thorough continuous three part study decided to look
into the presence of VDR in human myoblasts in addition to the
relationship of vitamin D. The initial study harvested and
cloned human myoblasts from healthy volunteers that were
supplemented with 1 of 3 doses of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D.
The researchers used polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to
measure VDR in the myoblasts before and after
supplementation. They discovered that they were able to
measure VDR with PCR in the myoblasts. The second part of
the study was a randomized controlled intervention study. It
also had positive results by doing a similar vastus lateralis
muscle biopsy on 20 women over the age of 65 with a semi
deficient baseline of 25(OH)D levels and mobility restraints.
They examined the supplementation of 4000 IU’s of vitamin D3
and a placebo for skeletal muscle morphology and VDR protein
concentration. They were able to detect much more active VDR
in the experimental group by conducting PCR, immunoblotting

and immunofluorescent markers. The third final study, had a
sample size of twenty mobile limited adults. They found that at
fasting baseline levels of 25(OH)D and muscle biopsies, VDR
protein expression by immunoblotting consisted of positive
results of VDR detection in the skeletal muscle. The researchers
did not find a correlation between VDR mRNA expression
nonetheless, there was a larger VDR concentration in those with
adequate amounts of 25(OH)D compared to those with deficient
levels. S. Bobo Tanner and Susan A. Harwell. (2015).
Vitamin D is used in a variety of molecular pathways in the
human body that can benefit skeletal muscle, bone formation
and hormonal communication. The role of vitamin D is also
suggested to mediate calcium and phosphate functions in the
muscle regarding plasticity, contraction, mitochondrial function
and insulin signaling. The researchers of this study tested
supplementation of 20,000 IU cholecalciferol (vitamin D3)
alternating days for 10-12 weeks in vitamin D deficiency
individuals. It resulted in greater mitochondrial oxidative
function as it pertained to phosphorus-31 magnetic resonance
spectroscopy (P-MRS). The P-MRS is a noninvasive method
that is used to assess mitochondrial processes by measuring the
kinetics of high energy phosphate metabolites involved in ATP
metabolism during and after exercise (Sinha, A., et al. 2013).
Vitamin D’s role in the skeletal tissue can take a variety of
pathways that can associate it attributing to muscle weakness or
myopathy. The functions in the body with the dosages that were
used in the presented research clearly varies across the board
from 4000 IU to 20,000 IU however the data may prove to be
useful in future studies that pertain to myopathy and other
illnesses relating to skeletal muscle. It would be safe to say to
adequately consume vitamin D foods daily and if possible be in
the sun for periods in a day. Another recommendation would be
to do some form of physical activity because it would
synergistically benefit skeletal muscle strength, bone mineral
density, and overall wellness.
Vitamin D and Cancer

Vitamin D is an interesting and unique vitamin because it is
considered a nutrient and a prohormone and is strongly known
for its effects on building and maintaining strong bones.
However, recent studies have observed a link between low
vitamin D levels and an increase in cancer risk and progression.
Specifically, research suggests that women with low levels of
vitamin D have a higher risk of breast cancer and men and
women with low levels of vitamin D have a higher risk of
developing colorectal cancer. Vitamin D plays an important role
in stimulating immature cells to become mature functioning
cells. It transfers into the nucleus of a cell and up regulates
selected genes coding for specific proteins involved in cell
differentiation. Some evidence suggests that the function of
vitamin D may help prevent certain types of cancers. Although
this connection warrants further investigation, Vitamin D's role
in cell differentiation may highly be involved.
Breast cancer is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers
among women. O’Brien et al. (2017) demonstrates how
effective serum vitamin D levels and supplemental intake of
vitamin D has on women who are at risk of developing breast
cancer and women who were diagnosed with breast cancer.
50,884 U.S. women ages 35 to 74 were enrolled in a sister study
from having a sibling who has had breast cancer, but has never
developed breast cancer themselves. Of the 50,884 women,
1,611 women who later developed breast cancer and 1,843
randomly selected cohort participants were selected to be in a
five year study. Each participant filled out a questionnaire about
their race, if they were on birth control/ hormonal supplements,
menopausal status, alcohol consumption levels, physical
activity, BMI, and family history. They also evaluated the
relationship between breast cancer and vitamin D sources,
including supplements, diet, and sunlight exposure.
The root of the study is the concentration of vitamin D
found within blood. Researchers referred to it as serum
25(OH)D, which is the main indicator of vitamin D in blood.
All participants were given vitamin d supplementation and were

contacted each year to make certain of any major health
changes.
Overall, women with low levels of Vitamin D are at higher
risk for developing breast cancer. As a result 38.0 ng/mL of
calcifediol was connected with a lower risk in breast cancer by
twenty one percent compared with levels less than 24.6 ng/mL.
The association with lower risk of breast cancer was most
strongly evident for postmenopausal and obese women. It was
also noticed that a lower risk of cancerous cells associated with
regular vitamin D supplement consumed more than four times a
week was more beneficial than average users. In fact, these
results are quite consistent with those of the Recommended
Daily Allowance of 400 IU/day. The results support the theory
that supplements of Vitamin D could be effectual in preventing
breast cancer by controlling normal breast cell growth and
stopping breast cancer cells from progressing.
In another study, Hamada et al. (2018) observed if high levels
of vitamin D is linked with a decrease in colorectal cancer.
Colon cancer is also a highly common cancer and is the top
leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the United States. In
this study, 869 participants with colon cancer were evaluated of
an association of post diagnosis Vitamin D scores which came
from diet and lifestyle factors in order to guess plasma
25(OH)D levels. They hypothesized that the survival colon
cancer rate and connection with Vitamin D with is possibly
stronger for tumors with lower lymphocytic response than
tumors with a higher lymphocytic response.
Each patient was followed up upon until death or end of
the study. Post diagnosis predicted calcifediol score fairly
correlated with pre diagnosis predicted calcifediol score. During
the median follow-up time there were 480 all-cause deaths. Of
the 480 deaths, 122 of them were from colorectal cancer. As a
result, they did not observe a statistically significant interaction
between post diagnosis predicted vitamin D score and
lymphocytic reaction in relation to overall mortality.
Assuming that predicted vitamin D levels can possibly

