Supporting 3rd Grade Transitions

28 E D U C A T I O N A L L E A D E R S H I P / A P R I L
2 0 1 1
Kelsey Augst Felton
and Patrick Akos
A
t the beginning of each
school year, elementary
schools are filled with
students excited about
using that new backpack,
getting their favorite teacher, or seeing
their friends again. Most students look
forward to starting the school year fresh,
and they confidently expect to do well.
New 3rd grade students, however, tend
to have a different attitude. Over and
over we hear, “I can’t believe I’ll have to
take the end-of-grade tests this year!”
Siblings, older students, and even
teachers have been telling these students
for many years about the realities of 3rd
grade and the pressure of standardized
testing. Although most students express
excitement about beginning 3rd grade,
they are also acutely aware that they will
face greater challenges. Meanwhile, their
parents typically see this as just another

school year. Even education research
says little about the central shift that
happens between 2nd and 3rd grade.
Our experience in elementary school
counseling tells us that the transition
into 3rd grade provides a window of
opportunity during which schools need
to take both responsive and proactive
measures to keep students on track for
success.
Developmental and
Ecological Changes
Developmentally, most 3rd grade stu-
dents look forward to enjoying more
independence, acting and feeling more
grown up, and making more friends.
Their brain development has advanced
to the point where they can begin
to learn the formal rules of reading,
writing, and math. Yet these 7- and
8-year-olds still tend to feel anxiety
when separated from familiar people,
surroundings, and routines. Although
they eagerly take on tasks where they
can be successful, they are sensitive to
criticism and shy away from risks (Arm-
strong, 2007; Santrock, 2008).
Concurrently, the school context in
3rd grade shifts. At a time when stu-
dents’ competence and confidence are
just emerging, the academic and social
demands increase exponentially. The

curriculum moves away from basic
reading instruction; students are now
expected to read independently to
learn core content in the subject areas.
Students are also expected to write in
a formalized format, develop strategies
to solve multistep problems, and take
standardized tests. These are all dra-
matic changes in the career of a student.
Most important, these tasks are inter-
related; the abilities to read indepen-
dently and solve multistep problems are
important for success in standardized
testing. In addition, teachers expect stu-
The Ups
and Downs
of 3rd
Grade
A collaborative web of support can
help students thrive as they meet
the new challenges of 3rd grade.
A S C D / w w w . A S C D . o r g 29
dents to demonstrate social skills, such
as helping, cooperating, and talking
through interpersonal problems inde-
pendently (North Carolina Department
of Public Instruction, 2007).
Here are some typical comments we

have heard from students:
We used to get up a lot, but in 3rd grade,
we sit down more. We don’t do as many
centers as we used to do.
In 3rd grade, we have to pay attention so
we can learn a lot of stuff for EOGs [end-
of-grade exams]. In 2nd grade, we really
didn’t have tests.
In 3rd grade, you have to write about a
lot more things, and you have to write in
a lot more subjects. In 2nd grade, you get
to write what you want.
Because of the increased academic
demands, students who are already
struggling in reading and math often
fall further behind in 3rd grade (Kainz
& Vernon-Feagans, 2007). At this age,
when students are developmentally sen-
sitive to criticism and reluctant to take
risks, they are more likely to give up
when tasks become difficult for them.
These students need multiple levels
of intervention, often from multiple
sources both inside and outside the
classroom.
Recommendations for Schools
A variety of strategies and practices can
help schools support students and boost
achievement through the 3rd grade
transition. Our experience has shown
that when school staff members col-

laborate, reach out to targeted students,
promote student strengths, and evaluate
school practices, students thrive.
The following recommendations are
therefore organized under a framework
we call COPE—Collaborate, Outreach,
Promote, and Evaluate.
Collaborate
Collaboration is essential in helping
students make a successful transition
into 3rd grade. Second and 3rd grade
teachers as well as teachers in the
lower grades, administrators, and
support staff (counselors, instructional
resource teachers, Title I teachers, cross-
categorical resource teachers, and so on)
are all important participants in the col-
laboration process.
Many of our examples are taken
from Hilburn Drive Elementary School
and other schools throughout the
Wake County Public Schools in North
Carolina. At Hilburn, educators work
together in teams to create a watch list
of students who are not meeting reading
or math benchmarks at the end of 2nd
grade. This list describes individual
student strengths, areas of difficulty,
and successful interventions. When 3rd
grade begins, the watch list is given to
an intervention specialist—a support
staff member who helps teachers create,

implement, and monitor the progress
of interventions. The intervention spe-
cialist shares the watch list with 3rd
grade teachers within the first few weeks
of school and then meets with grade-
level teams weekly to touch base about
students’ progress and intervention
needs.
For example, Sean had difficulty
with number and letter reversals in 2nd
grade, which affected his writing and
math. His 2nd grade teacher created an
intervention in which she told him the
number of reversals he had made each
time he turned in a writing or math
assignment, and he was then respon-
sible for using a highlighter to identify
and fix the mistakes. As Sean showed
improvement in reducing his reversals,
his grades improved and his self-
confidence started to build. Because this
intervention was described on the watch
list, Sean’s 3rd grade teacher was aware
of it and quickly initiated the same
process when 3rd grade began, pro-
viding the proud student with another
highlighter. Sean continued to make
Although they eagerly take on tasks where
they can be successful, 3rd graders are
sensitive to criticism and shy away from risks.
p

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Felton.indd 29 2/25/11 11:00 AM
30 E d u c a t i o n a l l E a d E r s h i p / a p r i l 2 0 1 1
great strides in his writing and math.
Direct collaboration between 2nd
and 3rd grade teachers can be espe-
cially helpful in reducing the stress
of the transition. In most schools,
teachers meet frequently within their
grade level but less commonly outside
their grade level. At Hilburn, 2nd and

3rd grade teachers have vertical cur-
riculum planning meetings a couple
of times throughout the school year.
These meetings enable teachers at the
two grade levels to share their essential
learning outcomes—the pieces of the
curriculum that all students should
master. Third grade teachers discuss
what they expect students to have
mastered, enabling 2nd grade teachers
to ensure that they teach those areas
explicitly. Second grade teachers share
their classroom practices so that 3rd
grade teachers can provide some conti-
nuity in teaching styles.
In addition, a no-cost experience that
we have found very helpful is asking
2nd grade teachers to substitute for
3rd grade teachers and vice versa in
the spring. This practice helps them get
further insights into grade-level expecta-
tions and curriculums so that they can
better align academic vocabulary and
expectations.
Outreach
All members of a school community
can proactively reach out to students
who are at risk of experiencing difficulty
with the transition into 3rd grade. For
example, at Hilburn we employ tutoring
and mentoring programs involving both
adults and older students as mentors
and tutors.

One successful peer tutoring program
is called Math Masters Cross-Age
Tutoring. Fifth grade students who
are nominated by their teachers as
math leaders provide nine weeks of
tutoring to 2nd grade students who
are performing below benchmarks in
math. Tutoring sessions, which take
place before school, include whole-
group meetings, weekly progress
monitoring with one-minute addition
and subtraction tests, a word problem
of the day, and math games that focus
on specific math objectives. Tutors
receive training in which they learn
strategies for helping students solve
math problems, giving compliments,
and handling student frustration. At
the beginning and end of the program,
tutors write personal letters to those
they tutored that focus on encour-
agement, support, and motivation. The
school counselor coordinates, super-
vises, and evaluates the program with
support from the K–2 intervention
teacher.
Jasmine entered the first tutoring
session timidly, sitting in the back of the
room and rarely looking up. When she
was paired with her tutor, she nervously
looked around the room. Her tutor rec-
ognized her apprehension and immedi-
ately began with enthusiasm and praise.
She would say, “Wow! You’ve improved

so much. You’re probably going to be
beating me at these math games soon!”
As the sessions progressed, Jasmine
began to smile and show more indepen-
dence when solving math problems. Her
tutor acknowledged her successes. By
the end of the program, she had begun
to share her mathematical thinking with
the group. She developed confidence
in herself and feelings of self-efficacy in
math. She met math benchmarks both
at the end of 2nd grade and throughout
3rd grade.
This kind of peer support can give
a boost to 2nd and 3rd grade students
who lack confidence in their math a
bilities and are reluctant to take
mathematics risks. In the past two
years of implementation, approximately
70 percent of participating 2nd grade
students have shown improvement in
at least one math objective. Twenty-five
percent of students who participated in
the program met or exceeded bench-
marks on their third-quarter report
card in 2nd grade, and 33 percent met
or exceeded benchmarks on their first-
quarter report card in 3rd grade.
Promote
Third grade commonly brings students’
first experience with high-stakes stan-
dardized tests. When asked for their

feelings about the end-of-grade tests
they would take in the spring, a group
of new 3rd grade students unanimously
gave a thumbs-down. “We have so
many more tests now,” complained one
student.
Most 3rd grade students are
un familiar with the format and expecta-
tions of such tests (filling in bubbles,
not talking, following explicit instruc-
tions, and so on). Research has shown
that students benefit from instruction in
testing strategies and techniques (Spatig,
1996). Teachers at Hilburn have indi-
cated that, in particular, 3rd grade
students need further instruction on
test-taking vocabulary, test format, and
anxiety reduction.
Strengths-based classroom lessons
can help prepare 3rd grade students
to succeed in these tests. At Hilburn,
the school counselor collaborates with
teachers to provide such lessons starting
three weeks before standardized testing
begins. After encouraging students
to identify their academic successes
and discuss which accomplishments
Third grade
commonly brings
students’ first
experience with
high-stakes
standardized tests.

