Week 4: Fallacies, Biases, and Rhetoric
Just as it is important to find truth it is equally important to learn to avoid error. It is analogous to playing defense. The main way that we play defense in logic is by guarding against fallacies and biases. Fallacies are common forms of inference that are not good; they do not adequately support their conclusions. The best way to learn to avoid them is to learn to identify them so that you will see when they are occurring.
Since there are literally hundreds of fallacies, we will only have time to discuss a small few. However, we will focus on some of the most common, and readers can go on to learn more, both from our book as well as other online resources. Here is a brief summary of a few of the most important and most common (these are explained in much greater detail in the book, and there are many more fallacies addressed in the book, so make sure to reach Chapter 7 before doing the activities of the week).
This week's guidance will cover the following topics:
1. Begging the Question
2. The Straw Man Fallacy
3. The Ad Hominem Fallacy
4. The Appeal to Popular Opinion
5. The Appeal to Emotion
6. Other Fallacies
7. Cognitive Biases
8. Argumentative Devices
9. Things to Do This Week
Begging the Question
Possibly the most commonly committed fallacy is Begging the Question (by assuming a main point at issue). Here is a nice explanation:
Circular reasoning is an extreme version of begging the question in which a premise is identical to the conclusion.
Here are some examples of each:
1. Don’t listen to that candidate; he’s untrustworthy.
2. You shouldn’t bet on that horse; it’s going to lose.
3. Don’t buy a Mac since PCs are better.
4. Marijuana should not be legalized because that would be disastrous.
5. You should join my religion because it’s the true one.
6. That food is bad for you because it is unhealthy.How to Avoid Begging the Question
In order to avoid this fallacy it is necessary to use premises that do not assume the point at issue, but rather that are based in principles and observations upon which both parties could in principle agree.
Can you think of ways to fix each of the above arguments? What premises could you add to make the arguments, not only substantive, but also to support their conclusions in ways that are likely to be acceptable to someone who doesn’t already agree?An Example of Avoiding Begging the Question by Creating a Supporting Argument
Suppose you want to say why abortion is wrong, and you use the premise that abortion kills a human being. This argument simply assumes that a human fetus is a human being, which is a major point at issue. One way that you might seek to get out of this problem is to come up with a supporting argument for that premise. That is, you might construct a piece of reasoning intending to demonstrate to the other parties why a fetus should count as a human being.
To do this without begging the question will be difficult, but it typically will involve.
Informal Fallacies
Enterline Design Services LLC/iStock/Thinkstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the various fallacies of support, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
2. Describe the various fallacies of relevance, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
3. Describe the various fallacies of clarity, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
We can conceive of logic as providing us with the best tools for seeking truth. If our goal is to seek truth, then we must be clear that the task isnot limited to the formation of true beliefs based on a solid logical foundation, for the task also involves learning to avoid forming falsebeliefs. Therefore, just as it is important to learn to employ good reasoning, it is also important to learn to avoid bad reasoning.
Toward this end, this chapter will focus on fallacies. Fallacies are errors in reasoning; more specifically, they are common patterns ofreasoning with a high likelihood of leading to false conclusions. Logical fallacies often seem like good reasoning because they resembleperfectly legitimate argument forms. For example, the following is a perfectly valid argument:
If you live in Paris, then you live in France.
You live in Paris.
Therefore, you live in France.
Assuming that both of the premises are true, it logically follows that the conclusion must be true. The following argument is very similar:
If you live in Paris, then you live in France.
You live in France.
Therefore, you live in Paris.
This second argument, however, is invalid; there are plenty of other places to live in France. This is a common formal fallacy known asaffirming the consequent. Chapter 4 discussed how this fallacy was based on an incorrect logical form. This chapter will focus on informalfallacies, fallacies whose errors are not so much a matter of form but of content. The rest of this chapter will cover some of the most commonand important fallacies, with definitions and examples. Learning about fallacies can be a lot of fun, but be warned: Once you begin noticingfallacies, you may start to see them everywhere.
Before we start, it is worth noting a few things. First, there are many, many fallacies. This chapter will consider only a sampling of some of themost well-known fallacies. Second, there is a lot of overlap between fallacies. Reasonable people can interpret the same errors as differentfallacies. Focus on trying to understand both interpretations rather than on insisting that only one can be right. Third, different philosophersoften have different terminology for the same fallacies and make different distinctions among them. Therefore, you may find that others usedifferent terminology for the fallacies that we will learn about in this chapter. Not to worry—it is the ideas here that are most important: Ourgoal is to learn to identi.
Evaluate Your Argument on the IssueIn this chapter you will lear.docxgitagrimston
Evaluate Your Argument on the Issue
In this chapter you will learn how to identify and overcome errors in reasoning. This is a special step that applies only to issues because resolving issues involves finding the most reasonable belief.
Two broad kinds of errors are examined—errors affecting the truth of your ideas and errors affecting the quality of your reasoning. A step-by-step approach to evaluate arguments is also included.
Because your main objective in addressing an issue is not to find the most effective action but to determine the most reasonable belief, your main task in refining an issue is to evaluate your argument to be sure that it is free of error. Two broad kinds of error must be considered. The first affects the truth of the argument’s premises or assertions. The second affects the argument’s validity—that is, the legitimacy of the reasoning by which the conclusion was reached. A sound argument is both true and valid.
Errors Affecting Truth
Errors affecting truth are found by testing the accuracy of the premises and the conclusion as individual statements. The first and most common error in this category is simple factual inaccuracy. If we have investigated the issue properly and have taken care to verify our evidence whenever possible, such errors should not be present. We will therefore limit our consideration to the more subtle and common errors:
· Either/or thinking
· Avoiding the issue
· Overgeneralizing
· Oversimplifying
· Double standard
· Shifting the burden of proof
· Irrational appeal
Either/Or Thinking
This error consists of believing that only two choices are possible in situations in which there are actually more than two choices. A common example of either/or thinking occurs in the creationism-versus-evolution debate. Both sides are often guilty of the error. “The biblical story of creation and scientific evolution cannot both be right,” they say. “It must be either one or the other.” They are mistaken. There is a third possibility: that there is a God who created everything but did so through evolution. Whether this position is the best one may, of course, be disputed. But it is an error to ignore its existence.
Either/or thinking undoubtedly occurs because, in controversy, the spotlight is usually on the most obvious positions, those most clearly in conflict. Any other position, especially a subtle one, is ignored. Such thinking is best overcome by conscientiously searching out all possible views before choosing one. If you find either/or thinking in your position on an issue, ask yourself, “Why must it be one view or the other? Why not both or neither?”
Avoiding the Issue
The attorney was just beginning to try the case in court when her associate learned that their key witness had changed his mind about testifying. The associate handed the attorney this note: “Have no case. Abuse the other side.” That is the form avoiding the issue often takes: deliberately attacking the person with the opposing view i ...
Anger and lack of freedom share the same rootsJuan Hernández
- The document discusses the roots of anger and lack of freedom in believing that reality is absolute and that others should follow one's schemes. It introduces the concept of "freedom meditation" as a way to become aware of judgments of others and release them from one's expectations in order to reduce anger and feel free.