have an effect on any other factors used in the prediction model,
they included the patients physical activity level as a further
outcome. They concluded that the beneficial survival connection
of post diagnosis predicted Vitamin D worked better for
patients with colon cancer who have lower peritumoral
lymphocytic reaction. However, they did not observe a
difference in overall mortality rate. To determine if their theory
is valid, they performed this study on two large prospective
cohort studies. The predicted vitamin D score came from dietary
and lifestyle data, which included both endogenous and
exogenous sources of vitamin D and estimates of long-term
plasma levels.
The association of Vitamin D levels with the mortality of
colon cancer varied by levels of peritumoral lymphocytic
reaction. The multiple adjusted transience ratios for five equal
groups increase of Vitamin D levels were 0.69 and had ninety
five percent confidence interval. Other findings with lower
peritumoral lymphocytic reaction were 1.08 and ninety five
percent confidence interval. The survival association of the
25(OH)D score was not notably different by Crohn’s-like
lymphoid reaction, tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes.
In conclusion, the connection between Vitamin D levels
and success rates of colon cancer is stronger for carcinomas
with lower peritumoral lymphocytic reaction. Their results
suggested a correlation of vitamin D and immune response may
contribute to their own diet and lifestyle. This newest study
does not show that there is a benefit to supplementation,
however it does show a positive association with higher levels.
Lastly, studies show Vitamin D may protect someone against
the development of skin cancer. Vitamin D which is also known
as the sunshine vitamin can be made in large amounts when
exposed to the sun. The sun's UVB rays hit cholesterol in the
skin cells, providing the energy for vitamin D synthesis to
occur. Once Vitamin D is activated it influences the genes in
your skin and helps prevent the type of abnormalities that
ultraviolet light causes. As a result, sun avoidance becomes the

factor that ironically activates skin cancer.
Park et al. (2016) evaluated 63,760 women and
41,530 men from for 26 years to determine if dietary and
supplemental intake of Vitamin D correlated with skin cancer.
They acquired information by doing food frequency
questionnaires, dosages of multivitamins every four years, and
physical activity levels. Once dietary Vitamin D nutrients were
calculate, they conducted stratified analysis according to major
sun exposure variables, such as history of sunburns and the
average amount of time in the sun since high school.
In conclusion, higher levels of vitamin D intake was
positively associated with risk of Basal Cell Carcinoma while a
non-significant increased risk was found with melanoma.
Participants with higher intake of total vitamin D tended to be
older, participate in regular physical activity, and used more
sunscreen. Both men and women with lower total vitamin D
intake were more likely to smoke, and consumed higher amount
of alcohol intake. Evidence suggests it would be best to get a
reasonable amount of unprotected sun exposure on a large
amount of bare skin just before your skin starts turning pink,
and then cover up with a thin layer of clothing.
Like any other cancer, breast, colorectal, and skin cancer
is caused by multiple issues such as diet, exercise, lifestyle
choice, and genetics. Vitamin D is just one part of that solution
to possibly help prevent it. The safest things to do to avoid
these types of cancer would be to ensure that there is adequate
vitamin D in the diet. Until better evidence emerges, continuing
to take a cautious approach to vitamin D supplementation seems
the most reasonable approach. Although findings are solely
observational, there is no conclusions about the link between
vitamin D and cancer risk. There is an optimal level of vitamin
D that protects against cancer, but an overconsumption of this
level offers no further benefit.
Conclusion
Being that vitamin D is an essential vitamin, it is not surprising

to know that deficiencies and overdosage will have a major
impact on health. As discussed, vitamin D can be obtained from
the diet, sunlight, and supplementation. More than just a
vitamin that supports bone health, vitamin D has other benefits
which is associated with different conditions and functions in
the body. For example, a contributing factor to vitamin D’s
importance is its impact on regulating the immune system.
Individuals with deficiencies of vitamin D can be linked to the
development of autoimmune diseases. Autoimmune diseases
involve healthy living cells being killed off by the immune
system; instead of the immune system strengthening the body’s
defenses in fighting bacteria and illnesses.
It is argued that when proper dosages are not reached
individuals can develop illness and diseases such as
hypercalcemia, leukemia, breast cancer, diabetes, and sickle cell
anemia. Although vitamin D deficiency is a major issue in our
health, toxicity of this vitamin is also a cause for concern;
toxicity in this form is referring to the excess amount of vitamin
D in the body. As mentioned earlier, hypercalcemia is the result
of calcium buildup in the blood resulting in vitamin D toxicity,
and ultimately affecting our circulatory system. In addition to
this, the structure and function to blood vessels relies on the
intake of vitamin D leading to cardiovascular disease or related
disorders. High blood pressure is the result of abnormal
functions of blood vessels and can further lead to the formation
of blood clots, thus inevitably increase chances of a stroke.
While there are other factors that affect stroke risks, it cannot
be ignored that vitamin D may also play a role in its formation.
In this case, prevention measures must be taken place.
Because Vitamin D is known as the “sunshine vitamin” it would
be appropriate to contemplate the implications and diseases that
occurs with the lack of sunlight. Previously mentioned,
leukemia is blood cancer that can be linked to lack of sunlight.
Therefore, in certain regions of the world where there is limited
sunlight, it would be expected that individuals who reside in
these regions are prone to develop leukemia; proper UVB