Felton.indd 30 2/25/11 11:00 AM
A S C D / w w w . A S C D . o r g 31
they are most proud of, the counselor
conveys that end-of-grade tests provide
an opportunity for students to “show
off” everything they have learned and
accomplished so far.
During these lessons, it is helpful to
familiarize students with test-taking
vocabulary, such as compare, sum-
marize, and solve. (In fact, schools can
proactively help students develop such
vocabulary if classroom word walls in
the primary grades include common
testing words and their definitions.)
Further lessons address testing formats,
giving students practice filling in bubble
sheets or aligning numbers on the
answer sheet. Last, students learn strat-
egies for keeping cool and confident
during tests, such as deep breathing,
positive thoughts, restorative breaks,
and visualization. In an informal survey
before classroom test-taking instruction
at Hilburn, 85 percent of 3rd grade
students indicated nervousness related
to testing. After the instruction, only
25 percent indicated nervousness.
Providing students with an awareness

of the testing process and strategies
they can use to do their best often helps
increase confidence. Students who still
exhibit signs of anxiety could receive
additional support in small-group ses-
sions with the school counselor.
Evaluate
Any intervention, strategy, or program
should be evaluated to assess its
overall effectiveness, its effects on indi-
vidual students, and potential areas
of improvement. At Hilburn, we have
used many data sources to evaluate
the supports we have put in place.
Sources include process data (the
number of students who are affected
by the intervention); perception data
(gathered through surveys measuring
how student perceptions, thoughts, or
feelings change as a result of the inter-
vention); and results data (end-of-grade
test scores, quarterly report card grades,
and school attendance and discipline
records documenting how student
behavior changes) (American School
Counselor Association, 2005).
A Continuum of Supports
Successful transitions require communi-
cation, partnerships, and a continuum
of research-based supports. When
schools support students as they make
the crucial transition into 3rd grade,
students, parents, and schools all

benefit. “Third grade has descended
upon our family, and it is a challenge,”
noted one parent. “Education is a
journey, and we are really just at the
beginning of a long, exciting road filled
with responsibilities, challenges, and
hopefully, a lot of fun” (Linden
Fee, 2008). EL
References
American School Counselor Association.
(2005). The ASCA national model: A
framework for school counseling programs
(2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Author.
Armstrong, T. (2007). The curriculum
superhighway. Educational Leadership,
64(8), 16–20.
Kainz, K., & Vernon-Feagans, L. (2007).
The ecology of early reading development
for children in poverty. Elementary School
Journal, 107(5), 407–427.
Linden Fee, L. (2008, September 30). How
to survive the transition into third grade.
Retrieved from Examiner.com at www
.examiner.com/dc-in-washington-dc/how-
to-survive-the-transition-to-third-grade
North Carolina Department of Public
Instruction. (2007). Transition planning for
21st century schools. Raleigh, NC: Author.
Retrieved from www.ncpublicschools
.org/docs/curriculum-instruction/home/

transitions.pdf
Santrock, J. W. (2008). Life-span devel-
opment. New York: McGraw Hill.
Spatig, L. (1996, November). Developmen-
talism meets standardized testing: Low
income students lose. Paper presented at
the annual meeting of the American Edu-
cational Studies Association, Montreal,
Quebec, Canada.
Kelsey Augst Felton is a school
counselor at Hilburn Drive Elementary
School in Wake County, North Carolina;
[email protected]ss.net. Patrick Akos is an
associate professor and coordinator of
the school counseling program at the
University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill; [email protected]
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Felton.indd 31 2/25/11 11:00 AM
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For management class/
Read all these documents first/
My assignments are one discussion board i attach all the
materials that you need. around 10 documents. i want to make

sure that you get all the information before i log out.
Encouraging Appropriate Behavior
This Case Study Unit outlines positive behavior management
techniques that can be employed with individual students who
have behavioral concerns that are not effectively addressed by
comprehensive classroom rules.
For this discussion, course mates will complete the following:
EDU400/EDU500 course mates with an elementary education
focus
1. Read the Introduction
2. Complete Level A Case 2 (Heather Age: 8.1 Grade: 3rd)
Review the possible strategies for this case and complete the
Assignment
http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/wp-
content/uploads/pdf_case_studies/ics_encappbeh.pdf
and the second one is summarize the important points in the
article called"The Ups and Downs of 3rd Grade".
i want from you please use simple sentences and word and use
Apa format.
an addition materials/
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/first-grade-social-
studies/?utm_source=newsletter20150711/
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/establish-classroom-
culture/?utm_source=newsletter20161112/
https://www.teachingchannel.org/blog/2015/08/25/class-culture-
vs-class-mgmnt/?utm_source=newsletter20150829/

This Case Study Unit outlines positive behavior management
techniques that can be employed with individual students who
have behavioral concerns that are not effectively addressed by
comprehensive classroom rules.
For this discussion, course mates will complete the following:
EDU500 course mates with an elementary education focus
1. Read the Introduction
2. Complete Level A Case 2 (Heather Age: 8.1 Grade: 3rd)
Review the possible strategies for this case and complete the
Assignment
http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/wp-
content/uploads/pdf_case_studies/ics_encappbeh.pdf
Perceptions (What does a teacher look like?)

Creating Positive Peer Relationships
Positive Peer Relationships
*
Creating Positive Peer RelationshipsSalient Points:
Peers play an important role in determining the quality of the
learning environment; however, teachers are hesitant to allocate
time for creating positive peer relationships favoring more
emphasis on student achievement.
Positive peer relationships are essential factors in promoting
adequate social and emotional development as well as healthy
adjustment in adult life.
*
Creating Positive Peer RelationshipsPositive peer relationships
are essential factors in creating schools as communities of
support. Positive, supportive communities are characterized by
students showing respect for the personal and physical safety
and security of their peers.
A central factor affecting violence in our schools is the lack of
support and caring some students experience in these settings.
Students are less likely to express violent behaviors in settings
where they are nurtured, supported and cared for by their peers.

*
Creating Positive Peer RelationshipsPeer relationships influence
student achievement, note the following:
peer attitude toward achievement affect students’ academic
aspirations and school behavior,the quality of peer
relationships/personal support affects the degree to which
students’ personal needs are met and, subsequently, their ability
to be productively involved in the learning process, peer
relationships can directly affect achievement through
cooperative learning activities at-risk students are more likely
to feel alienated from school and have low rates of participation
in school as early as third grade.
*
Creating Positive Peer RelationshipsPositive provide a
framework for the development of lifelong social skills and
positive self-esteem.
Although teachers often express concern about the negative
aspects of peer pressure, the peer group can be a positive and
supportive factor in the classroom.
When students feel liked by their peers and when interactions
are characterized by thoughtfulness and helpfulness, students
experience a sense of safety/security, belongingness and
affection, significance, respect for others and power.
*
Group Development Stages

Groups, like individuals, have needs that must be met before the
group can function effectively.
Teachers must initially set aside time for activities that enable
students to know each other, develop feelings of being included
and create diverse friendship patterns.
Classroom groups, like all groups must progress through a
series stages (Posthuma, 1999; Schmuck & Schmuck, 2001):
*
Creating Positive Peer RelationshipsDependence Stage: Group
members look to authority figures to provide structure. Teachers
provide clarity in terms of classroom behavior standards,
procedures and academic goals.
Inclusion Stage: Involves the issue of belonging. Students are
concerned with whether they will be accepted and liked by their
peers.
*
Creating Positive Peer RelationshipsDissatisfaction Stage:
Group members often express concern about how the group is
operating and who makes key decisions in the classroom.
Students must become comfortable and feel safe enough to
challenge the way things are being done. This stage is
facilitated by the establishment of positive teacher-student
relationships, giving clear classroom behavioral expectations,
involving students in academic decision making and using
effective problem solving skills.
4.
*

Creating Positive Peer RelationshipsResolution Norming Stage:
Students begin to work more collaboratively and listen more
thoughtfully to one another. Students develop an increased
sense of group unity and cohesiveness. Students make more
positive statements about the classroom and the group.
*
Production Stage: The teacher needs to assist the group in
reestablishing cohesiveness and focus – this stage usually lasts
from the third/fourth week of class throughout the year.
*
Creating Positive Peer RelationshipsTermination or
Adjournment Stage: group members must place closure on their
group experience and begin to say goodbye. In many
classrooms this involves a sadness and sense of loss. It is a
stage teachers often fail to facilitate.
*
The Importance of Students Working
Cooperatively
Students involved in cooperative learning activities in which

they study with peers and in which their efforts produce
benefits for peers as well as themselves perform higher on
standardized tests of mathematics, reading and language and
also do better on tasks involving higher-level thinking than
when they study alone (Allan & Plax, 1999).
*
Creating Positive Peer RelationshipsThe authors’ work in
helping teachers implement cooperative learning suggests that
when teachers
take time to help students understand the reasons behind their
decision to implement this method,
help students become better acquainted and
assist students in developing skills for working in groups,
cooperative learning
motivation and learning for a wide range of students is
increased.
*
Creating Positive Peer relationships
Preparing Students for the Workplace and Community Life
If schools are to prepare students for a society they must
provide students with frequent and meaningful experience in
functioning cooperatively in groups.
Reyes, Scribner & Scribner (1999) noted in schools where
Hispanic students achieved particularly well, that their parents
were concerned with, not only, how children performed
academically, but also, with nurturing values of respect, honor,
cooperation, good behavior and responsibility of their children
in school. (Refer to Collectivism in Diversity Powerpoint)