- Freedom meditation involves noticing automatic thoughts that judge others and using mantras or visualization to dissolve those thoughts, gradually releasing others from one's schemes and expectations. This allows one to then release oneself from external expectations through a similar process.
- Practicing this awareness and dissolution of judgments can help transform one's view of reality from absolute to relative and increase relaxation and freedom.
This document provides instruction and examples for students on how to make and defend a stand on issues. It discusses key concepts like facts versus opinions and how to publicly assert one's views. Students are given scenarios to choose a side, such as whether face-to-face or online classes are better during the pandemic. The document emphasizes preparing arguments, backing claims with data, respecting others' views, and developing strong convictions.
Assertive communication involves clearly stating needs, feelings, and wants without violating others. It is contrasted with aggressive communication, which asserts oneself at the expense of others, and passive communication, which withholds needs.
The document provides strategies for assertive communication, including acknowledging constructive criticism, sorting out non-constructive criticism, using "broken record" repetition to make your position clear, slowing down conversations, stating your position, active listening, compromise, and saying no while sharing negative feelings. It emphasizes replacing passive and aggressive habits with lifelong assertive skills.
This document discusses logical fallacies and how to identify them. It defines and provides examples of common fallacies such as hasty generalization, missing the point, post hoc, slippery slope, weak analogy, appeal to authority, ad populum, ad hominem, appeal to pity, appeal to ignorance, straw man, red herring, false dichotomy, begging the question, and equivocation. It encourages readers to ask questions to determine if an argument relies on one of these fallacious techniques rather than sound logic.
PROS AND CONS OF 53 CONTROVERSIAL ISSUESEDUCATION1. College .docxamrit47
PROS AND CONS OF 53 CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES
EDUCATION
1. College Education
2. D.A.R.E.
3. School Uniforms
4. Standardized Tests
5. Tablets vs. Textbooks
6. Teacher Tenure
ELECTIONS & PRESIDENTS
7. 2008 Presidential Election
8. 2012 Presidential Election
9. 2014 Santa Monica Local Elections
10. Bill Clinton
11. Felon Voting
12. Ronald Reagan
13. Voting Machines
HEALTH & MEDICINE
14. Abortion
15. Euthanasia
16. Medical Marijuana
17. Milk
18. Obamacare / Health Care Laws
19. Obesity
20. Prescription Drug Ads to Consumers
21. Right to Health Care
22. Vaccines for Kids
23. Vegetarianism
MEDIA & ENTERTAINMENT
24. Social Networking
25. Video Games and Violence
MONEY & BUSINESS
26. Big Three Auto Bailout
27. Corporate Tax Rate & Jobs
28. Gold Standard
29. Insider Trading by Congress
POLITICS
30. ACLU
31. Concealed Handguns
32. Death Penalty
33. Drinking Age
34. Gun Control
35. Illegal Immigration
36. Social Security Privatization
37. WTC Muslim Center
RELIGION
38. Churches and Taxes
39. Under God in the Pledge
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
40. Alternative Energy vs. Fossil Fuels
41. Animal Testing
42. Cell Phones
43. Climate Change
SEX & GENDER
44. Born Gay? Origins of Sexual Orientation
45. Gay Marriage
46. Prostitution
SPORTS
47. College Football Playoffs
48. Drug Use in Sports
49. Golf - Is It a Sport?
WORLD / INTERNATIONAL
50. Cuba Embargo
51. Drones
52. Israeli-Palestinian Conflict
53. US-Iraq War
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Should the Palestinian Authority Continue to Receive Aid from the United States?
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Informal Fallacies
Enterline Design Services LLC/iStock/Thinkstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the various fallacies of support, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
2. Describe the various fallacies of relevance, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
3. Describe the various fallacies of clarity, their origins, and circumstances in which specific arguments may not be fallacious.
We can conceive of logic as providing us with the best tools for seeking truth. If our goal is to seek truth, then we must be clear that the task isnot limited to the formation of true beliefs based on a solid logical foundation, for the task also involves learning to avoid forming falsebeliefs. Therefore, just as it is important to learn to employ good reasoning, it is also important to learn to avoid bad reasoning.
Toward this end, this chapter will focus on fallacies. Fallacies are errors in reasoning; more specifically, they are common patterns ofreasoning with a high likelihood of leading to false conclusions. Logical fallacies often seem like good reasoning because they resembleperfectly legitimate argument forms. For example, the following is a perfectly valid argument:
If you live in Paris, then you live in France.
You live in Paris.
Therefore, you live in France.
Assuming that both of the premises are true, it logically follows that the conclusion must be true. The following argument is very similar:
If you live in Paris, then you live in France.
You live in France.
Therefore, you live in Paris.
This second argument, however, is invalid; there are plenty of other places to live in France. This is a common formal fallacy known asaffirming the consequent. Chapter 4 discussed how this fallacy was based on an incorrect logical form. This chapter will focus on informalfallacies, fallacies whose errors are not so much a matter of form but of content. The rest of this chapter will cover some of the most commonand important fallacies, with definitions and examples. Learning about fallacies can be a lot of fun, but be warned: Once you begin noticingfallacies, you may start to see them everywhere.
Before we start, it is worth noting a few things. First, there are many, many fallacies. This chapter will consider only a sampling of some of themost well-known fallacies. Second, there is a lot of overlap between fallacies. Reasonable people can interpret the same errors as differentfallacies. Focus on trying to understand both interpretations rather than on insisting that only one can be right. Third, different philosophersoften have different terminology for the same fallacies and make different distinctions among them. Therefore, you may find that others usedifferent terminology for the fallacies that we will learn about in this chapter. Not to worry—it is the ideas here that are most important: Ourgoal is to learn to identi.
Evaluate Your Argument on the IssueIn this chapter you will lear.docxgitagrimston
Evaluate Your Argument on the Issue
In this chapter you will learn how to identify and overcome errors in reasoning. This is a special step that applies only to issues because resolving issues involves finding the most reasonable belief.
Two broad kinds of errors are examined—errors affecting the truth of your ideas and errors affecting the quality of your reasoning. A step-by-step approach to evaluate arguments is also included.
Because your main objective in addressing an issue is not to find the most effective action but to determine the most reasonable belief, your main task in refining an issue is to evaluate your argument to be sure that it is free of error. Two broad kinds of error must be considered. The first affects the truth of the argument’s premises or assertions. The second affects the argument’s validity—that is, the legitimacy of the reasoning by which the conclusion was reached. A sound argument is both true and valid.
Errors Affecting Truth
Errors affecting truth are found by testing the accuracy of the premises and the conclusion as individual statements. The first and most common error in this category is simple factual inaccuracy. If we have investigated the issue properly and have taken care to verify our evidence whenever possible, such errors should not be present. We will therefore limit our consideration to the more subtle and common errors:
· Either/or thinking
· Avoiding the issue
· Overgeneralizing
· Oversimplifying
· Double standard
· Shifting the burden of proof
· Irrational appeal
Either/Or Thinking
This error consists of believing that only two choices are possible in situations in which there are actually more than two choices. A common example of either/or thinking occurs in the creationism-versus-evolution debate. Both sides are often guilty of the error. “The biblical story of creation and scientific evolution cannot both be right,” they say. “It must be either one or the other.” They are mistaken. There is a third possibility: that there is a God who created everything but did so through evolution. Whether this position is the best one may, of course, be disputed. But it is an error to ignore its existence.