exposure can prevent leukemia for these individuals.
However, as beneficial sunlight can be, it is also important to
take proper precautions when out in the sun because too much
sunlight can also cause negative effects. It is important to
consume water to prevent dehydration and even apply sunscreen
when exposed to the sun for a long period of time (Bentley,
2013). It should be noted that this is only in the case of
potentially too much sun exposure, thus normal exposure will
not warrant these measures and in fact decrease sun exposure
when it is needed. It was further discussed that other cancers
such as breast cancer maybe linked to low doses of vitamin D.
Inadequate vitamin D can further affect already existing
diseases, such as individuals with sickle cell anemia who state
that under these conditions they suffer from chronic pain. By
contrast, adequate amounts of vitamin D would improve the
condition of patients who suffer from sickle cell anemia.
The importance on vitamin D for bones has always been highly
discussed and encouraged by health professionals. However as
indicated above, currently it is speculated that vitamin D also
impacts skeletal muscle. Although several studies and research
were conducted testing this knowledge, and some that
concluded with some convincing results, there is little profound
evidence or explanation to make this discovery undoubtedly
true. This can be an area for further research in which
researchers discover how skeletal muscle and vitamin D are
related; more information on the vitamin D receptor. This
discovery would be a breakthrough in research because it would
explain certain individuals who suffer from muscular pain and
weakness. Also, it would give individuals more incentive to
include vitamin D in their diet and from other sources.
There is even more room for further research. Unfortunately,
there is little evidence that supports vitamin D’s role in
preventing cancer, thus should not be used as a preventive
measure (Bentley, 2013). Therefore, researchers and scientists
need to find further information that supports their theories on
cancers and disease such as HIV and cardiovascular disease.

Furthermore, additional research can include vitamin D
deficiency in different age groups and how it affects
development in children as well as mental and physical
capabilities in adults. There is definitely a gap in research as far
as vitamin D’s role in pregnancy and its effects on GDM. Health
professionals need to develop a strategy to effectively promote
vitamin D for pregnant women when research shows that it has
no substantial effect on pregnancy. Lastly, the costs of research
as far as prevention and other measures should be discussed
(Aguiar et al., 2017). It should be indicated if such prevention
will be beneficial in the long run and its impact on the economy
and health care facilities.
It is imperative to know the implications that arise from lack of
or excessive vitamin D. For instance, it is suggested that by
knowing the results of improper vitamin D dosage it can then be
prevented and studied further. One obvious measure to prevent
vitamin D deficiency is through implementation in the diet.
Diets should include tuna and salmon, dairy products that have
been fortified with vitamin D, and egg yolks. Ultimately, there
is not enough evidence that proves vitamin D as a prevention to
many cancers, diseases, and illnesses. However, it is found that
a person’s overall health will improve with adequate vitamin D.
Although vitamin D is just one of the factors that affect the
diseases and illnesses discussed earlier, it is still worth
observing and realizing its impact on overall health. It is
especially important in underdeveloped countries where there is
high occurrence of vitamin D deficiency. Health professionals
in these countries can take this research to encourage
implementation of vitamin D in patients’ diet, as well as
promote it in the community. Undoubtedly if there is more
knowledge and resources, deficiency in these countries and
around the world will greatly reduce.
References
Agmon-Levin, Nancy & Theodor, Emanuel & Maoz Segal,
Ramit & Shoenfeld, Yehuda. (2012).

Vitamin D in Systemic and Organ-Specific Autoimmune
Diseases. Clinical reviews in
allergy & immunology. 45. 10.1007/s12016-012-8342-y.
Aguiar M, Andronis L, Pallan M, Högler W, Frew E. (2017).
Preventing vitamin D deficiency
(VDD): a systematic review of economic evaluations. European
Journal of Public
Health, Volume 27, Issue 2, 1 April 2017, Pages 292–301.
Alzaim M., Wood R. J. (2013). Vitamin D and gestational
diabetes mellitus. Nutrition Reviews,
Volume 71, Issue 3, Pages 158–167.
Brennan‐Olsen S. L, Holloway‐Kew K. L, Hosking S. M, Hyde
N. K, Pasco J. A,
Wark J. D. (2018). Vitamin D during pregnancy and offspring
body composition: a
prospective cohort study.
Bentley J. (2013). Vitamin D deficiency: identifying gaps in the
evidence base.
Nursing Standard. 27, 46, 35-41.
Feldman, D., Krishnan, A. V., Swami, S., Giovannucci, E., &
Feldman, B. J. (2014). The role of
vitamin D in reducing cancer risk and progression. Nature
reviews cancer, 14(5), 342.
Grant, W. B., Cross, H. S., Garland, C. F., Gorham, E. D.,
Moan, J., Peterlik, M., . . . Zittermann,
A. (2009). Estimated benefit of increased vitamin D status in
reducing the economic
burden of disease in western Europe. Progress in Biophysics and
Molecular Biology,
99(2-3), 104-113. doi:10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2009.02.003.
Guerrieri‐Gonzaga, A., & Gandini, S. (2013). Vitamin D and
overall mortality. Pigment
Cell & Melanoma Research, 26(1), 16-28.
Hamada T. (2016). “Vitamin D Status after Colorectal Cancer
Diagnosis and Patient
Survival According to Immune Response to Tumour.” European