*
Creating Positive Peer relationshipsThe Employment and
Training Administration (Washington, DC, 2000) identified the
skills and behaviors essential for competence in the 21st century
workforce. (Review Figure 4.1, p. 101.)
*
Think About . . .How do classroom cooperative learning skills
transfer to situations outside of the classroom? How will you
encourage and support these skills in your classroom?
Schoolwide?
*
The Issue of Self Esteem
Seligman (1995) in his book The Optimistic Child stated that
the most useful and effective definition of positive self esteem
involves both the component of feeling good about oneself and
the component of performing well.
He suggests that too much self-esteem application in school
settings has focused almost exclusively on helping students feel
good without the accompanying sense of being competent.
*
Acquaintance Activities

Positive peer relationships are an important component in peer
acceptance and are likely to discourage bullying.
Friendships at school can help children to compensate for
vulnerabilities acquired through stressful experiences at home
and can help children who might otherwise be victimized by
peers be more accepted and successful.
(Schwartz et.al 2000).
*
Think about . . .
After reading the section on acquaintance activities think about
how you will use these in your own classroom.
Are some of the activities better suited to younger students?
Older students?
*
Activities for Establishing a Cohesive, Supportive Group refers
to the extent to which a group experiences a sense of identity,
and oneness.
Cohesive groups are characterized by warm, friendly
interactions among all of the group.
Cohesive groups provide settings in which students feel safe,
experience a sense of belonging and view themselves as being
liked and respected by others.
*

Creating Positive Peer RelationshipsGroup cohesiveness and a
positive group identity develop by making the group seem
attractive, distinguishing it from other groups, involving the
group in cooperative enterprises and helping students view
themselves as important components in the group.
*
Creating Positive Peer RelationshipsClassroom climate should
be systematically monitored.
Teachers must consider~
how their classroom management and instruction influence
students’ behaviors and achievements and how the school
environment can be altered to encourage positive student
attitudes.
*
Issues Related to Peer Harassment and Bullying
Peer harassment is the victimization that entails face to
face confrontation (e.g., physical, aggression, verbal abuse,
nonverbal gesturing) or social manipulations through a third
party (e.g., social ostracism, spreading rumors).
An imbalance of power exists between perpetrator and
target.
*

Issues Related to Peer Harassment and Bullying
Bullying: (often used interchangeably with peer harassment) is
a problem in many schools; however, there are a number of
programs designed to assist students in this area (p. 154)
*
Activities for Examining Peer Relationships in
the Classroom
There are three methods of determining the degree to which
children in the class are accepted by and feel involved in the
classroom group.
*
Activities for Examining Peer Relationships in the Classroom
Sociometric test for determining which students are most
frequently chosen by other students as desired work or play
partners to gain a sense of well liked students, not well known
and isolated students
(e.g., students can be asked to list 3 students they like
best, 3 students they do not know well and who they would like
most to work with in class)
*

2. Sociogram created by recording the instances in which
students interact with each other in the classroom.
A method for accomplishing this involves creating a
classroom map and drawing arrows indicating when one student
makes contact with another. The arrows can show the direction
(who initiated contact) as well as the positive/negative nature of
the contact via a + - sign next to the arrow.
*
3. Questionnaire that allows students to report their feelings
about the group and their position in the group.
A problem with questionaires are students must experience
a fairly high degree of trust before they will accurately report
the information.
*
Classroom Behavior Management
Creating Positive Peer
Relationships
Study Guide Chapter 4
Peer relationships influence students’ achievement in several
ways: (1) peer attitudes toward achievement affect students’
academic and school behavior (Wentzel, 1998, 2006), (2) the
quality of peer relationships and personal support in classrooms

affects the degree to which students’ personal needs are met
and, subsequently, their ability to be productively involved in
the learning process, (3) peer relationships can directly affect
achievement through cooperative learning activities, and (4) at-
risk students are more likely to feel alienated from school and
have low rates of participation in school as early as third grade.
Recent research on cooperative learning has provided an
impetus for teachers to consider the creation of positive peer
relationships as an important variable influencing student
behavior and learning. Teachers of today must integrate the
information about the importance of selecting a range of
methods of creating classroom environments supportive of high
student achievement. The concern about at-risk students should
help ensure that a greater emphasis is placed on meeting
students’ personal needs both as a critically important goal in
itself and as a prerequisite to higher achievement.
Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Discuss issues related to understanding the classroom as a
cohesive group
2. Expound upon the importance of students working
cooperatively
3. Delineate several acquaintance activities
4. Discuss issues related to harassment and bullying
Individual Activity
During your teaching career, you may encounter situations in
which parents, fellow teachers or administrators question your
decision to use class time to develop a cohesive classroom
group (this question may arise in light of the limited time

teachers have to cover content in depth and the need to pace
curriculum materials in order to be to be prepared for the state
assessment). Take a few minutes and think about how you
would explain to a colleague or administrator why you allocate
time in this manner.
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Contents: Page
Case Study Level A, Case 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 1
Case Study Level A, Case 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 2
Case Study Level B, Case 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 3
Case Study Level B, Case 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 4

Case Study Level C, Case 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 5
STAR Sheet: Specific Praise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 6
STAR Sheet: Criterion-Specific Rewards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 9
STAR Sheet: Choice Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 13
STAR Sheet: Effective Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 15
STAR Sheet: Contingent Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 18
STAR Sheet: Group Contingency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 21
Instructors Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 24
To cite this case study unit:
Curran, C., & the IRIS Center. (2003). Encouraging appropriate
behavior. Retrieved on
[month, day, year] from http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/wp-
content/uploads/pdf_
case_studies/ics_encappbeh.pdf
nihttp://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu
THE

IRIS
CENTER
nTable of ContentsTable of Contents
For an Instructor’s Guide to this case study, please email your
full name,
title, and institutional affiliation to the IRIS Center at
[email protected]
s
Level A • Case 1
Background
Student: Sam
Age: 14.2
Grade: 8th
Scenario
Sam is an eighth grader who is not finishing his work due to his
off-task behaviors. According to his records, this
has been an ongoing problem since third grade. His grades have
become progressively worse this year. His
academic grade in his social studies class (and in most of his
other classes) is at 65 percent because assignments
are rarely completed or are done haphazardly. When Sam does
start an assignment, he often rushes through it,
making a number of errors and overlooking information. His
teacher reports the following types of off-task
behaviors: reading books and magazines, drawing and doodling,

daydreaming, and talking to friends and
neighbors. These behaviors occur most often during independent
work times and rarely during large group or whole
class activities. Having reviewed Sam’s completed assignments
and his class participation in group activities, Sam’s
social studies teacher believes he is capable of doing grade-
level work and has decided that Sam will achieve the
following goals within six weeks:
• Increase the number of independent assignments completed
• Earn 80 percent or higher on all completed assignments
Possible Strategies
• Specific Praise
• Criterion-Specific Rewards
• Choice-Making
! Assignment
1. Read the STAR Sheets on the possible strategies listed above.
2. Write a summary of each strategy, including its purpose.
3. Describe why each strategy might be used to help Sam meet
one or more of his goals.
1http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu
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sCase Study
s

Level A • Case 2
Background
Student: Heather
Age: 8.1
Grade: 3rd
Scenario
Heather is a third grader in Ms. Reyes’ classroom of 24
students. Heather enjoys school and often arrives early so
she can spend time on the playground with her friends. Ms.
Reyes, however, is concerned because Heather is
disrupting the class. She reports that Heather calls out answers
during lessons, speaks over others during class
discussion, and talks to neighbors during group and independent
work. For 25 minutes each day, Heather and two
peers receive resource room support in math. Heather’s resource
room teacher has not noticed any of these
behaviors. Ms. Reyes decides to set these goals for Heather for
the next nine weeks:
• Raise her hand and wait to be called before speaking
• Decrease interruptions and wait for others to finish before
adding to discussions
• Complete independent work quietly
Possible Strategies
• Effective Rules
• Contingent Instructions
• Group Contingency
! Assignment

2. Write a summary of each strategy, including its purpose.
3. Describe why each strategy might be used to help Heather
meet one or more of her goals.
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sCase Study
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Level B • Case 1
Background
Student: Doug
Age: 7.9
Grade: 2nd Grade, 2nd Semester
Scenario
Doug loves science and hands-on activities. He is interested in
dinosaurs and robots, and enjoys using the
computer to play games. Doug has shared that he likes putting
together “Lego” sets and has brought several in to
the classroom to share. Doug, however, is not performing well
at school. His teacher and parents are concerned.
He is failing grade-level requirements in reading and math, even
though he has tested at grade level in these areas.

Doug does have an identified learning disability and receives
resource room assistance in written expression.
Doug gets easily frustrated when he has to copy and write
assignments in any subject. He does have a computer
available to use in the classroom as needed. His second grade
teacher, Mr. McGrady, believes Doug is capable of
doing the work required in class. Mr. McGrady has noted that
Doug participates in class discussions and hands-on
activities; however, he avoids and rarely starts assignments by
himself. Mr. McGrady reports that while other
students begin assignments, Doug can be found fiddling with
“Lego gadgets” and drawing robots. Getting Doug
started on most independent activities is like pulling teeth.
Based on this information, Mr. McGrady has selected
these goals for Doug to achieve within the next three months:
• Begin independent work assignments promptly
• Increase the number of completed assignments
Possible Strategies
• Specific Praise
• Criterion Specific Rewards
• Choice-Making
• Effective Rules
! Assignment
2. Select one strategy you feel would best address Doug’s goals.
3. State why you selected this strategy to address the goals.
4. Describe how you would implement this strategy in your
classroom and any cautions for its use.