Either/or thinking undoubtedly occurs because, in controversy, the spotlight is usually on the most obvious positions, those most clearly in conflict. Any other position, especially a subtle one, is ignored. Such thinking is best overcome by conscientiously searching out all possible views before choosing one. If you find either/or thinking in your position on an issue, ask yourself, “Why must it be one view or the other? Why not both or neither?”
Avoiding the Issue
The attorney was just beginning to try the case in court when her associate learned that their key witness had changed his mind about testifying. The associate handed the attorney this note: “Have no case. Abuse the other side.” That is the form avoiding the issue often takes: deliberately attacking the person with the opposing view i ...
Anger and lack of freedom share the same rootsJuan Hernández
- The document discusses the roots of anger and lack of freedom in believing that reality is absolute and that others should follow one's schemes. It introduces the concept of "freedom meditation" as a way to become aware of judgments of others and release them from one's expectations in order to reduce anger and feel free.
- Freedom meditation involves noticing automatic thoughts that judge others and using mantras or visualization to dissolve those thoughts, gradually releasing others from one's schemes and expectations. This allows one to then release oneself from external expectations through a similar process.
- Practicing this awareness and dissolution of judgments can help transform one's view of reality from absolute to relative and increase relaxation and freedom.
This document provides instruction and examples for students on how to make and defend a stand on issues. It discusses key concepts like facts versus opinions and how to publicly assert one's views. Students are given scenarios to choose a side, such as whether face-to-face or online classes are better during the pandemic. The document emphasizes preparing arguments, backing claims with data, respecting others' views, and developing strong convictions.
Assertive communication involves clearly stating needs, feelings, and wants without violating others. It is contrasted with aggressive communication, which asserts oneself at the expense of others, and passive communication, which withholds needs.
The document provides strategies for assertive communication, including acknowledging constructive criticism, sorting out non-constructive criticism, using "broken record" repetition to make your position clear, slowing down conversations, stating your position, active listening, compromise, and saying no while sharing negative feelings. It emphasizes replacing passive and aggressive habits with lifelong assertive skills.
This document discusses logical fallacies and how to identify them. It defines and provides examples of common fallacies such as hasty generalization, missing the point, post hoc, slippery slope, weak analogy, appeal to authority, ad populum, ad hominem, appeal to pity, appeal to ignorance, straw man, red herring, false dichotomy, begging the question, and equivocation. It encourages readers to ask questions to determine if an argument relies on one of these fallacious techniques rather than sound logic.
PROS AND CONS OF 53 CONTROVERSIAL ISSUESEDUCATION1. College .docxamrit47
PROS AND CONS OF 53 CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES
EDUCATION
1. College Education
2. D.A.R.E.
3. School Uniforms
4. Standardized Tests
5. Tablets vs. Textbooks
6. Teacher Tenure
ELECTIONS & PRESIDENTS
7. 2008 Presidential Election
8. 2012 Presidential Election
9. 2014 Santa Monica Local Elections
10. Bill Clinton
11. Felon Voting
12. Ronald Reagan
13. Voting Machines
HEALTH & MEDICINE
14. Abortion
15. Euthanasia
16. Medical Marijuana
17. Milk
18. Obamacare / Health Care Laws
19. Obesity
20. Prescription Drug Ads to Consumers
21. Right to Health Care
22. Vaccines for Kids
23. Vegetarianism
MEDIA & ENTERTAINMENT
24. Social Networking
25. Video Games and Violence
MONEY & BUSINESS
26. Big Three Auto Bailout
27. Corporate Tax Rate & Jobs
28. Gold Standard
29. Insider Trading by Congress
POLITICS
30. ACLU
31. Concealed Handguns
32. Death Penalty
33. Drinking Age
34. Gun Control
35. Illegal Immigration
36. Social Security Privatization
37. WTC Muslim Center
RELIGION
38. Churches and Taxes
39. Under God in the Pledge
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
40. Alternative Energy vs. Fossil Fuels
41. Animal Testing
42. Cell Phones
43. Climate Change
SEX & GENDER
44. Born Gay? Origins of Sexual Orientation
45. Gay Marriage
46. Prostitution
SPORTS
47. College Football Playoffs
48. Drug Use in Sports
49. Golf - Is It a Sport?
WORLD / INTERNATIONAL
50. Cuba Embargo
51. Drones
52. Israeli-Palestinian Conflict
53. US-Iraq War
NEWEST CONTENT
Should the Palestinian Authority Continue to Receive Aid from the United States?
Should Israel Continue to Receive Aid from the United States?
More than eight in ten registered voters in Florida, Ohio, and Pennsylvania support legal medical marijuana
Episcopal Church Votes to Allow Same-Sex Weddings
Death Row Inmates, 1953-2013
State Constitutional Right to Bear Arms
Supreme Court Upholds Use of Execution Drug Midazolam
US Supreme Court Makes Gay Marriage Legal in All 50 US States
Supreme Court Rules 6-3 in Favor of Federal Obamacare Subsidies
Top Pro & Con Quotes: Should More Gun Control Laws Be Enacted in the United States?
Leading Causes of Suicide, Homicide, Unintentional Death, and All Death, 1999-2013
Judge Formally Sentences Boston Marathon Bomber to Death
Federal Government Removes Obstacle to Marijuana Research
US Gun Deaths, 1999-2013
International Civilian Gun Ownership Rates
International Firearm Homicide Rates
Average American Gun Owner
NEW ProCon.org Website - "Should More Gun Control Laws Be Enacted in the United States?"
31 States with the Death Penalty and 19 States with Death Penalty Bans
Nebraska Legislature Abolishes the Death Penalty
Ireland Becomes First Country to Legalize Gay Marriage by Popular Vote
How Much International Aid Does Israel Receive?
How Much International Aid Do the Palestinian Territories Receive?
ProCon.org, America's Most Popular Resource for the Pros and Cons of Issues, Expands to Serve More than 6,000 Schools
Boston Marathon Bomber Gets the Death Penalty
What Are the Official Pos ...
The document describes a fictional scenario in the year 2058 where an alien spacecraft crashes on Earth and is recovered by scientists. Upon cracking encrypted metal databases found on the spacecraft, the scientists discover blueprints containing technology that is far more advanced than anything on Earth, including designs for invisibility cloaks, anti-gravity machines, and warp drive spaceships. The discovery of this alien technology has the potential to forever change human civilization and advancement.
This document provides information about hoarding and squalor for families and carers. It discusses what hoarding and squalor are, why people hoard, common impacts on families, and strategies for supporting a loved one. The agenda includes defining key terms, exploring causes and impacts of hoarding behavior, and discussing ways to assist someone with hoarding through counseling, cleaning services, harm reduction techniques, and caring for oneself as a family member.