Journal of Cancer, vol.
103, 2018, pp. 98–108: Park SM, Li T, Wu S, Li W-Q, Qureshi
AA, Cho E.
Holick, M. F., Binkley, N. C., Bischoff-Ferrari, H. A., Gordon,
C. M., Hanley, D. A., Heaney, R.
P., . . . Weaver, C. M. (2011). Evaluation, Treatment, and
Prevention of Vitamin D
Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline.
The Journal of Clinical
Endocrinology & Metabolism,96(7), 1911-1930.
doi:10.1210/jc.2011-0385.
Holman, Berkowitz, Guy, Lunsford, & Coups. (2017). The
association between beliefs about
vitamin D and skin cancer risk-related behaviors. Preventive
Medicine, 99, 326-331.
Kulling, P. M., Olson, K. C., Olson, T. L., Feith, D. J., &
Loughran Jr, T. P. (2017). Vitamin D in
hematological disorders and malignancies. European journal of
haematology, 98(3).
Lee, A. W., Romanowski, G. L., Proudfoot, J. A., & Kuo, D. J.
(2017). Effect of Vitamin D
supplementation on delayed hyperphosphatemia in pediatric
acute lymphoblastic
leukemia patients during induction chemotherapy. The Journal
of Pediatric Pharmacology
and Therapeutics, 22(2), 102-105.
Marcinowska-Suchowierska, E., Płudowski, P., Witaminą, Z., &
Tałałaj, M. (2016). Vitamin D
toxicity. Post N Med, 29(10), 756-759.
Martin, T., & Campbell, R. K. (2011). Vitamin D and Diabetes.
Diabetes Spectrum,24(2),
113-118. doi:10.2337/diaspect.24.2.113.
O'Brien, Katie M et al. “Serum Vitamin D and Risk of Breast
Cancer within Five Years”
Environmental health perspectives vol. 125,7 077004. 6 Jul.
2017, doi:10.1289/EHP943.

Park SM, Li T, Wu S, Li WQ, Qureshi AA, Cho E. (2016).
Vitamin D Intake and Risk of Skin
Cancer in US Women and Men. PLoS ONE 11(8): e0160308.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0160308.
Sinha, A. G., Hollingsworth, K., Ball, S., & Cheetham, T.
(2013). Improving the Vitamin D
Status of Vitamin D Deficient Adults Is Associated With
Improved Mitochondrial
Oxidative Function in Skeletal Muscle. The Journal of Clinical
Endocrinology &
Metabolism,98(3), E509-E513.
Solani D. Mathebula. (2015). Vitamin D in ocular and systemic
health. African Vision and Eye
Health, 74(1), E1-E5.
Sternberg, Zohara. (2012). Autonomic dysfunction: A unifying
multiple sclerosis theory, linking
chronic cerebrospinal venous insufficiency, vitamin D-3, and
Epstein-Barr virus.
Autoimmunity reviews. 12. 10.1016/j.autrev.2012.04.004.
Stöcklin, E., & Eggersdorfer, M. (2013). Vitamin D, an
essential nutrient with versatile functions
in nearly all organs. International Journal for Vitamin and
Nutrition Research.
Internationale Zeitschrift Fur Vitamin- Und
Ernahrungsforschung. Journal International
De Vitaminologie Et De Nutrition, 83(2), 92-100.187-197.
Tanner, S. B., & Harwell, S. A. (2015). More than healthy
bones: a review of vitamin D in
muscle health. Therapeutic advances in musculoskeletal disease,
7(4), 152-9.
Wepner, F. S., Scheuer, R., Schuetz-Wieser, B., Machacek, P.,
Pieler-Bruha, E., Cross, H., . . .
Friedrich, M. (2014). Effects of vitamin D on patients with
fibromyalgia syndrome: A
randomized placebo-controlled trial. Pain,155(2), 261-268.

whiLeadership Schools
Develop the basis leadership models, and then discuss in more
detail when studying the leader, the followers, and the situation.
This is an overview of the evolution and development of
leadership theories, principles and models that help us
understand leadership better and how better to develop future
leaders.
Hand out leadership schools.
Leadership Schools
School Timeframe Primary
Themes
Historical Schools
Shaman 60,000-10,000BCE “He who
knows”
Kings, Emperors 10,000BCe-1800CE Devine,
Absolute Power
Plato 300BCE Philosopher
Kings
Aristotle 300BCE The Virtuous Man
Machiavelli 1513 The Effectual
Truth
Management Schools
F.W. Taylor 1911 Scientific
Management
H. Fayol 1920s Managerial
Functions
P.F. Drucker 1950s Management
Leadership Schools
Traits 1900 – Leader
Characteristics
Great Man
Behavior 1940-1970s Leader

Behaviors
Contingency 1930s- Tasks,
Followers, Situation
Great Bang
Fiedler
House
Marx
Substitutes for Leadership
Charismatic 1960s Devine Gift
Transformational 1960s-
Transcend Self Interest
Relational 1960s Leader-Follower
Relations
Servant 1980s Meet
Followers’ Needs
Strategic 1970s Strategic
Decision Making
Authentic 2000 Truthful
Global 2000 Global Mindset
Biological 2000 Genetics,
Neuroscience
I. Historical Schools
A. Shamans used their limited knowledge of science and the
weather to rule people through “magic.”
Persian kings, Egyptian Pharaohs, Chinese Emperors were
trained to be leaders – benevolent dictators.
Had bad emperor problem – live with it or kill him, but he is
devine!
B. Plato – Philosopher Kings – bread, educated, trained to be
leaders. Limiting the abuse of power by leaders has always

been a major issue with leadership, and still is.
Plato tried by limiting consumption. Can’t keep you from
getting wealth, but keep you from spending it so why bother.
C. Aristotle – the virtuous man – character, ethical, and the
golden Mean to determine what is ethical - rash – brave -
coward. Even trust must be balanced – trust but verify. Naïve
– trust – cynical.
D. Machiavelli – The Prince, teleological, ends justify means,
appear good but prepared to be evil when necessary. Lie, cheat,
break word to achieve ends - free Italian state.
This was realistic – how leaders really were. Not how their PR
directors portrayed them as descendants from the Gods like
today.
II. Management Schools
No difference between management and leadership. Focus is on
management.
Begins with Industrial Revolution, and development of large,
complex business organizations in 19th C.
A. F.W. Taylor – (1911)
Scientific management – more engineering than management.
People as machines.
Focused on optimizing worker productivity via tight controls.
Design work effort to optimize output. The optimal size shovel.
Similar to time and motion studies. Taylor is the father of
Project Management.