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sCase Study
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Level B • Case 2
Background
Student: Ellie
Age: 14
Grade: 9th grade, 1st semester
Scenario
Ellie is a ninth grader who has just moved to the community
from another city. She is quiet and withdrawn and
doesn’t appear to have made many new friends. She often sits
alone in the back of the classroom and doesn’t
volunteer responses, offer ideas, or engage in class discussions.
While she does most, if not all, of the independent
work required of her, she does not actively participate in any
partner or cooperative activities. She avoids group
contact by reading or drawing quietly or asking to be excused to
go to the restroom, locker, or office. From all the
information the teachers have gathered and their observations,
Ellie appears to be able to read and write on grade
level.

Mr. Salinas, Ellie’s English teacher, becomes concerned when
Ellie’s failure to participate in group activities begins
to cause some resentment among her peers. Some students say
they don’t want to be placed in a group with Ellie
because “She won’t help out and it just drags us down. It’s like
she doesn’t even know we’re there.” This problem is
also beginning to affect Ellie’s grade in English class because
several of the semester competencies and assignments
require peer and group interaction. There are upcoming small
group literature discussion activities and peer editing
and writing support groups. Mr. Salinas believes Ellie is
capable of the work and sets the following goals for her to
achieve by the end of the semester:
• Increase her participation in class discussions and
conversations
• Interact effectively within literature discussion activities and
peer editing or writing groups
Possible Strategies
• Specific Praise
• Criterion Specific Rewards
• Choice-Making
• Effective Rules
! Assignment
1. Review each of the STAR sheets on the possible strategies
listed above.
2. Select one strategy that you feel would best address Ellie’s
goals.
3. State why you selected this strategy to address the goals.
4. Describe how you would implement this strategy in your
classroom and any cautions for its use.

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sCase Study
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Level C • Case 1
Background
Student: Zach; Patrick
Age: 10.10; 11.4
Grade: 5th grade, 2nd semester; 5th grade, 2nd semester
Scenario
Patrick and Zach are fifth graders in Mrs. Anderson’s class of
25 students. The class has 13 boys and 12 girls.
Three students in the class have identified disabilities and
receive resource room support. Zach is one of these
students and has a specific learning disability in reading. He
receives 30 minutes of resource room support daily to
address reading goals. Zach likes math. He especially enjoyed
the geometry unit the class just completed. He is
typically a quiet worker during independent work time. It’s not
unusual for Zach to come in during recesses or stay
after school to feed the class guinea pig.

Patrick, another student, likes participating in classroom skits
and plays. He enjoys telling funny stories and being in
the limelight. Patrick is an average student academically. He
participates in community sports and especially likes
softball. Other students say he “doesn’t stop talking.”
Mrs. Anderson is about ready to pull her hair out because of the
growing number of disruptions that have been
occurring in the classroom. Patrick and Zach seem to be
magnets for these disruptions. Mrs. Anderson has observed
that Patrick and Zach appear to be “at each other” constantly.
Not only do they get off task at these times but the
rest of the class is also drawn into spectator sport.
Unfortunately, during these disruptions, little classroom work or
instruction gets done. Mrs. Anderson has noted the following
behaviors of concern:
Zach Patrick
Responds angrily to teasing by
yelling back and sometimes even
crying
Teases Zach (and, at times, other
students) by name calling, making
hurtful comments, etc.
Argues with Patrick Calls out during class or gives
unrelated or inappropriate informa-
tion during class discussion when
called on
Pushes Patrick if he doesn’t re-
spond to his requests or comments
Argues with Zach (or other stu-

dents) when asked to stop teasing
or halt other undesired behavior
! Assignment
1. Create a priority list of two critical goals each for Patrick and
Zach.
2. Identify two or three strategies you could use to address the
goals you listed.
3. Provide a rationale of why you selected these strategies.
4. Choose one strategy to implement immediately and justify
your selection and discuss what
information you used to support this.
5. Describe how you would implement this strategy if you were
the classroom teacher, and any
possible cautions or considerations that you should be aware of.
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H What a STAR Sheet is…
A STAR (STrategies And Resources) Sheet provides you with a
description of a well-researched strategy that can
help you solve the case studies in this unit.

Specific Praise
What It Is…
Specific praise includes verbal or written statements to a
student that recognize a desired or correct behavior. Praise
can function as a tool for instruction and for increasing social
and academic behaviors. To be effective, the student
must view the attention provided through praise as pleasurable
or motivational.
What the Research and Resources Say…
• Praise can be used to build positive relationships with students
and assist in creating a supportive classroom
environment (Brophy, 1998; Emmer, Evertson, & Worsham,
2003; Shores, Gunter, & Jack, 1993).
• Powerful, appropriate praise is: nonjudgmental; specific and
descriptive; contingent and immediate; and
sincere (Brophy, 1998; Duncan, Kemple & Smith, 200;
Weinstein, 2003).
• A variety of types of praise should be used to avoid overuse
and satiation (Brophy, 1998). In some cases
praise should be used in conjunction with other types of
reinforcements or rewards (Duncan et al., 2000;
Kerr & Nelson, 2002).
• All students need to experience success. Ensure that each
student receives some form of sincere and

accurate praise or recognition (Evertson, Emmer, & Worsham.,
2003).
• Some students, particularly adolescents, do not find public
praise reinforcing or pleasant (Emmer et al.,
2003; Maag, 2001; Weinstein, 2003).
• Teachers must adjust their use of praise and how it is
delivered for individual students. Some students have
long histories of obtaining attention through misbehavior rather
than appropriate conduct. For these
students, combining praise with other forms of reinforcement
and behavior strategies may be needed. (Piaz-
za et al., 1999).
• The effectiveness of the praise depends on the “richness” of
the reinforcement currently available in the
student’s enviroment (Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayer, 1991).
Tips for Implementation…
• Deliver Effective Praise Statements
a. Be nonjudgmental. Praise the student’s accomplishment or
behavior, not his or her achievement
when compared with that of others.
Example: “Doug, you really did a great job of being prepared
for class today by
bringing your pencils and notebook.”
Nonexample: “Doug, I’m glad you brought your supplies today
like everyone else.”
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• Be specific and include detail.
a. Avoid global positive statements.
Example: “Wow, Keesha! You used several vivid terms in your
paragraph to describe
the story setting. Your use of adjectives has really increased.”
Nonexample. “Wow, Keesha! Great writing today!”
• Be sincere and credible.
a. Use statements that underscore the student’s actual efforts
and accomplishments. Make sure your
voice and body language match the content of your message.
Example: “Hector, you set up the multiplication problem
correctly, placing all numbers
in the appropriate columns. You are ready now to work on the
next part of
the problem.”
Nonexample: “Hector, you really did a great job solving your
multiplication problems
today.”
• Deliver immediate praise in close proximity to the student for

whom the praise is intended. Move around the
classroom frequently so you can be prepared to “catch them
being good.”
• Utilize a variety of verbal and written praise.
• Offer praise to several students at the same time. Or provide
praise privately to avoid the embarrassment
some students feel when being singled out in public.
• Evaluate and Adjust Praise
a. Take time to evaluate whether your praise is working. Ask
yourself:
▪ Is the praise effective? Do the students seem to like the
attention?
▪ Do they maintain or improve the praised behavior?
▪ Do I offer each student some form of praise every day?
▪ Do I maintain a positive balance of positive and negative
statements in my classroom?
▪ Do I include variety in my use of praise?
b. Revise the type, delivery, or frequency of praise as needed
based upon individual student
responses or needs.
c. Use frequent praise when new behavior and skills are taught.
As the skill is mastered, this
frequency should be gradually reduced to a more intermittent
schedule.
Keep in Mind…
• Effective praise can be used to create a positive classroom
atmosphere and enhance relationships with
students. When it is used effectively it may prevent certain
types of behavior.

• Effective praise should be individualized for students in its
content and delivery.
• Teachers must ensure that positive exchanges and statements
occur more frequently than reprimands in their
interactions with students.
H
Resources…
Brophy, J. (1998). Motivating students to learn. Boston, MA:
McGraw Hill.
Duncan, T. K., Kemple, K. M., & Smith, T. M. (2000).
Reinforcement in developmentally appropriate early
childhood classrooms. Childhood Education, 76, 194–203.
Emmer, E. T., Evertson, C. M., & Worsham, M. E. (2003).
Classroom management for secondary teachers
(6th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Evertson, C. M., Emmer, E. T., & Worsham, M. E. (2003).
Classroom management for elementary teachers
(6th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Kerr, M. M., & Nelson, C. M. (2002). Strategies for addressing
behavior problems in the classroom
(4th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Maag, J. W. (2001). Rewarded by punishment: Reflections on
the disuse of positive reinforcement in schools.