Brendacervantes com104 Standing up for your point brenda Cervantes
This document discusses various types of conflicts and strategies for dealing with conflicts and arguments in relationships. It describes simple conflicts, pseudo conflicts, and ego conflicts. Negative strategies for relationship arguments include unresolved issues, bringing up sensitive past issues, and poor timing. Behavioral approaches to conflict include aggression, nonassertiveness, and assertion. The document also provides tips for arguing in a relationship in a healthy way, such as taking time to calm down if heated, addressing one issue at a time, avoiding personal attacks, making up after a fight, and not threatening divorce.
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The document provides information on assertiveness and conflict management techniques. It defines assertiveness as expressing personal rights and feelings. It discusses the importance of being assertive and the consequences of lacking assertiveness. Assertiveness training is presented as a way to increase assertive behaviors and decrease passive or aggressive behaviors. Assertiveness training involves developing non-verbal communication skills, recognizing personal rights, expressing feelings and needs, practicing responses, and learning to say no. The document also discusses what conflict is and provides several ways to manage conflict, such as staying calm, listening to other perspectives, brainstorming solutions, and seeking help from mediation services.
The document provides instructions for creating an account and submitting assignment requests on the HelpWriting.net website. It involves a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete a form with assignment details and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one. 4) Receive the paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions until fully satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarism.
The document discusses the importance of critical thinking and developing good thinking skills. It aims to enable students to understand what thinking is, reflect on classes, develop the habit of learning through critical thinking, and understand why regular thinking and critically evaluating situations is important for becoming a leader. It defines thinking and covers concept formation, problem solving, learning, memory, and more. It explains that understanding human life involves understanding thinking, as thinking allows us to make sense of the world. Everything we know, believe, want, fear, and hope for is determined by our thinking.
ENGLISH-5-Q3-MakeAStand.pptx make a stand To publicly assert one's opinion or...MyleneStoTomas
1) The document discusses making a stand and differentiating between facts and opinions. It provides examples of facts from an article about gossipmongers and asks the reader to identify which statements are facts and which are opinions.
2) The reader is asked to choose a picture about garbage or bullying and write a paragraph explaining their stand on the issue.
3) The document asks questions to assess the reader's understanding of making a stand and defending their beliefs. It also provides hypothetical situations and asks the reader to choose an option for how they would make a stand.
Why are we doing this again1) Generally speaking,.docxphilipnelson29183
This document discusses reasoning and fallacies. It begins by stating that the purpose of the class is to make students better at reasoning by learning to recognize fallacies. It then provides examples of different types of fallacies, such as hasty generalization, generalization from exceptional cases, slippery slopes, false causes, appeals to authority and popularity, and irrelevant conclusions. It also discusses factors that can influence credibility, such as expertise, bias, prior knowledge, plausibility, interested vs disinterested parties, and media sources. Throughout, it gives examples to illustrate each fallacy and concept.
Principles and Radical Transparency - Lessons Learned from Ray DalioAndré Faria Gomes
Ray Dalio is the founder of Bridgewater Associates, one of the largest hedge funds. The document discusses several tools and principles used at Bridgewater to promote transparency, meritocracy, and continuous learning. These include things like collecting employee feedback via "baseball cards", using an "issue log" to document mistakes, and creating daily updates and metrics to monitor performance and progress. The overall aim is to establish systems and processes to evaluate work objectively and ensure everyone is accountable for improving themselves and the organization.
1. The document discusses logical fallacies and different types of relevance fallacies. It defines a fallacy as an error in reasoning and explains that relevance fallacies involve premises that are logically irrelevant to the conclusion.
2. The document outlines several types of relevance fallacies, including red herrings, false dilemmas, circular reasoning, appeals to emotion like fear and pity, irrelevant conclusions, wishful thinking, and denial.
3. Examples are provided for each type of fallacy to illustrate how the reasoning is flawed. Readers are encouraged to learn about logical fallacies to strengthen their own arguments and identify poor reasoning in the arguments of others.
at least 2 references in each peer responses! I noticed .docxcockekeshia
at least 2 references in each peer responses!
I noticed that there are many proposed policies on the agenda that are related to healthcare. Some of them are specific to the nursing practice. This creates the opportunity for the nurse to advocate for policies that impact nursing and healthcare directly by providing first-hand accounts and professional opinions supported by research. Nurses have insight on issues, such as patient safety and satisfaction, health disparities, access to care, and promoting positive outcomes (Abood, 2016).
The problem is that some nurses are unable to navigate through the politics of regulation and policy (Abood, 2016). This can create a challenge and become discouraging for nurses looking to make an impact or promote an agenda (Abood, 2016). Nurses can overcome this difficulty by participating in internships and workshops that provide the opportunity for a nurse to learn about the legislative process and the current issues being discussed (Abood, 2016). Understanding the political process is an essential method for effectively advocate for an issue. Nurses have to learn to play the game to promote change or obtain the scarcely rationed funding available.
According to Milstead and Short (2019), key opportunities to advocate for policy lies in knowledge and perception. Being knowledgeable on an issue can increase your influence as an advocate. Perception is a significant key in politics. Being perceived as a valuable collaborator or obtaining the support of a mentor that is respected can help push your agenda (Milstead & Short, 2019). Networking plays a significant role in politics. being introduced respected mentor or partner can help a nurse gain influence with rallying for support of a proposed agenda (Milstead & Short, 2019).
Probably the most significant opportunity for a nurse to advocate for a policy comes with becoming a member of a nursing association. Nurses associations like the American Nurses Association (ANA) are set up with the mission of influencing policy and advocating for the nurses and patients (ANA, 2019). The strength lies in numbers with the nursing association. Many of these organizations have built relationships with politicians and political parties to gain influence to support their agendas. For example, the ANA tends to favor and support democratic candidates (Milstead & Short, 2019). Nurses associations have enough members to get the attention of lawmakers. However, the nurse still has to task of advocating within the association to gain support from its members.
.
At least 2 pages longMarilyn Lysohir, an internationally celebra.docxcockekeshia
At least 2 pages long
Marilyn Lysohir, an internationally celebrated ceramic artist, started Cowgirl Chocolates to provide some funding support for a yearly published arts magazine, High Ground, that she and her husband, Ross Coates, started in 1995. Her love of chocolates and hot and spicy foods spurred the idea of making hot and spicy chocolates to be sold in creative, artistic tins and packaging, which she labeled Cowgirl Chocolates. Her small business, begun in 1997, had won a number of awards in fiery food competitions. While Cowgirl Chocolates had grown steadily over its four years in business, it still had only generated $30,000 in sales revenue in 2000, which was not enough to cover expenses. Marilyn had drained much of her personal savings to keep Cowgirl Chocolates in business. Her cash accounting methods and record keeping were not very sophisticated although she seemed to have a good sense of her costs in production and raw materials and the packaging. However, Marilyn had taken a shotgun approach to most of her marketing efforts and had tried a number of activities to increase product demand. She allowed herself to make one risky financial move each year in her pursuit of profitability and increased sales. She had just made her one risky move for year 2001: She had taken out a full-page ad in Chile Pepper magazine for $3,000.
Questions
1. The suggested retail price and wholesale prices of Cowgirl Chocolates products are displayed in Exhibit 2 (p. 491) along with the product and packaging costs. Based on this information, discuss the relative merits of using a cost-based, demand-based, and competition-based pricing method. (50 points)
2. What are four (4) options that Cowgirl Chocolates may consider as far as pricing? What would you recommend? (50 points)
.