B. Henri Fayol – 1916 seminal book. Six basic roles managers
need to perform;
Forecasting
Organizing
Planning
Communicating,
Coordinating
Controlling
Go over Fayol notes. Managers role included: planning. Noted
the importance of technical skills decline as you move up the
leadership ladder.
C. P.F. Drucker – 20thC American management guru.
Many other management models; no difference between
management and leadership. Leadership is one of the
responsibilities of management. Leadership is not the focus of
what leaders do.
III. Leadership Schools
A. Traits
Studied the characteristics of great leaders around the 1900s.
1. Great Man
Great Man - observed great leaders’ traits and compared with
non-leaders. No theory of how they got these traits – born with
them – or how their traits affected leadership.
Carlyle –
The history of the world is but the biographies of great men.

Ask: Are leaders born or made? Of course they are born, not
hatched from eggs.
To some extent they are born; or at least certain characteristics
and capabilities that produce good leadership are born and
inherited:
IQ – inherited (if you are dumb, blame your parents). IQ does
not improve much and it is important to leadership. However,
other aspects of intelligence are also important, such as EQ, PQ,
CQ, and SQ, and they can definitely be improved.
Being confident and a good speaker may be partly inherited.
Physical appearance and having a strong voice – born for the
most part but you can improve and apply to extreme makeover.
Being tall (leader always sits higher than the rest) and stately,
are definite leadership advantages.
George Washington was tall, but Napoleon was short (never got
off his horse).
Many behaviors and traits are inherited or learned very early in
life and are hard to change.
Many values and beliefs and cultural biases are formed very
early in life from family, school, church and from early
experiences and are hard to change.
While it certainly helps to be born with good mental and
physical characteristics, your natural leadership ability can be
improved significantly through study and practice.
But, it is like riding a bike – can’t just read about it – have to

jump on and start peddling.
Actions you can take to become a better leader;
Seek leadership opportunities at work, school, social activities,
and at home.
Seek feedback on your leadership style and effectiveness.
Take training courses offered at work
Learn something that will make you a better leader from each
experience – good or bad.
Record and reflect on your experiences – AOR. Use your
personal leadership development plan.
Take an active role in our team exercises. Use them to improve
your skills.
Originally little more than hero worship.
2. Modern trait theories
A trait is a “distinguishing quality or characteristic.” some say a
“genetically determined characteristic.” Traits are manifested
in your personality.
Focus is again on the leader’s traits, personality characteristics
– assertive, persistent, confident, agreeable, etc.
The goals are to identify the traits of leaders, make a list of
these traits to see if people have these traits so they can identify
future leaders.
Traits

Physical Personality Social
energy aggressive sensitive
weight friendly caring
height optimistic empathetic
appearance risk-taking extrovert
Problems with trait models
Correlations are weak (not stat. significant). Traits not
correlated with effective leadership.
Could not identify any universal traits that characterized good
leadership. Some great leaders have a trait and some do not.
All great leaders are not empathetic for example.
However, two of the most important traits identified are:
Trustworthy – trust is the lubrication that makes it possible for
organizations to work. Trust requires being predictable,
reliable, and accountable.
We trust people who are predictable, whose positions are
known, who can be relied upon to do what they say, and who
are accountable – take responsibility for what they do.
Leaders are also persistent – failure is just another learning
experience. Never failed is a liar or he never tried, says Abe
Lincoln.
Studies run linear regressions or linear combinations of traits.
But, relationships are not always linear – some aggression good
but too much is not. The relationship is -curvilinear. Too much

sun makes a desert.
Traits may be mediators not independent variables. E.g., being
extraverted many effect your communications which results in
better leadership (performance)
Importance of traits vary with the situation; are moderated by
the situation – e.g., aggression good in one situation, bad in
another.
Combinations of traits may affect the impact of particular traits
on leadership e.g., being aggressive and caring may affect
leadership differently than being aggressive and creative.
Traits may change when u become a leader – become more
aggressive
Specific trait studies not in fashion today, but traits still have
considerable value in studying leadership.
B. Behavior (1940 – 1970)
Trait models fizzled out, so researchers turned to studying
leaders’ behaviors.
These behavior theories focus on what leaders do – on their
behavior, and how their behavior towards followers.
1. Task/employee Orientation
Studies of leadership behavior at Ohio State and U of Michigan
led to two basic leadership styles. Offer students clipboard or

coffee cup.
Put on board
Task Oriented Employee Oriented
Ohio Initiating structure
Consideration
Michigan Production oriented Employee
oriented
Marx Clipboard Coffee cup
Task oriented are focused on the job – clipboard
Clipboards are task oriented decisive, autocratic, efficient, plan,
sets targets, reward results. No time for small talk – too busy.
Employee oriented – focused on the employees – coffee cup
Coffee cups are participative, democratic decision maker,
empower, and communicate. Make small talk, personal issues.
Which is best? Depends on the nature of work, followers, and
the situation.
My article – strategy affects leadership style – employee
oriented better with differentiation strategy, task oriented
leadership style better with low-cost strategies.
As always, need to strike a balance, it is not one or the other.
You can be both.
Developed the management leadership grid to measure whether
you are task or employee oriented.