Exceptional Children, 67, 173–186.
Piazza, C. C., Bowman, L. G., Contruci, S. A., Delia, M. D.,
Adelinis, J. D., & Goh, H. L. (1999). An
evaluation of the properties of attention and reinforcement for
destructive and appropriate behavior.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 434–449.
Shores, R. E., Gunter, P. L., & Jack, S. L. (1993). Classroom
management strategies: Are they setting events
for coercion. Behavioral Disorders, 18, 92–102.
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., & Mayer, G. R. (1991). Behavior analysis
for lasting change (2nd ed.). Fort Worth, TX:
Harcourt Brace.
Weinstein, C. S. (2003). Secondary classroom management:
Lessons from research and practice (2nd ed.).
Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.
H
Criterion-Specific Rewards
What It Is…
Criterion-specific rewards can be used as part of a proactive

intervention for managing classroom behavior.
Students may earn criterion-specific rewards such as activities,
privileges, and tangible incentives after the
occurrence of an identified target behavior(s) at a set level of
performance.
• A reinforcement system supports students in making
connections between a behavior and its consequences
(Alberto & Troutman, 2003).
• Effective, criterion-specific rewards are delivered
immediately; contingent; desirable and appealing to
students; planned; and realistically attainable (Martella, Nelson,
& Marchand-Martella, 2003).
• Rewards should be simple to implement, easy to record,
inexpensive, and nondisruptive (Levin & Nolan,
2000; Smith & Rivera, 1993).
• Reinforcers which are selected by students themselves are
often more motivating than those selected for them
(Alberto & Troutman, 2003; Smith & Rivera, 1993).
• A variety of positive reinforcers should be available over time
to prevent rewards from losing their
effectiveness or motivating properties (Jones & Jones, 1998).
• Several types of reinforcers can function as rewards, including
social, activity/ privilege, and tangible
reinforcers (Alberto & Troutman, 2003; Emmer, Evertson, &
Worsham, 2003). (See Types of Criterion-
Specific Rewards Chart at the end of this STAR Sheet)
• For learning new or reinforcing difficult skills, more intensive

rewards such as tangible or material rewards
may be warranted. Initially, these may need to be delivered on a
more frequent basis until a skill is learned
or mastered (Kameenui & Darch, 1995).
• Identify Specific Behaviors
a. Identify and list behaviors that need to be increased for the
student to be successful. Begin with the
behaviors likely to have the most significant impact for the
student’s success in learning.
b. Describe in specific terms the behavior and criteria necessary
for the reward. Make sure to address
the “what,” “where,” “when,” and “how” in describing the
behavior.
• Select Rewards
a. Brainstorm a list of rewards that are feasible, affordable, age
appropriate, and complement your
learning environment and teaching style.
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b. Check school and district policies regarding the use of any
activity, material, or edible rewards.
You will also need to verify any individual student needs,
health or otherwise (e.g., food allergies),
which may limit your use of these types of rewards.
c. Validate your reward possibilities. Use multiple means to
garner input: seek student input on
possible rewards; observe students during activities and free
time (note types of activities,
interactions, and materials they select during these times); and
get input from significant others
(e.g., family members, other teachers) about student preferences
and interests.
d. Match rewards to behaviors. The reward must have adequate
value for the student, yet must not be
too easily earned.
• Implement Rewards
a. Present the reward program. Students should understand the
target behaviors, expected criteria or
performances, and corresponding rewards in advance.
b. Deliver rewards as planned and scheduled. Remain
consistent.
c. Always state the specific behavior that is being reinforced
when delivering rewards. (See Specific
Praise STAR Sheet.)
• Evaluate and Adjust Rewards
a. Maintain records. Institute a record keeping system where
you record the delivery of your rewards
(or the behaviors demonstrated). Verify whether your reward

system is working.
b. Vary rewards over time. This will ensure students won’t tire
of your rewards.
Keep in Mind…
• Plan time in your weekly schedule for rewards. Provide time
as appropriate for 1) activity and privilege
rewards, 2) selection of tangible rewards, and 3) individual
student conferences to review progress and to
adjust personal behavioral goals or rewards.
• Avoid compromises where a reward is presented prior to the
appropriate expected behavior. This
encourages students to use future manipulative interactions.
• Verify the effectiveness of potential rewards so they are
indeed reinforcing behaviors for individual students.
Ensure that the rewards selected are more powerful than other
competing reinforcers that sustain
misbehavior.
• Never use access to basic personal needs as a reward (e.g.,
water, meals, restroom).
• Rewards can be used for the whole class or for small groups.
(See Group Contingency STAR Sheet)
H
Resources…
Alberto, P. A., & Troutman, A. C. (2003). Applied behavior

analysis for teachers (6th ed.). Upper Saddle Riv-
er, NJ: Merrill Prentice-Hall.
Emmer, E. T., Evertson, C. M., & Worsham, M. E. (2003).
Classroom management for secondary teachers
(6th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Jones, V. F., & Jones, L. S. (1998). Comprehensive classroom
management: Creating communities of support
and solving problems. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Kameenui, E. J., & Darch, C. B. (1995). Instructional classroom
management: A proactive approach to be-
havior management. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Levin, J., & Nolan, J. F. (2000). Principles of classroom
management: A professional decision-making model
(3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Martella, R. C., Nelson, R. J., & Marchand-Martella, N. E.
(2003). Managing disruptive behavior in the
schools: A schoolwide, classroom, and individualized social
learning approach. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Smith, D. D., & Rivera, D. M. (1993). Effective discipline (2nd
ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
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DESCRIPTION USES CAUTIONS SELECTED EXAMPLES

SO
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• Provide students with the
opportunity to interact with
peer(s) of his or her choice
• Can be used with instructional
or noninstructional activities
• Can support naturally
occurring events in the
classroom
• Can be used effectively with a
wide variety of students
• Can be used with group
contingencies
• Student-selected interactions
can lead to problems if the
paired or grouped students
serve as misbehavior
catalysts for one another or

if social issues (e.g., gossip,
dating) predominate other
class activities
• Student-selected activity partner or
group
• Conversational free time
• Student-selected seating
A
CT
IV
IT
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PR
IV
IL
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Activity rewards:
• Enjoyable activities that

students find motivating
• Can be instructional or
noninstructional
Privilege rewards:
• Fewer commonplace
school-based activities or
responsibilities that hold
special value
“Escape” rewards:
• Removal of an unpleasant
activity
• Can support naturally
occurring events in the school
environment
• Can be used effectively with a
wide variety of students
• Can support completion of
less desired activities
• “Grandma’s Rule”: if a student
completes a less desired
activity (e.g., spelling practice)
he/she may then participate
in some likable activity (e.g.,
computer time)
• Must comply with school and
district procedures

• Can be difficult to schedule
• Time to use the earned
rewards must be consistently
provided
• Are not always provided
immediately but giving praise
or social reinforcers when the
behavior occurs adjusts for
this shortcoming
• “Escape” rewards such as a
homework pass may result in
non-mastory of content
Elementary
• Free time activity choice
• Extra computer time
• First in line for recess/ lunch/ home
• Team/ line leader
• Skip even numbered homework
problems
• Classroom helper
Secondary
• Listen to music while working
(headphones)
• Sports/ art equipment use
• Cross-age tutor
• Office aide
• Homework pass
TA
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Tangible or material rewards:
• Objects/ edibles that students
value and like.
• Can be easy to deliver and
effective, especially with hard-
to-change behaviors
• Should be paired with praise
when delivered so that they
can later be faded
• Teachers should gradually
increase the criteria for

earning a tangible reward.
• Can become costly if
expensive consumable items
are used
• Can cause disruption to
the normal classroom
environment, especially if
used continuously
• Can lose its effectiveness if
provided after students have
tired of it
• Different students have
different reward choices
• Edible rewards should be
used infrequently. Use of
edible rewards must take into
consideration food allergies,
nutritional issues, student
and family preferences, and
school policy
Elementary
• Stickers/ removable tattoos
• Pencils/ pens
• Pencil grips/ erasers
• Stamps/ bookmarks
• Books/ posters
• Clay
• Recycled games in good condition
• Small toys (model or mini

airplanes, finger skateboards, cars,
tops, balls, puzzles)
Secondary
(As relevant above)
• Stationery
• Appealing second-hand CDs/
cassette tapes
• Sunglasses/ hats
• Magazines/ comic books
Edibles
• Pizza/ pizza party
• Popcorn/ pretzels
• Cookies/ brownies
• Fruits/ vegetables
• Bottled water/ sports drink
Types of Criterion-Specific Rewards
H
Choice Making
What It Is…
Choice-making is a strategy that enables students to select from

a number of options. It can be used both to prevent
behavior problems and to increase specific behaviors.
• Giving students the opportunity to make choices in their daily
routines has many benefits, including
enhanced positive interactions between teachers and students
(Jolivette, Stichter & McCormick, 2002), an
increase in students’ assignment completion and accuracy
(Cosden, Gannon, & Haring, 1995), and
elevated student task accuracy (Jolivette, Wehby, Canale, &
Massey, 2001). In addition, choice-making
heightens student engagement and reduces disruptive behavior
(Dunlap et al., 1994; Umbreit & Blair,
1996); it also enhances student task compliance and decreases
student resistance (Kauffman, Mostert, Trent,
& Hallahan, 2002; Pacchiano, 2000).
• Offering choices gives students decision-making opportunities
that allow them predictability (Jolivette et al.,
2002), which for most students with behavioral needs comes
only as a result of their misbehaviors (Van
Acker, Grant & Henry, 1996).
• The choices offered and selected should maintain instructional
integrity by supporting the instructional
objectives for the student (Jolivette et al., 2002).
• Identify Choice Opportunities and Possible Options
a. Find out about student learning preferences, likes, and
interests. Observing students, interviewing
them, and completing learning preference surveys can help you
to provide effective and

individualized options for students.
b. Develop a general list of options. Possible items include the
following:
▪ Materials & Media (manipulatives, computer, writing
implements, etc.)
▪ Seating & Grouping Options (alone, with a partner or group,
work areas, etc.)
▪ Gathering Information (read, research on the internet,
interviews, etc.)
▪ Demonstrating Knowledge (write, illustrate, present oral
reports, etc.)
▪ Subjects/ Instruction (preferred subjects or learning tasks)
▪ Scheduling (order of activities, assignments, subjects, etc.)
• Offer Choices
a. Include choices that are also conducive to your teaching style
and your classroom environment.
Don’t include options you can’t live with or that will disrupt
learning in the classroom.
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▪ Structure the choices presented. Limit your list of options.