At least 2 citations. APA 7TH EditionResponse 1. TITop.docxcockekeshia
At least 2 citations. APA 7TH Edition
Response 1. TI
Top of Form
Dr. Joubert and colleagues, the study of leadership has developed, giving forth new theories and structures that explore the description of what it means to be a leader, and how to carry out the same effect. It would be pragmatic to note that one is not made a leader by a job title but through practical impact in. The situational theory is one such theory that can be effective in the medical field. This theory, often referred to as the Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership theory, suggests that no single leadership theory style is the best. However, Researchers and developers of leadership theories have not agreed on the leadership theories (Duggan et al., 2015)
.
Nursing leadership is a multidimensional concept. The nursing profession involves role model leaders that can transform their environment and leading their teams to succeed by overcoming obstacles. Situational leadership requires the leader to transform their leadership style to meet the followers' leadership needs (Marshall & Broome, 2017). Developing a single satisfying leadership theory has become problematic due to these phenomena. Leadership style has a direct impact on the quality of care administered by the nurse team. The leadership style defines the quality of the relationship between the leader and the followers and sets the tone and mood of the work environment (Laureate Education, 2018).
Our director of nursing practice a contingency leadership style. Aware of the different dispositions on our team, she treats each nurse based on their abilities and needs. At times, she exercises Laissez-fair leadership, dictatorial, transformational, democratic, and other transformational styles. I was amazed by the approach. It helped to manage the team. For instance, the recalcitrant nurse received warnings, punishment for mistakes, and reward for an excellent performance. These restrained her actions and caused her to develop positive behaviors and care towards patients.
In Addition to the application of situational leadership style, she had leadership characteristics such as charisma, honesty, communication skills, creativity, innovativeness, decision-making, and integrity. Combination of the style and the qualities facilitated leading our team initiatives. to create a leader that we were all revered. According to Calderon-Mafud and Pando-Moreno (2018), organizations experience cultures of flexibility, social support, innovation, an also increased personal confidence, and openness to change. Furthermore, the implementation of an authentic leadership style mostly behaved as a middleman in the organization as it increased work productivity, helped implement staff engagement, and improving job satisfaction.
References
Calderon-Mafud, J. L., & Pando-Moreno, M. (2018). Role of authentic leadership in
organizational socialization and work engagement among workers.
Psychology
, 9, 46-62. doi:10.4236/psych.2018.91.
At each decision point, you should evaluate all options before selec.docxcockekeshia
At each decision point, you should evaluate all options before selecting your decision and moving throughout the exercise. Before you make your decision, make sure that you have researched each option and that you evaluate the decision that you will select. Be sure to research each option using the primary literature.
.
At an elevation of nearly four thousand metres above sea.docxcockekeshia
This document provides background information on Rosa, a 50-year-old Mam woman farmer living in the high-altitude province of Comitancillo in Guatemala. It describes how the Mam people have farmed terraced mountainsides for centuries, cultivating maize, beans and squash, but have faced challenges including forced labor on plantations and more recently, threats from a nearby gold mine expanding its operations. The summary introduces Rosa, describes the traditional Mam farming practices and challenges they have faced, and mentions the threat Rosa now faces from the expanding nearby gold mine.
At a minimum, your outline should include the followingIntroducti.docxcockekeshia
At a minimum, your outline should include the following:
Introduction
Identify the topic
What makes this a global ethical dilemma
Why we should care about this
Thesis statement
Rationale for one side of dilemma
Evidence based support #1 (reason and resource)
Evidence based support #2 (reason and resource)
Evidence based support #3 (reason and resource)
Rationale for the OTHER side of the dilemma (at least three points)
Evidence based support #1 (reason and resource)
Evidence based support #2 (reason and resource)
Evidence based support #3 (reason and resource)
Compare this issue in different countries
Identify country #1 and how they view/experience this issue
Identify country #2 and how they view/experience this issue
Identify country #3 and how they view/experience this issue
Conclusion
References
Compose your work in a .doc or .docx file
.
At least 500 wordsPay attention to the required length of these.docxcockekeshia
At least 500 words
Pay attention to the required length of these assignments. These assignments consist of reading a newspaper article about a designated region of the world--specific for each assignment--and writing an essay about it.
Primary sources are documents or other materials such as photographs, art work, coins, tapestries, etc. produced at the time period under consideration. https://library.uncw.edu/guides/finding_primary_sources is a website that gives information on what a primary source is and how historians [or anyone writing about history] use them. Look at the attached file for questions to ask of any source that you would consider a primary source.
For these newspaper article and extra credit assignments you are to find a substantive newspaper article [most newspapers are available online--it must be from a newspaper, not a website only or cablenews organization--NOT yahoonews, not cnn.com, not foxnews, not msnbc--only a published newspaper.] about the region designated for that assignment. If the article you choose is too short you will have trouble doing the assignment. Also, note that if an article is about birds, or insects or any non-human source that is not connected to humanity, it is not appropriate for this assignment. Any good newspaper article is based on sources, which historians would designate as primary sources. So an important part of these assignments is to identify the primary sources used by the author of the article you choose. Primary sources are the building blocks of history. You can think of them like eyewitness accounts or physical evidence produced at the time of an incident or crime being considered in a courtroom proceeding or trial. Without evidence a jury couldn’t make a fair decision in a case. In the same way, without primary sources, history cannot be written--and good newspaper articles cannot be written. So part of this assignment is asking you to decide if the reporter writing the article you select has actually used good primary sources. Does he or she have real evidence and enough of it to write the article? Does the reporter have a particular viewpoint or bias? Could you imagine the article being used as a primary source by a historian in the future for writing history about this time period? How useful would the document be and does it have any weaknesses or drawbacks as a piece of evidence? What else might a historian need, besides the article you are analyzing, to give a more complete or balanced discussion of the topic?
Your assignments will be graded on:
Formatting: 1 inch margins; your name, course number & assignment number [first, second or third] on top of first page. No other information is needed for a heading, and no repeat headers allowed. Following this formatting, cite the author(s) of the article, the title of the article, the name of the newspaper in which it appears [the title of the newspaper should be underlined] and the date of its publi.
At a generic level, innovation is a core business process concerned .docxcockekeshia
At a generic level, innovation is a core business process concerned with renewing what the
organization offers the world and the ways in which it creates and delivers that offering. And
to do this they all need to carry out these activities:
• Searching – scanning the environment (internal and external) for, and processing relevant signals about, threats and opportunities for change.
• Selecting – deciding (on the basis of a strategic view of how the enterprise can best
• develop) which of these signals to respond to
• Implementing – translating the potential in the trigger idea into something new and launching it in an internal or external market. Making this happen is not a single event but requires attention to:
Acquiring the knowledge resources to enable the innovation (for example, by creating something new through R&D, market research, etc., acquiring knowledge from elsewhere via technology transfer, strategic alliance, etc.).
Executing the project under conditions of uncertainty which require extensive problem-solving.
Launching the innovation and managing the process of initial adoption
Sustaining adoption and use in the long-term – or revisiting the original idea and modifying it – reinnovation.