Assumed to be independent – you can be either or both.
Probably semi-independent.
Put up 9-9 grid (Northouse, p. 77). Hand out grid.
This allows you to understand your behavior – your leadership
style. It does not tell you which is the most effective. Again,
that depends on the situation.
9-9 sound good, but it might not be. A 5-5 might be more
effective in a given situation. Extremes of 9-1 and 1-9 probably
not good in any situation. You want the golden mean as
Aristotle said. The right balance. Too much courage is
arrogance, too little is cowardice.
Like traits, there is no universally good style.
Do Northouse on p. 89. Put in PLDP and bring to next class.
2. Generic Behavioral Schools
All propose different levels of behavior that are more effective
for leaders.
Three Levels of Leadership Model:
A very early behavioral model.
Beginning of transition from the study of management to the
study of leadership
Level 1 leader; Focus on maximizing worker productivity (F.W.
Taylor – Scientific Management – optimal shovel)
Focus on the physical attributes of the worker – on the body.

Level 2;
Focus on employee’s body and mind. Motivate workers to find
betters ways to increase productivity.
McGregor’s theory X and theory Y come into play. X is lazy
and must be coerced to work; Y can be self motivated.
Level 3:
Focus on aligning the worker’s VABEs – values, assumptions,
beliefs and expectations – with the organization’s objectives to
get greater commitment and productivity from the employees.
Level 3 leaders address the physical, mental and values of the
workers – body, mind and spirit.
3. Jim Collins: Good to Great
Talked to GM, read book.
Developed the 5 Level behavioral model of leadership.
Studied 15 companies with outstanding financial performance.
The companies were already good and went on to become great.
Not so great today. These 15 companies had level 5 leaders,
Put the Collins behavior model on the board.
Level 1 – Highly capable. Contributes with knowledge and
skills.
Level 2 – Contributing team member – works effectively with
others
Level 3 – A competent manager, pursues companies’ objectives

efficiently
Level 4 – Effective leader – vigorous pursuit of the vision
Level 5 – The Executive – builds greatness through personal
humility and professional will. He does whatever it takes to
succeed.
Level 5 leaders are self-effacing and reserved. They avoid the
limelight, and they do not let their egos get in the way of good
decision making. They are not charismatic.
Abraham Lincoln is Collin’s model of a Level 5 leader, not Lee
Iacocca or Jack Welch or Bob Lutz (who was on the stage with
Collins).
These leaders get the right people on the bus, get them in the
right seats and then decide where to drive the bus. Does that
make sense to you?
4. The Five Level R/P behavior Model
Put 5 level pyramid on the board.
A more advanced behavioral leadership model (Maxwell).
Focused on why people follow you; linked to the leader’s source
of power.
Also can call it the 5 R/Ps model
1.Rights/Position – people follow you because they have to
because of your position. Your position in the organization
gives you the right to lead.
2. Relationships/Permission – people give you permission to

lead them; they follow you because of their relationship with
you; because they want to.
3. Results/Production – people follow you because you get
results; follow you because of what you do
4. Reproduction/People development – follow you because of
what you do for them; you develop future leaders
5. Respect/Personhood – follow you because of your values;
because of what you stand for.
There are many other behavioral models. Often hear that he/she
is a level 1, 2, etc leader. but there is no empirical support for
the impact of behavior on leadership performance.
Led to the same dead end as trait models.
C. Contingency School
Contingency theory was introduced to try to explain the failures
of the trait and behavior schools.
Leadership is contingent on the characteristics of the tasks,
followers and the situation you are facing.
1. Great Bang is a nascent contingency theory – the importance
of the situation surrounding the leader is emphasized.
Globalization is the great Bang today.
A crisis – the situation – creates the need and opportunities for
great leaders to step forward, and often they do.
Ordinary people, perhaps with latent leadership skills, step up
to the plate during crises and do extraordinary things.

September 11 was a crisis in which ordinary people took on
extraordinary leadership responsibilities.
The American Revolution was a Great Bang that produced
numerous great leaders – Washington, Adams, Jefferson,
Madison and Hamilton.
Abigail Adams wrote to Thomas Jefferson:
“These are the hard times in which a genius would want to live.
Great necessities call forth great leaders.”
Indian revolution led by Gandhi – an ordinary person, until he
got kicked off the train in South Africa.
Great bang today is globalization. We will look at its impacts
on leadership down the road.
The great bang theory is very limited:
Does not tell us if leaders are born or made (some suggestion
that they are made by the event)
Little analytical content
Why do great events call forth great leaders – or do they?
What are the characteristics of people who respond to crises?
Are they truly leaders or heroes? Do they have certain traits or
skills that make them effective in a crisis, but not an effective
leader in other situations?
2. Modern contingency theories

Contingency theories that explore the impact of the situation on
leadership were developed in the 1960s and 1970s in part to
explain the lack of empirical relationships among leadership
traits, behaviors, and effectiveness. The impacts of leadership
traits and behaviors on performance could be influenced
(moderated) by the situation. The abilities, skills, goals,
aspirations and behaviors of followers, and the characteristics
of the tasks, the organization and to a lesser extent the external
environment were all studied in contingency models, though the
external environment is critical but not much studied.
Traits Performance
Berhavior
Tasks
Followers
Situation
Trait
Effectiveness