Start with two or three options to
ensure success, particularly with younger children. Don’t
overwhelm the students or yourself.
▪ Present options clearly and briefly and ensure that students
understand them.
• Evaluate and Adjust Choice Opportunities
a. Check to see if choice-making is effective. Ask yourself:
▪ Do all students have the opportunity to make choices?
▪ Are choices offered every day? Are choices provided
consistently?
▪ Do students effectively use choice-making opportunities?
▪ Does choice-making affect student participation?
Accomplishment? Motivation? Behavior?
b. Adjust choice-making options and opportunities as needed.
c. Remember to include variety in the types of choices or
options offered to students.
Keep in Mind…
• Start small. Begin a consistent choice-making program in one
or two academic areas, then extend to other
areas. Select an academic area or task that is likely to have the
biggest effect on the student’s success.
• Some choice is better than no choice. Positive behavior can be
increased by giving students a choice, even
if the options aren’t preferred (Dunlap et al., 1994).
• Avoid negotiations. Students may pressure teachers to add
options on the spot. Consider the suggested
options for future choice-making situations.
• Be consistent and honor the choices. If you do not follow
through, this strategy will become ineffective over

time.
Resources…
Cosden, M., Gannon, C., & Haring, T. G. (1995). Teacher-
control versus student-control over choice of
task and reinforcement for students with severe behavior
problems. Journal of Behavioral Education, 5,
11–27.
Dunlap, G., DePerczel, M., Clarke, S., Wilson, D., Wright, S.,
White, R., & Gomez, A. (1994). Choice
making to promote adaptive behavior for students with
emotional and behavioral challenges. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 505–518.
Jolivette, K., Wehby, J. H., Canale, J., & Massey, N. G. (2001).
Effects of choice making opportunities on the
behavior of students with emotional and behavioral disorders.
Behavioral Disorders, 26, 131–145.
Jolivette, K., Stichter, J. P., & McCormick, K. M. (2002).
Making choices-Improving behavior-Engaging in
learning. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34, 24–30.
Umbreit, J., & Blair, K. S. (1996). The effects of preference,
choice and attention on problem behavior at
school. Educational and Training in Mental Retardation, 31,
151–161.
Van Acker, R., Grant, S. H., & Henry, D. (1996). Teacher and
student behavior as a function for risk for
aggression. Education and Treatment of Children, 19, 316–334.

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What It Is…
Rules are explicit statements that outline the expectations
teachers have for students to follow in order to provide a safe,
secure, and effective learning environment. Rules provide
common guidelines for all students and offer predictability in
the learning environment, assisting students in self-regulating
their behaviors. Establishing and maintaining the effective
use of classroom rules is a critical proactive foundation in
preventing potential behavior problems.
• The most effective classrooms are those of teachers who have
clear ideas of what is expected of the students
and students who have clear ideas of what the teacher expects
from them (Evertson, Emmer, and Worsham,
2003). Successful teachers not only identify effective rules but
also explicitly teach students how to apply
these rules (Martella, Nelson, & Marchand-Martella, 2003;
Rademacher, Callahan, & Pederson, Seelye,
1998).
• Powerful rules are clear, easily understood, reasonable,
observable, necessary, enforceable, and positively
stated (Grossman, 1995; Kerr & Nelson, 2002; Martella et al.,
2003; Rademacher et al., 1998; Rhode,

Jenson, & Reavis, 1992; Walker, Colvin, & Ramsey, 1995).
• For efficiency, experts recommend establishing between three
and five classroom rules (Martella et al.,
2003; Walker et al., 1995), with no more than eight
(Rademacher et al., 1998). Rules should be broad
enough to cover as many classroom instructional situations as
possible (Smith & Rivera, 1993).
• Student involvement in designing classroom rules can have
such benefits as promoting a sense of student
ownership and community, fostering student “buy in,” and
preparing students for civic responsibility and the
democratic process (Malone & Tietjens, 2000; Weinstein,
2003).
• Classroom rules are more general than the specific procedures
developed for routine classroom activities
(Smith & Rivera, 1993; Weinstein, 2003).
• Develop and State Rules and Consequences
a. Identify critical student expectations that are necessary for
your classroom in order to promote
successful learning and safety. Remember to differentiate
specific activity procedures from general
classroom rules.
b. Involve students, as appropriate, in generating ideas for
potential rules.
c. State classroom rules in explicit, clear, precise, positive, and
observable terms.
Example: “Bring needed books and supplies to class.”

Nonexample 1: “Be ready to learn.”
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Nonexample 2: “Don’t interrupt others.”
d. Identify appropriate positive consequences for observing
classroom rules and logical negative or
corrective consequences for rule infractions.
• Communicate and Teach Rules
a. Initiate rule discussion and instruction at the start of the
school year.
b. Demonstrate what each rule involves and make certain that
students understand the requirements
for each rule. Outline the positive and corrective consequences
that occur for rule-following and
rule-breaking behaviors.
c. Obtain students’ commitment to the rules and consequences
(e.g., student signature on a copy of

the rules, verbal agreement).
d. Post the classroom rules in a location and in an appropriate
format so that all students have visual
access to the display. Additionally, share a copy of the
classroom rules with your administrator and
with parents.
• Monitor Rules
a. Maintain consistency in enforcing rules. Apply positive
consequences and reinforcement for
appropriate use of rules. Be consistent and frequent when you
start the year. Impose logical, pre-
planned corrective consequences when students choose not to
comply with the classroom rules.
b. Monitor and record reinforcement of rules and enforcement
of corrective consequences. Records
help teachers identify whether misbehavior is related to a
particular time or activity and provide
liability documentation.
c. Provide on-going feedback throughout the year on the use of
classroom rules and re-teach or
remind students about rules as needed. This is especially
important after long school breaks or
holidays.
Keep in Mind…
• If student behavior interferes with student learning and safety
in an area not addressed by your current
classroom rules, consider adding to or revising your rules to
accommodate this area. If student behavior re-
flects a misunderstanding of your current rules, check the rule

wording, revise if needed, then state, re-teach,
and reinforce the rules.
Note: Changing your current rules can send a message to
students that rules are not
permanent or that you are unsure about the rules. Careful initial
selection and phrasing
of rules is important.
Resources
Evertson, C. M., Emmer, E. T., & Worsham, M. E. (2003).
Classroom management for elementary teachers
(6th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Grossman, H. (1995). Classroom behavior management in a
diverse society (2nd ed.). Mountain View, CA:
Mayfield Publishing.
Kerr, M. M., & Nelson, C. M. (2002). Strategies for addressing
behavior problems in the classroom
(4th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Malone, B. G., & Tietjens, C. L. (2000). Re-examination of
classroom rules: The need for clarity and specified
behavior. Special Services in the School, 15, 159–170.
Martella, R. C., Nelson, R. J., & Marchand-Martella, N. E.
(2003). Managing disruptive behavior in the
schools: A schoolwide, classroom, and individualized social
learning approach. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

H
Rademacher, J. A., Callahan, K., & Pederson-Seelye, V. A.
(1998). How do your classroom rules measure
up? Guidelines for developing an effective rule management
routine. Intervention in School and Clinic,
33, 284–289.
Rhode, G., Jenson, W. R., & Reavis, H. K. (1992). The tough
kid book: Practical classroom management
strategies. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.
Smith, D. D., & Rivera, D. M. (1993). Effective discipline (2nd
Walker, H. M., Colvin, G., & Ramsey, E. (1995). Antisocial
behavior in schools: Strategies and best practic-
es. Pacific Grove, CA: Brookes/ Cole.
Boston: McGraw Hill.
H
What It Is…
Contingent instructions are specific directions given to an

individual student to cease an undesired behavior and to
engage in a more appropriate alternative.
Example: “Jose, put away the baseball cards and get out your
homework folder.”
• Reprimands are used commonly by teachers. With reprimands,
students are told what behavior to “stop” as
opposed to what behavior to “start” (Mather & Goldstein,
2001).
• Private, quiet reprimands are more effective than those
audibly delivered in front of the whole class
(O’Leary, Kaufman, Kass, & Drabman, 1970), and brief, as
opposed to lengthy, reprimands improve
student compliance (Abramowitz, O’Leary, & Futtersak, 1988).
Verbal reprimands are also more effective
when provided in close proximity and when eye contact is used
(Van Houten, Nau, MacKenzie-Keating,
Sameoto, & Colavecchia, 1982).
• Contingent instructions serve as a “coupling request,”
addressing both the inappropriate and desired
behaviors (Connolly, Dowd, Criste, Nelson, & Tobias, 1995).
• Decide When to Use Contingent Instructions
a. Use contingent instructions for key behaviors that interfere
with successful learning. Identify
behaviors related to breaking classroom rules and procedures, to
disrupting the instructional
activity, or to potentially harming the child or others.