Learning – enterprises have (but may not always take) the opportunity to learn from progressing through this cycle so that they can build their knowledge base and can improve the ways in which the process is managed.
But they differ widely in the ways in which this is done and the importance of different elements.
In this exercise pick a sector – e.g. food retailing, airlines, chemicals, public administration – and draw a map of their particular version of this process. How does it work out in practice? Where are they likely to need or to place most emphasis?
.
Asymmetric Cryptography•Description of each algorithm•Types•Encrypt.docxcockekeshia
Asymmetric Cryptography•Description of each algorithm•Types:•Encryption•Digital Signature•Hashing Function•Key Distribution•Strengths/weaknesses of each algorithm•Relevant examples of modern applications/industry that utilize each algorithm•Public Key Infrastructure•Define•Discuss the components•How is it used with asymmetric cryptography
.
Astronomy HWIn 250-300 words,What was Aristarchus idea of the.docxcockekeshia
Astronomy HW/
In 250-300 words,
What was Aristarchus idea of the phases of Venus, and at that time when he presented his information was it rejected/ was it a big issue/ or did the issue never come up?
This has to be 100% original. I will check for plagirium. Furthermore, when after answering you can put your own input on why was it a big issue, or why do you think the issue never came up when Aristarchus present the idea of the phases of Venus.
If you cite something/someone, you have to make a reference page. And do the cited in MLA format.
.
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I noticed that there are many proposed policies on the agenda that are related to healthcare. Some of them are specific to the nursing practice. This creates the opportunity for the nurse to advocate for policies that impact nursing and healthcare directly by providing first-hand accounts and professional opinions supported by research. Nurses have insight on issues, such as patient safety and satisfaction, health disparities, access to care, and promoting positive outcomes (Abood, 2016).
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.
At least 2 pages longMarilyn Lysohir, an internationally celebra.docxcockekeshia
At least 2 pages long
Marilyn Lysohir, an internationally celebrated ceramic artist, started Cowgirl Chocolates to provide some funding support for a yearly published arts magazine, High Ground, that she and her husband, Ross Coates, started in 1995. Her love of chocolates and hot and spicy foods spurred the idea of making hot and spicy chocolates to be sold in creative, artistic tins and packaging, which she labeled Cowgirl Chocolates. Her small business, begun in 1997, had won a number of awards in fiery food competitions. While Cowgirl Chocolates had grown steadily over its four years in business, it still had only generated $30,000 in sales revenue in 2000, which was not enough to cover expenses. Marilyn had drained much of her personal savings to keep Cowgirl Chocolates in business. Her cash accounting methods and record keeping were not very sophisticated although she seemed to have a good sense of her costs in production and raw materials and the packaging. However, Marilyn had taken a shotgun approach to most of her marketing efforts and had tried a number of activities to increase product demand. She allowed herself to make one risky financial move each year in her pursuit of profitability and increased sales. She had just made her one risky move for year 2001: She had taken out a full-page ad in Chile Pepper magazine for $3,000.
Questions
1. The suggested retail price and wholesale prices of Cowgirl Chocolates products are displayed in Exhibit 2 (p. 491) along with the product and packaging costs. Based on this information, discuss the relative merits of using a cost-based, demand-based, and competition-based pricing method. (50 points)
2. What are four (4) options that Cowgirl Chocolates may consider as far as pricing? What would you recommend? (50 points)
.
At least 2 citations. APA 7TH EditionResponse 1. TITop.docxcockekeshia
At least 2 citations. APA 7TH Edition
Response 1. TI
Top of Form
Dr. Joubert and colleagues, the study of leadership has developed, giving forth new theories and structures that explore the description of what it means to be a leader, and how to carry out the same effect. It would be pragmatic to note that one is not made a leader by a job title but through practical impact in. The situational theory is one such theory that can be effective in the medical field. This theory, often referred to as the Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership theory, suggests that no single leadership theory style is the best. However, Researchers and developers of leadership theories have not agreed on the leadership theories (Duggan et al., 2015)
.
Nursing leadership is a multidimensional concept. The nursing profession involves role model leaders that can transform their environment and leading their teams to succeed by overcoming obstacles. Situational leadership requires the leader to transform their leadership style to meet the followers' leadership needs (Marshall & Broome, 2017). Developing a single satisfying leadership theory has become problematic due to these phenomena. Leadership style has a direct impact on the quality of care administered by the nurse team. The leadership style defines the quality of the relationship between the leader and the followers and sets the tone and mood of the work environment (Laureate Education, 2018).
Our director of nursing practice a contingency leadership style. Aware of the different dispositions on our team, she treats each nurse based on their abilities and needs. At times, she exercises Laissez-fair leadership, dictatorial, transformational, democratic, and other transformational styles. I was amazed by the approach. It helped to manage the team. For instance, the recalcitrant nurse received warnings, punishment for mistakes, and reward for an excellent performance. These restrained her actions and caused her to develop positive behaviors and care towards patients.
In Addition to the application of situational leadership style, she had leadership characteristics such as charisma, honesty, communication skills, creativity, innovativeness, decision-making, and integrity. Combination of the style and the qualities facilitated leading our team initiatives. to create a leader that we were all revered. According to Calderon-Mafud and Pando-Moreno (2018), organizations experience cultures of flexibility, social support, innovation, an also increased personal confidence, and openness to change. Furthermore, the implementation of an authentic leadership style mostly behaved as a middleman in the organization as it increased work productivity, helped implement staff engagement, and improving job satisfaction.
References
Calderon-Mafud, J. L., & Pando-Moreno, M. (2018). Role of authentic leadership in
organizational socialization and work engagement among workers.
Psychology
, 9, 46-62. doi:10.4236/psych.2018.91.
At each decision point, you should evaluate all options before selec.docxcockekeshia
At each decision point, you should evaluate all options before selecting your decision and moving throughout the exercise. Before you make your decision, make sure that you have researched each option and that you evaluate the decision that you will select. Be sure to research each option using the primary literature.
.
At an elevation of nearly four thousand metres above sea.docxcockekeshia
This document provides background information on Rosa, a 50-year-old Mam woman farmer living in the high-altitude province of Comitancillo in Guatemala. It describes how the Mam people have farmed terraced mountainsides for centuries, cultivating maize, beans and squash, but have faced challenges including forced labor on plantations and more recently, threats from a nearby gold mine expanding its operations. The summary introduces Rosa, describes the traditional Mam farming practices and challenges they have faced, and mentions the threat Rosa now faces from the expanding nearby gold mine.
At a minimum, your outline should include the followingIntroducti.docxcockekeshia
At a minimum, your outline should include the following:
Introduction
Identify the topic
What makes this a global ethical dilemma
Why we should care about this
Thesis statement
Rationale for one side of dilemma
Evidence based support #1 (reason and resource)
Evidence based support #2 (reason and resource)
Evidence based support #3 (reason and resource)
Rationale for the OTHER side of the dilemma (at least three points)
Evidence based support #1 (reason and resource)
Evidence based support #2 (reason and resource)
Evidence based support #3 (reason and resource)
Compare this issue in different countries
Identify country #1 and how they view/experience this issue
Identify country #2 and how they view/experience this issue
Identify country #3 and how they view/experience this issue
Conclusion
References
Compose your work in a .doc or .docx file
.