3. Diamond Model
This is an early contingency model. Leadership involves the
interaction among the leader, others, the task or job, and the
organization. More internal focus than 3 ring model.
The Diamond Model
Leader
Others Tasks
Organization
Leadership is seen as a process of interaction among leaders,
others (employees, customers, etc.) the job/task to be done and
the organization. This is the first real recognition of the role of
the situation and the followers in leadership models, through
great Bang implicitly included the situation.
4. Three Ring Model
I prefer the simpler, cleaner 3-ring contingency model of
leadership.
Three Ring Model
Leader Followers

Situation
Leadership emerges from the interactions among the leader,
follower and the situation.
5. Fiedler – a contingency theory based on the “favorability” of
the situation. Favorability measured by the quality of leader-
follower relationships, the structure of the task (well defined)
and the leader’s source of power.
He found that in very favorable and very unfavorable situations,
task orientated behavior was most effective, in intermediate
favorable situations, employee oriented behavior was most
effective.
Lead eff.
Unfav Fav
6. path-goal theory (1971)
Leader’s role is to define goals clearly for followers and show
them the path to achieving these goals. When goals are clear
and path is clear, employee oriented behavior is best, when path
is uncertain, and goals not clear, task oriented is best leadership
behavior.
So, the goals, and the path for achieving them both determine
which leadership behaviors are most effective.
Leadership
effectiveness

low high
Clear goals and path
7. Marx
While contingency theories of leadership recognize the impacts
of numerous dimensions of the situation on leadership, industry
structure, competitive position, core competencies, and other
factors critical to leadership’s roles in formulating and
implementing strategy are ignored.
Hand out Marx articles. ( effects of strategy on leadership, IA
and CP on leadership, and size on leadership)
8. Substitutes-for-Leadership (1970s)
Another constituency theory. Substitutes-for-leadership
theories, like other contingency theories, also developed in the
late 1970s to help explain the lack of empirical evidence
demonstrating the impacts of leadership traits and behaviors on
effectiveness. These theories postulate that certain
characteristics of the organization (e.g., group cohesiveness and
norms), the task (e.g., highly structured, routine, intrinsically
satisfying), and the followers (e.g., professionalism, training,
experience) may lessen, substitute for, or negate the effects of
leadership on performance (Daft, 2011; DuBrin, 2013; Hughes
et al., 2009; Kerr and Jermier, 1978).
Need for
Leadership

Low high
Substitutes
Examples of substitutes for leadership are government
regulations (TACOM), unions, knowledge workers.
D. Charismatic
Transformational leaders are charismatic, but some study
charismatic leadership as a separate leadership model.
Charisma is Greek for “divine gift” a special gift given to a
person by the gods, and from the Greek goddess Charis.
A charismatic leader has special power and influence over
followers. It may be a trait – born with it - or a social construct
–followers attribute charisma to the leader- charisma is in the
eye of the beholder.
Charismatic leaders are great communicators. They use rhetoric
to persuade people to their views. Hitler, Kennedy
This is described by Aristotle in Rhetoric. This is good to
remember when you make any type of presentation.
The Aristotelian Triad for persuading people:
Ethos
Personal Character/Credibility/Moral Character
Logos Pathos
Reasoned Argument Stir Emotions
Establish your credibility (trust), appeal to their reason, and
appeal to their emotions.
E. Transformational (read chapter 8)
Transformational leadership is the most studied leadership

model today, the soup du jour, though it has more application to
social, political, military, non-profits than to business where the
focus is on profits.
This was originally transforming leadership that applied to non-
business leaders (Burns).
It has spiritual overtones. It transforms followers unlike
transactional leadership. It is like conversion, redemption,
salvation, an epiphany. It raises the ethical values and
aspirations of followers; followers transcend their own self-
interest for the interest of the organization, and become more
committed, loyal, and productive in contrast to transactional
leadership – an exchange between leaders and followers – do
the work I request and u get rewarded.
They idolize the leader.
Transformational leadership is defined by the 4 Is:
1.Idealized influence – creates strong emotional; bonds with
followers – followers idolize the leader and emulate and follow
her. Charisma is critical here.(Ethos)
2.Inspirational motivation – excite followers, followers become
passionate and extremely motivated. Followers buy into the
leader’s vision (pathos).
3.Intellectually stimulate – Leaders are intellectually superior
(but not too much), creative, imaginative, innovative – they are
mavericks. they challenge the status quo. (logos)
4.Individualized consideration – personal attention to each
follower, familiar with each follower. Followers feel special,
they feel they can realize their self-actualization in Maslow’s
hierarchy. Napoleon did this. (ethos)
Measurement of a transformational leader:

MLQ – multifactor leadership questionnaire – measures the 4Is.
‘I go beyond self-interest for the good of the group (measures
idealized influence)
I consider the ethical consequences of decisions (idealized
influence)
I talk optimistically about the future (inspirational motivation)
Do these questions really identify transformational leaders?
Is transformational leadership good?
There is a downside to charismatic leaders:
Use great power over people for personal rather than social
goals
Define their personal goals as the social goals – Louis 16, etat
cest moi. Quadafi – “this is my country.”
Exploit loyal followers who are enamored with them and who
do not question them. Jonestown (drink the kool aid), Hitler
Influence ends with the leader. There are no successors
They can polarize followers – create love-hate relationships.
The Kennedys, Clintons
Does it apply to business – I think not so much. Business is
focused on making money, not on great social causes, justice,
etc. Charismatic leaders are M.L. King, Gandhi, Mother
Theresa, Nelson Mandela. Hard to name business leaders that
are transformational.
Some business leaders are more effective than others in
motivating and inspiring people, but I would not call them
transformational. However, researchers have lowered the bar for
transformational leadership to open the door for more research,
but it is hard to tell the difference between transactional and
transformational leadership as a result.