b. Use contingent instructions with behavioral expectations you
are certain a student understands and
can perform. Avoid directions that ask a student to address more
than one behavior.
• Implement Contingent Instructions
a. Be immediate, contingent, positive, and specific. Include in
your instruction 1) the specific behavior
that should be terminated, and 2) the appropriate behavior.
Example: “Alice, please put away your hairbrush and take out
your planner.”
Nonexample: “Alice, stop playing with your hairbrush. We
talked about supplies needed
to start class yesterday. I’m not sure why you don’t have your
planner out,
but take it out right now.”
b. Be nonjudgmental, definite, and clear. Use precise statements
and avoid questions.
Example: “Levi, your hands are pushing Patrick. Please put
them at your
side.”
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Nonexample: “Don’t you want to go to recess, Levi? Follow
our rule about
lining-up so you can go outside like all the good students.”
c. Be private and individual. Make certain that you have the
student’s attention by inserting the
student’s name in your instruction.
d. Be neutral. Use a calm, polite, firm, and typical voice. Make
sure your body language and voice
tone are not emotional.
e. Be resolute and mean what you say. Savvy students will know
whether you are a teacher who gives
several opportunities before they really need to comply.
Example: “Justin, put your magazine in your backpack. You
need to begin taking
notes.”
Nonexample: “Justin, for the umpteenth time, get to work. Put
away the magazine and
begin taking notes.”
f. Reinforce. Make sure you praise and reinforce the student
immediately for displaying the correct
behavior.
• Evaluate and Adjust Contingent Instructions

a. Regularly evaluate your use of contingent instructions by
asking yourself:
▪ “Has the student stopped the nonproductive behavior and
started the more appropriate task?” If
not, consider if your attention (while brief and corrective)
serves as a reinforcer for the
misbehavior.
▪ “Have I reinforced and praised the student once the desired
behavior was shown?” You should
see a change in future recurrence of the appropriate behavior.
▪ “Have I delivered the contingent instruction appropriately?”
If the student exhibits a more
negative reaction, check the ratio of your positive to negative
feedback for the student.
▪ “Am I swamped with a need for many contingent
instructions?” In this case, evaluate your rules,
procedures, and consistency in enforcement. Use rule reminders,
re-teach, additionally
reinforce, or revise some of your classroom rules and
procedures as needed.
Keep in Mind…
• Consider allowing a brief pause between the initial instruction
to cease the inappropriate behavior and the
subsequent request for the correct behavior. You may find that
the student immediately and naturally
engages in the correct behavior without additional direction.
• Verbal interventions, like corrective directions, are typically
used after other teacher nonverbal cues (e.g.,
gestures, facial expressions, proximity control) have been tried

to redirect the misbehavior (Levin & Nolan,
2000; Walker, Colvin, & Ramsey, 1995; Weinstein, 2003).
• If confrontation occurs, avoid arguments and resist the
temptation to have the last word (Kerr & Nelson,
2002). You are a primary model for appropriate behavior in
your classroom. Set the tone by trying another
type of consequence or strategy.
Resources…
Abramowitz, A. J., O’Leary, S. G., & Futtersak, M. W. (1988).
The relative impact of long and short
reprimands on children’s off-task behavior in the classroom.
Behavior Therapy, 19, 243–247.
Connolly, T., Dowd, T., Criste, A., Nelson, C., & Tobias, L.
(1995). The well-managed classroom: Promoting
student success through social skills instruction. Boys Town,
NE: The Boy’s Town Press.
H
Kerr, N. M., & Nelson, C. M. (2002). Strategies for addressing
behavior problems in the classroom (4th
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Levin, J., & Nolan, J. F. (2000). Principles of classroom
management: A professional decision-making model
(3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Mather, N., & Goldstein, S. (2001). Learning disabilities and

challenging behaviors: A guide to intervention
and classroom management. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes
Publishing Co.
O’Leary, K. D., Kaufman, K. F., Kass, R. E., & Drabman, R. S.
(1970). The effects of loud and soft reprimands
on the behavior of disruptive students. Exceptional Children,
37, 145–155.
Van Houten, R., Nau, P. A., MacKenzie-Keating, S. E.,
Sameoto, D., & Colavecchia, B. (1982). An analysis
of some variables influencing the effectiveness of reprimands.
Journal of Applied and Behavioral Analy-
sis, 15, 65–83.
Walker, H. M., Colvin, G., & Ramsey, E. (1995). Antisocial
behavior in schools: Strategies and best practic-
es. Pacific Grove, CA: Brookes/ Cole.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
H
What It Is…
A group contingency is a group reinforcement technique that

capitalizes on peer influence by setting a group goal
or implementing a group consequence for behavior. The purpose
of this strategy is to prevent behavioral problems,
increase appropriate behaviors, and decrease incorrect
behaviors, depending on how the contingency is
engineered.
Group Contingency
Types of Group Contingencies
Type Definition Example
✔ Dependent
One individual (or a small group) earns a
privilege or reward for peers by behaving
appropriately.
Susan earns five minutes of free time for the
entire class because she did not argue with
her partner during reading.
✔ Independent Individuals earn reinforcement when they
achieve a goal established for the group.
The same contingency applies to each
student. However, one student’s behavior
does not impact the group outcome.
Every student who achieves 90percent or
better on the Thursday spelling test gets a
homework pass.
✔ Interdependent The class, or a group within the class,

earns a special reward when every
individual in the identified group meets an
established goal.
When the entire class is on time and seated
at the beginning of history class for one
week, every class member earns 10 bonus
points on the weekly test.
(Smith & Rivera, 1993)
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• Group contingencies have been shown to be effective in
influencing the behavior of small and large groups
at various ages (Smith & Rivera, 1993).
• Each type of group contingency has possibilities and pitfalls
(Kauffman, Mostert, Trent, & Hallahan, 2002):
a. Dependent group contingency is helpful for a student with
low social status because the student can
earn rewards for the group. However, the student’s standing will
worsen if she or he doesn’t earn

the reward; therefore, ensure that the student is capable of the
behavior.
b. Independent group contingency has little risk of peer
pressure. However, it also has minimal peer
momentum, modeling, or camaraderie to support the target
behavior.
c. Interdependent group contingency can apply positive peer
influence. However, students may
complain about, sabotage, or harass others if they believe there
is unjust accountability for the
behavior of others or uneven composition of groups in skills,
abilities, etc.
• Interdependent and dependent contingencies are the most
effective in reducing inappropriate behaviors
(Gresham & Gresham, 1982).
• Identify the Target Behavior & Contingency Type
a. Select the behavior that needs to be changed.
b. Select the appropriate and most advantageous contingency for
the behavior.
▪ For changing a single behavior of one child, consider the
dependent group contingency.
▪ For changing the behavior of a group, select the independent
or interdependent group
contingency.
c. Establish a reasonable performance standard for the
attainment of the reward.
• Prepare the Plan

a. Identify the reward. Solicit student input in choosing an
appropriate reinforcer.
b. Schedule when students will receive the reward.
c. Communicate your plan with the class or group. Seek student
commitment.
• Implement the Plan
a. Begin using the contingency plan, remaining consistent with
your expectations and consequences.
• Evaluate and Adjust the Plan
a. Collect data on the effectiveness of the plan.
b. Determine how or if you will continue to use the plan. Ask
yourself:
▪ “Should I change the behavior(s) addressed?” Decide if your
plan has been successful in
improving the behavior and consider other behaviors that need
to be targeted.
▪ “Should I adjust or change the contingency?” Find out which
students were successful in achieving
your standards. If some were not successful, examine your plan
carefully and modify it.
Keep in Mind…
• Group contingency requires more planning and intervention
than other techniques.
• Make certain that students can truly earn additional privileges
or rewards. Teachers should add a new
reward (or increase a current reward) and not use an established
reinforcer (e.g., scheduled break, recess)
as part of the contingency plan.
• Many professionals caution against the practice of taking away

rewards based on a dependent or
interdependent contingency. Doing so can establish a negative
atmosphere in the classroom and should be
avoided.
H
Research-Based Programs
• The Good Behavior Game (Barrish, Saunders, & Wolf, 1969)
• The Good Student Game (Babyak, Luze, & Kamps, 2000)
• Tootling (Skinner, Cashwell, & Skinner, 2000)
Resources…
Babyak, A. E., Luze, G. J., & Kamps, D. M. (2000). The Good
Student Game: Behavior management for
diverse classrooms. Intervention in School and Clinic, 35, 216–
223.
Barrish, H. H., Saunders, M., & Wolf, M. M. (1968). Good
behavior game: Effects of individual
contingencies for group consequences on disruptive behavior in
a classroom. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 2, 119–124.
Gresham, F. M., & Gresham, G. N. (1982). Interdependent,
dependent, and independent group
contingencies for controlling disruptive behavior. The Journal
of Special Education, 16, 101–110.
Kauffman, J. M., Mostert, M, P., Trent, S. C., & Hallahan, D. P.
(2002). Managing classroom behavior: A

reflective case-based approach (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn
and Bacon.
Smith, D., & Rivera, D. M. (1993). Effective discipline (2nd
Skinner, C. H., Cashwell, T. H., & Skinner, A. L. (2000).
Increasing tootling: The effects of a peer-monitored
group contingency program on students’ reports of peers’
prosocial behaviors. Psychology in the Schools,
37, 263–270.
Establishing Positive Teacher- Student Relationships
Chapter 3 Jones and Jones
*
Establishing Positive Teacher-Student Relationships
Creating a Healthy Classroom
Healthy classroom management is about building healthy
classrooms and promoting student wellness.
The foundation of the healthy classroom is built on the
interpersonal relationships.
teacher students relationships
the relationships students have with each other

Healthy relationships require positive motivation,
communication, and discipline.
*
Creating a Healthy Classroom
A healthy classroom is a classroom with little or no
interference from disruptive student behavior.
Establishment of teacher-student relationships that foster
student commitment and cooperation is critical
*
Creating a Healthy ClassroomThe traditional emphasis on
content and control can make it difficult to build relationships.
Thomas Lickona, psychologist, urges teachers to use bonding to
improve behavior noting that, “when teachers bond with their
students, they increase academic learning and their moral
influence on students.” (Bluestein,2008)
*
Mutual Respect and TrustCreating the healthy classroom is a
process.Respect and trust lie at the core of healthy interpersonal

relationships.
*
Mutual Respect and TrustTrust: A firm belief/confidence in the
honesty, integrity, reliability and fairness of the teacher and/or
student.
Trust is a two way street; it involves both the ability to trust
others and the quality of being trustworthy ourselves.
*
Mutual Respect and Trust
A commitment to build trust must be backed by actions
e.g. protect students from humiliation/unnecessary
criticism, allowing them to perform with comfort and
security
*
*
EQUALITY: Advancement in our social system has moved
toward a society that demands that people, regardless of race,

gender, disability, ethnic background, or age have the right to
be treated as equals
. As a result, schools are also experiencing these positive
changes and student-teacher relationships have gone through
significant transition and change.
*
*
U.S. demographics is changing rapidly. The National
Multicultural Institute (1997) reported that: (1) over the next 20
years the U.S. will grow by 42 million. Hispanics will account
for 47% of the growth, Blacks 22%, Asians 18% and Whites
13%. In 1988, The American Council on Education reported that
by 2000, one-third of all school age children and 42% of all
public school age children will be of ethnic minority
backgrounds.
*
Critical IssuesMinorities with the worst health status and
poorest access to health care live in communities that have
inadequate housing, poor nutrition, poor sanitation, and high
rates of physical, emotional and sexual abuse.
*
Establishing Positive Teacher-Student RelationshipsTeachers
must maintain the exceptional students self esteem. Laws (e.g.,