At least 500 wordsPay attention to the required length of these.docxcockekeshia
At least 500 words
Pay attention to the required length of these assignments. These assignments consist of reading a newspaper article about a designated region of the world--specific for each assignment--and writing an essay about it.
Primary sources are documents or other materials such as photographs, art work, coins, tapestries, etc. produced at the time period under consideration. https://library.uncw.edu/guides/finding_primary_sources is a website that gives information on what a primary source is and how historians [or anyone writing about history] use them. Look at the attached file for questions to ask of any source that you would consider a primary source.
For these newspaper article and extra credit assignments you are to find a substantive newspaper article [most newspapers are available online--it must be from a newspaper, not a website only or cablenews organization--NOT yahoonews, not cnn.com, not foxnews, not msnbc--only a published newspaper.] about the region designated for that assignment. If the article you choose is too short you will have trouble doing the assignment. Also, note that if an article is about birds, or insects or any non-human source that is not connected to humanity, it is not appropriate for this assignment. Any good newspaper article is based on sources, which historians would designate as primary sources. So an important part of these assignments is to identify the primary sources used by the author of the article you choose. Primary sources are the building blocks of history. You can think of them like eyewitness accounts or physical evidence produced at the time of an incident or crime being considered in a courtroom proceeding or trial. Without evidence a jury couldn’t make a fair decision in a case. In the same way, without primary sources, history cannot be written--and good newspaper articles cannot be written. So part of this assignment is asking you to decide if the reporter writing the article you select has actually used good primary sources. Does he or she have real evidence and enough of it to write the article? Does the reporter have a particular viewpoint or bias? Could you imagine the article being used as a primary source by a historian in the future for writing history about this time period? How useful would the document be and does it have any weaknesses or drawbacks as a piece of evidence? What else might a historian need, besides the article you are analyzing, to give a more complete or balanced discussion of the topic?
Your assignments will be graded on:
Formatting: 1 inch margins; your name, course number & assignment number [first, second or third] on top of first page. No other information is needed for a heading, and no repeat headers allowed. Following this formatting, cite the author(s) of the article, the title of the article, the name of the newspaper in which it appears [the title of the newspaper should be underlined] and the date of its publi.
At a generic level, innovation is a core business process concerned .docxcockekeshia
At a generic level, innovation is a core business process concerned with renewing what the
organization offers the world and the ways in which it creates and delivers that offering. And
to do this they all need to carry out these activities:
• Searching – scanning the environment (internal and external) for, and processing relevant signals about, threats and opportunities for change.
• Selecting – deciding (on the basis of a strategic view of how the enterprise can best
• develop) which of these signals to respond to
• Implementing – translating the potential in the trigger idea into something new and launching it in an internal or external market. Making this happen is not a single event but requires attention to:
Acquiring the knowledge resources to enable the innovation (for example, by creating something new through R&D, market research, etc., acquiring knowledge from elsewhere via technology transfer, strategic alliance, etc.).
Executing the project under conditions of uncertainty which require extensive problem-solving.
Launching the innovation and managing the process of initial adoption
Sustaining adoption and use in the long-term – or revisiting the original idea and modifying it – reinnovation.
Learning – enterprises have (but may not always take) the opportunity to learn from progressing through this cycle so that they can build their knowledge base and can improve the ways in which the process is managed.
But they differ widely in the ways in which this is done and the importance of different elements.
In this exercise pick a sector – e.g. food retailing, airlines, chemicals, public administration – and draw a map of their particular version of this process. How does it work out in practice? Where are they likely to need or to place most emphasis?
.
Asymmetric Cryptography•Description of each algorithm•Types•Encrypt.docxcockekeshia
Asymmetric Cryptography•Description of each algorithm•Types:•Encryption•Digital Signature•Hashing Function•Key Distribution•Strengths/weaknesses of each algorithm•Relevant examples of modern applications/industry that utilize each algorithm•Public Key Infrastructure•Define•Discuss the components•How is it used with asymmetric cryptography
.
Astronomy HWIn 250-300 words,What was Aristarchus idea of the.docxcockekeshia
Astronomy HW/
In 250-300 words,
What was Aristarchus idea of the phases of Venus, and at that time when he presented his information was it rejected/ was it a big issue/ or did the issue never come up?
This has to be 100% original. I will check for plagirium. Furthermore, when after answering you can put your own input on why was it a big issue, or why do you think the issue never came up when Aristarchus present the idea of the phases of Venus.
If you cite something/someone, you have to make a reference page. And do the cited in MLA format.
.
Astronomy ASTA01The Sun and PlanetsDepartment of Physic.docxcockekeshia
Astronomy ASTA01:
The Sun and Planets
Department of Physical & Environmental Sciences,
UTSC
Fall 2018
Problem Set 3
DUE: Tuesday November 13, 2018
Where: Hand in your solutions in the mailbox marked for your tutorial,
on the 5th floor corridor of the Science Wing, near office SW506C in the
Physics & Astrophysics section.
Reminder: Write your name on your solutions. Also make sure you
carefully read the entire problem set policy that was distributed on
Quercus. It will help you avoid standard mistakes and score higher. We will
assume that you have read this policy document by the time you return your
solution.
How to write your solutions: Be precise and clear. Explain what you
are calculating. The method of calculation you adopt and your reasoning are
the most important. In case of a computational mistake, you will still get
credits if your method is right, so explain it clearly.
1
1. If the Solar System had formed right after the Big Bang, it would
have lacked oxygen (O), and therefore water (H2O). Using the solar
nebula theory, describe what would have been most different about
the planet formation process and the planets formed in this alternative
Solar System. [NO MORE than 15 sentences].
2. Halley’s comet is the only-naked eye comet that might appear twice in
a human lifetime (since it comes back every 76 years).
(a) Based on this comet’s orbital period, would you say that it is more
likely to have originated from the Kuiper belt or from the Oort
cloud? [A quantitative answer is expected to justify your choice]
(b) What other orbital feature, besides the comet’s orbital period,
could be used to distinguish its origin [NO MORE than 5 sen-
tences]
3. (a) Collect data on the mass and radius of Earth (made of rock) &
Jupiter (made of gas) and calculate the overall average density of
each planet, expressed in g/cm3.
(b) The density of water that we drink is about 1 g/cm3. Use your
everyday experience to describe the difference in density between
rock, air, and water. [State your answers in terms of “much
more/much less” or “a little more/a little less”].
(c) Is the mean density of Earth consistent with our everyday experi-
ence of similar composition material? What about Jupiter (same
question)?
(d) Propose a physical mechanism that might explain the discrepancy
between the mean density of a planet and the density of similar
composition material as we experience it in our everyday life.
4. Mean-motion resonances with Jupiter shape the Kirkwood gaps in the
main asteroid belt. A resonance written as “5:2” refers to the inner
body completing exactly 5 orbital revolutions when the outer body
completes exactly 2.
(a) Using Kepler law, find the orbital radius in AU of the following
important resonances for the Kirkwood gaps: 2:1, 3:1 and 5:2.
Compare your values to those shown in the diagram on Kirkwood
gaps in the class lectures (see lecture 12 slides).