Transformational leadership is distinguished by extraordinary
relationships between a (charismatic) leader and followers that
lead to superior performance e.g., turning around a failing
company. Charisma is not a personality trait per se, but a
relationship between leaders and followers attributable in large
measure to the leader’s personality. In contrast to transactional
leadership that relies on tasks, rewards, and punishments to
motivate followers (e.g., exchange and path-goal theories),
transformational leadership is built on mutual trust, devotion,
reverence and loyalty; goals that supersede self-interest; a
compelling vision typically with high moral content; and
exemplary personal behavior (sacrifice) by the leader that
inspires subordinates (Bass, 1985; Hughes et al., 2009).
Transformational leadership, like personal leadership behavior
in the Andrews model (1971), can have (powerful) indirect
impacts on formulating and implementing strategy:
…. this study, as well as other research on charisma (and
‘transformational leadership’) highlights that executives do not
affect their organizations only through their strategic choices.
They also have impact through their influence over others, who
in turn put forth effort and make choices affecting the
organization’s performance. Thus it is important that our
conception of executive activity extends beyond the realm of
‘Strategic Choice,’ to include ‘executive behaviors’….the daily
actions of executives, particularly in how they interact with
others, can have a major effect on organizational functioning
and performance (Finkelstein et al., 2009, p.72).
Relational
The effectiveness of the leadership depends on the quality of
the leader-follower relationships. LMX theory finds that high
quality relationships lead to more effective leadership than low
quality relationships. The leader’s relationships are different
with the in-group and the out-group. Relationships are better
with the in-group and the leader treats them differently – better.

Lead eff.
Out In
Are you in the in-group? Take test.
F. Servant
Emphasizes that effective leadership depends on meeting the
needs of the followers. Harkens back to Cyrus the Great, and
the shepherd analogies.
G. Strategic
Strategic leadership focuses on strategic decision making by the
organization’s top executives (Boards of Directors, Chief
Executive Officers, Executive Committees, and Divisional
Heads) with ultimate responsibilities for formulating and
implementing strategy (Finkelstein et al., 2009). The strategic
leadership literature, like Andrews, recognizes the critical roles
(top level) leaders play as both formulators and implementers of
strategy, and that the decisions and actions of the leaders reflect
their idiosyncratic experiences, motives, dispositions,
tolerances for risks, and basic values:
.…the mainstay constructs of strategic management researchers
– factors such as the environment, competitors, allies and the
company’s resources – will provide us woefully incomplete
explanations of company behaviors. Instead, we need to also
consider, in an integral way, the biases and dispositions of the
people at the top of the firm. In doing so, we will find that
human factors – deriving from personality, experience, values,
social connections, fatigue, envy, and so on – play a substantial
role in affecting organizational outcomes (Finkelstein et al.,
2009, p.4).
Strategic leadership recognizes the constraints imposed on

strategy choice by the external environment, but does not give
the structuralists a blank check. There is a substantial role for
leadership in strategy, especially in ‘weak’ situations where
external circumstances do not dictate a clear course of action
because of uncertainty, ambiguity, or information overload:
“….bounded rationality, multiple and sometimes incompatible
goals, myriad options, and varying aspirational levels all serve
to limit the extent to which complex decisions can be made on a
techno-economic basis” (Finkelstein et al., 2009, p.44).
Finkelstein, Hambrick and Cannella conclude “Depending on
how much discretion exists, an organization’s form and fate
may lie totally outside the control of its top managers,
completely within their control, or more typically, somewhere
in between” (Finkelstein et al., p. 26).
H. Authentic
Many theories are grapping some part of the leadership
mastodon. Authentic focuses on being true to yourself in your
leadership style, authentic – what you really believe, not faking
it. Impacts are not much different from transformational
leadership.
Authentic and other leadership theories (empathetic, servant,
ethical) are “loaded” – the outcome is in the definition – ethical
leadership is ethical and so it is good leadership because ethical
is good. Authentic leadership is good because being authentic
is good. They are in essence saying: good leadership is good.
Easy test – is unethical leadership good, is fake leadership
good.
I. Global Leadership
Globalization has added new dimensions to strategy and
leadership; made both more complex, raised new challenges to
both the structural and managerial schools, and widened the gap
between leadership and strategy. Importantly, globalization

creates the classic ‘weak’ situation where the quantity,
variability, uncertainty, and ambiguity of information test the
limits of both the structural and managerial approaches to
strategy. Structuralists search for more sophisticated planning
tools that can cope with the heightened variability in the global,
external environment. The managerial school emphasizes the
leadership traits, behaviors, competencies, skills and ‘global
mindsets’ needed to cope with the greater complexity,
ambiguity and uncertainty globalization creates (Mendenhall,
2013). Both responses enhance the abilities of organizations to
meet the challenges of globalization, but the strategic decision-
making skills of leaders may be the critical competency that
differentiates successful from unsuccessful companies in these
‘weak’ situations.
Note that researchers like to produce new models that create
opportunities for more research, publications and tenure. Much
of it is old win in new bottles. Servant goes back to Cyrus the
Great over 2500 years ago.
J. Biological:
Biological studies – study genes, and neuroscience – brain
waves and patterns – do leaders think about issues and problems
differently from non-leaders. Very early, probably go no
where.

Best leadership Practices1. Challenging Challenge them to do th.docx

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Best leadership Practices1. Challenging Challenge them to do th.docx

Similar to Best leadership Practices1. Challenging Challenge them to do th.docx (20)

More from tangyechloe

More from tangyechloe (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Best leadership Practices1. Challenging Challenge them to do th.docx