IDEA, Section 504, ADA) make it impossible for any educator
or student not to encounter exceptional students in their
teaching and everyday experiences. It is imperative that all
teachers be trained to be sensitive to the needs of exceptional
students.
*
Critical Issues
3. The Power of the Student How students think, work, and feel
dictates the direction and success of the classroom and school.
Students are full of energy, imagination, enterprise and
when given encouragement, they develop motivation and hope
It is obvious that mismanaging students will create costly
liabilities for the classroom and school
*
. Teachers must be careful not to diminish any students dreams
of finding himself or herself and their place in school and
society.
*
Critical Issues
4. Common Goals: The goals of students and teachers are
complementary.
Students are in the process of growing, developing and

trying to determine who they are and what role they will play in
life.
Many young people will use school as a means to that end.
*
Developmental tasks that are critical for young people to
accomplish:
(1) forming an initial self-identity,
(2) establishing a sense of relative independence,
(3) assuming increased levels of responsibility, and
(4) developing the social skills needed for social
interaction.
Payne and Hahn (1995)
*
Note: These are some of the same goals teachers have for their
students: responsibility, self-reliance, self discipline, and social
interactions. These are also the same goals of a healthy
classroom.
*
Methods for Communicating Caring and Support
Get to know students of different cultural backgrounds
Demonstrate interest in students’ activities

Eat lunch with students
Arrange interviews between teacher and student
Use a suggestion box
Join school/community events
Join in playground games
Use culturally sensitive communication
*
DIVERSITY PERSPECTIVES
Important Issues for Educators
*
Diverse: differing, distinct, unlike, dissimilar, varied
List as many
ways as you
can think of in
which students
are “diverse”.
*
Diversity Issues Aspects of a teacher's personal identity (such
as race, religion, socio-economic background, and learning
style) are important as the teacher tries to relate to students.
Good teachers not only convey a body of knowledge to their
students, but they are also aware of how to convey that
knowledge by connecting their own experience with their

students' experience of the world.
*
Diversity Issues - CommunicationWhen we speak of diversity in
the classroom, we usually focus on the diversity of the students
in the room. The teacher also brings a range of diversity issues
to the classroom. Every teacher brings his or her physical
appearance and culture into the room at the same time as the
students do.
*
Diversity Issues - CommunicationHow you look, how you
speak, how you act upon your opinions of the role of academics
(and particularly of the class you teach), and the extent to which
these differ from the physical, cultural and intellectual
backgrounds of your students will have a profound effect on the
interactions in your classroom.
*
Diversity Issues - CommunicationThe best way to minimize the
likelihood that your own perceived diversity will affect student
behavior is to establish a "safe" environment in which the class
can discuss both your and your students' diversity.
Such a safe atmosphere establishes the difference between a
highly successful class, and one where both teacher and
students fear one another, experiencing discomfort when it
comes to discussing the "real" issues.
*

Diversity Issues - CommunicationIn addition to such visible
differences as race, gender, and physical attributes, any teacher
also brings invisible diversity to the classroom. Invisible
differences such as political opinion, sexual orientation,
ethnicity when it is separate from distinct racial characteristics,
teaching and learning styles, regionalism, class, family history,
and religion have more to do with an individual's own self-
perceptions and definitions than with others' immediate
perceptions. These internal perspectives influence how a person
sees the world, and are a source of personal identity.
*
Diversity IssuesIn recent decades, studies have shown that
students have varying learning styles, and that no single
teaching style fulfills all students' needs. Learning styles have
very little to do with the students’ motivation or attitude toward
the class or the material. Often, teachers complain that some
students do not apply themselves to their studies, and therefore
do not learn well. However, it may be that the teacher simply
has not yet addressed these students' particular needs in class,
and that new approaches will reach the students more
effectively.
*
Diversity IssuesSome students may be visual learners, and
prefer to study graphs, look at models and pictures, and take
notes to review later. Such students react well to extensive
blackboard use, (especially drawings, models, etc.) and
handouts with appropriate illustrations.
*

Diversity IssuesOthers are aural learners- they listen closely in
class, often read out loud when studying or subvocalize during
lectures in class, and find it helpful to confer with their peers in
class to confirm information. These students work well in study
groups where discussion of the material reinforces class
discussion and lectures. They may also react well to tapes and
films in class.
*
Diversity IssuesVerbal learners are likely to absorb reading
materials and lectures more easily than other students. They
seem to learn best from written materials, rather than from
visual materials such as graphs and illustrations. Most
university teachers are verbal learners, and thus find it easiest
to relate to and teach such students.
*
Diversity Issues - GesturesFor teachers, it is paramount that you
refrain from using several signs that, historically, teachers of
young children utilized.
*
Diversity Issues - GesturesTwo common gestures in Western
culture to avoid with ELL students are the circled thumb and
forefinger to indicate approval and the raised/crossed index and
middle finger to indicate good luck. Both of these gestures
have a variety of meanings in other cultures, most of them
seriously negative, slanderous or sexual.

*
*
Culture
Culture is the system of values, beliefs and ways of knowing
that guide communities of people in their daily lives. (Trumbull,
2005, p.35)
Culture includes how people approach learning and problem
solving, how they construct knowledge, and how they pass it on
from generation to generation.
By ”ways of knowing” we mean how people organize their
world cognitively through language and other symbol systems.
*
Culture of the classroomMuch of what teachers consider to be
discipline problems are determined by their own culture –
filtered through personal values and teaching style. (Johns &
Espinoza, 1996, p.9)
*
The underlying values motivating teachers’ behaviors are likely
to be quite similar because:Majority of teachers are European
American and hold dominant culture values, and
Most “other” teachers have been educated in U.S. schools and in
that process have been taught “the right way” to teach and

manage the classroom.
*
*
Culturally Responsive ClassroomsTeachers should strive:To
foster culturally responsive teaching and learning opportunities
for all students.To deepen their knowledge of cultural value
systems and the role of those values in learning and teaching.To
adopt a “self-reflective stance whereby the contribution of their
own attitudes, values, and “taken for granted cultural patterns”
can be examined.
Culturally Responsive Classroom Management:
CRCM is a frame of mind as much as a set of strategies
CRCM means examining personal biases and values and how
these affect interactions with students
CRCM means striving to become knowledgeable about the
cultures and communities in which their students live.
CRCM means understanding the goal is not to achieve
“compliance” but to provide equitable opportunity for learning.
CRMC furthers the cause of social justice.
*
Two Dominant Social Frameworks Influence Student Behavior
in the Classroom: Individualism and Collectivism
*IndividualismCollectivismRepresentative of mainstream U.S.,
Western Europe, Australia, and CanadaRepresentative of 70% of
world cultures, including those of many
U. S. immigrants.Well-being or individual; responsibility for
selfWell-being of group; responsibility for

groupIndependence/self-
relianceInterdependence/cooperationIndividual
achievementFamily/group successSelf expressionRespectSelf-
esteemModestyTask orientationSocial orientationCognitive
intelligenceSocial intelligence
Native Americans, Alaska Natives, Pacific Islanders, and
African Americans tend to be collectivistic.
*
Two Dominant Social Frameworks Influence Student Behavior
in the Classroom: Individualism and CollectivismEmphasis
placed on individual versus group well-being. Consider the
individualism emphasized in western culture versus the
collectivist or well-being of the group emphasis in Asian
cultures.
Great variation can exist within a culture.
*
In U.S. – a country know for its history of “rugged

individualism” the dominant values include independence, self-
reliance, individual achievement, and cognitive development.
The individualistic American views himself as someone who is
“a distinct individual capable of self-assertion and fee to think
and act according to personal choice.
Common proverbs capture this individualistic world view:
“Stand on your own two feet” : “Every man for himself”; “The
squeaky wheel gets the grease.”
In contrast children in collectivistic families are socialized with
working together interdependently rather than independently.
Dominant values in collectivistic culture are cooperation,
family unity, modesty, respect, and social development.
Personal choices are likely to be evaluated relative to their
potential benefit to the family, respect for elder, and modesty
about one’s accomplishments. It is more important to engage in
social relationships first and then the task will get done.
Proverbs that reflect collectivistic culture are “No task is
too big when done together.” “Many hands make light work.”
“The nail that sticks up gets pounded down.”
*
Individualism/Collectivism at School:
*The purpose of education is perceived differently by
individualist and collectivist societies. These perceptions
influences student
behavior.IndividualismCollectivismRepresentative of
mainstream U.S., Western Europe, Australia, and
CanadaRepresentative of 70% of world cultures, including those
of many
U. S. immigrants.Prepare students for place in society
Adaptation to the skills and virtures necessary to become an
acceptable group member.Learn to cope with new, unknown,
unforeseen – not so much “how to do it as how to

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