(b) High-value mean-motion resonances, such as 2001:1000, are usu-
ally co.
Astronomers have been reflecting laser beams off the Moon since refl.docxcockekeshia
Astronomers have been reflecting laser beams off the Moon since reflectors were left there by Apollo astronauts. This has resulted in the conclusion that the Moon is moving away from the Earth at a rate of 3.8 cm per year. Discuss the specific cause of what is making the Moon recede, the likely end result for the Earth-Moon system, and what you think this might mean for life on Earth.
.
A strategic plan to inform emerging fashion retailers
about social media research and best practices.
2
Proposal Overview
Social media can take the form of various outlets, including, but not limited to: Instagram,
Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, YouTube, etc. Each social media platform has its specific use and
benefits, with a wide range of active users. It is important to note that successful retailers are
using these online strategies to penetrate new markets, to champion for social media
movements, and to effectively develop connections with consumers.
In this social media blueprint, we suggest using Instagram as our company’s main social media
platform. Our primary research examines H&M, Topshop, and Uniqlo’s Instagram accounts and
revealed the importance of using models, creating effective hashtags, and providing customer
service. The secondary research presents the best practices of social media and how the public
and specific individuals view social media. To conclude the proposal, we will provide a
comprehensive strategy that includes a detailed plan with suggestions for a stellar social media
presence.
Primary Research Summary & Key Takeaways
We have compiled the following key takeaways using Instagram. Our primary research includes
a variety of retailers who specialize in different products and promote to diverse markets.
These three key findings will provide an all-encompassing approach which will ultimately tie
into our strategic recommendations going forward.
#1: Using models to showcase the retailer's products increases follower satisfactions. Each one
of our retailers uses this form of posting. The following three pictures are example images used
by retailers to promote their products through outfit modeling. Our retailers provide
consumers with the option to directly purchase clothing, accessories, and shoes via online
portals. These types of posts provide followers with a visualization of how the products will look
once worn, which is part of the purchasing decision many consumers take into account. In
addition, these types of images also provide outfit inspirations when consumers are in need of
assistance with outfit coordination.
(Uniqlo) (H&M) (Topshop)
3
#2: The use of hashtags connects posts to a broader conversation and trend. Our retailers use
various hashtags that either connected their post to an on-going product line, style, event, or
motto and “catchphrase”. For example, Uniqlo wants to be known for their fashionable, yet
simple clothing. Their hashtag, #simplemadebetter, allows Uniqlo to actively promote the
company’s business strategy of revamping basic clothing to make it ‘better’ quality and more
fashion forward. London Fashion Week is one of the most prominent events in the fashion
industry, known to set the latest fashion trends. The #LFW (London Fashion Week) establishes
Topshop as a brand that is compatible against the haute couture f.
Asthma, Sleep, and Sun-SafetyPercentage of High School S.docxcockekeshia
Asthma, Sleep, and Sun-Safety
Percentage of High School Students Who Had Ever Been Told by a Doctor or Nurse That They Had Asthma, by Sex, Grade, and Race/Ethnicity,* 2017
*B > H, B > W (Based on t-test analysis, p < 0.05.)
All Hispanic students are included in the Hispanic category. All other races are non-Hispanic.
Note: This graph contains weighted results.
National Youth Risk Behavior Survey, 2017
Data for this slide are from the National Youth Risk Behavior Survey. This slide shows percentages of high school students who had ever been told by a doctor or nurse that they had asthma.
The percentage for all students is 22.5. The percentage for Male students is 22.4. The percentage for Female students is 22.5. The percentage for 9th grade students is 22.9. The percentage for 10th grade students is 22.9. The percentage for 11th grade students is 21.2. The percentage for 12th grade students is 23.0. The percentage for Black students is 29.8. The percentage for Hispanic students is 21.1. The percentage for White students is 20.9. All Hispanic students are included in the Hispanic category. All other races are non-Hispanic. Note: This graph contains weighted results.
For this behavior, the prevalence for Black students is higher than for Hispanic students. The prevalence for Black students is higher than for White students. (Based on t-test analysis, p < 0.05.)
2
Series 1
Total Male Female 9th 10th 11th 12th Black Hispanic White 22.5 22.4 22.5 22.9 22.9 21.2 23 29.8 21.1 20.9
Percent
Range and Median Percentage of High School Students Who Had Ever Been Told by a Doctor or Nurse That They Had Asthma, Across 29 States and 20 Cities, 2017
State and Local Youth Risk Behavior Surveys, 2017
These are results from the state and local Youth Risk Behavior Surveys, 2017. This slide shows the range and median percentages of 29 states and 20 cities for high school students who had ever been told by a doctor or nurse that they had asthma.
The range across states was 19.3% to 33.4%. The median across states was 24.3%. The range across cites was 17.4% to 33.4%. The median across cities was 23.9%.
3
Min
States Cities 19.3 17.399999999999999 Max
States Cities 33.4 33.4 Med
States Cities 24.3 23.9
Percent
No Data
19.3% - 21.6%
21.7% - 24.2%
24.3% - 25.9%
26.0% - 33.4%
Percentage of High School Students Who Had Ever Been Told by a Doctor or Nurse That They Had Asthma
State Youth Risk Behavior Surveys, 2017
This slide shows the percentage of students who had ever been told by a doctor or nurse that they had asthma, 2017. The values range from 19.3% to 33.4%. Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Virginia, Wisconsin, range from 19.3% to 21.6%. California, Florida, Illinois, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, West Virginia, range from 21.7% to 24.2%. Delaware, New York, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, range from 24.3%.
Assumption-Busting1. What assumption do you have that is in s.docxcockekeshia
Assumption-Busting
1. What assumption do you have that is in some way limiting? Please be specific.
2. What is the exact opposite of that assumption?
3. How can you start acting differently, based on the fact that the opposite of your assumption is true? Be specific.
Idea Presentation Form
1. Describe the idea in two-three sentences or bullets.
2. What need or desire does your idea address?
3. For whom is the idea intended (men age 45-50, punk rock fans in Philadelphia…)?
4. How is your idea better than other solutions that exist to address this need or desire?
.
Assuming you have the results of the Business Impact Analysis and ri.docxcockekeshia
Assuming you have the results of the Business Impact Analysis and risk assessment in hand, discuss in detail steps in selecting a strategy. Reference one additional article, in addition to the textbook itself.
Format: Times 12, 1 inch margin, minimum of 2.5 pages double spaced (not counting references and other information such as your name, etc.)
The attached content supports to navigate towards the core objectives of completing this paper
Text book :
Title:
The Disaster Recovery Handbook
Subtitle: **PLEASE SEE BOOKSTORE LINK BELOW TO PURCHASE REQUIRED MATERIALS
Authors: Michael WALLACE, Lawrence WEBBER
Publisher: AMACOM
Publication Date: 2017-12-28
.
Assuming you are hired by a corporation to assess the market potenti.docxcockekeshia
Assuming you are hired by a corporation to assess the market potential of a foreign country for their products.
Demographic Environment
1)
Population
2)
Gender Breakdown
3)
Life Expectancy
4)
Language
5)
Education
Cultural Environment
1)
Religion
2)
Lifestyle (segments by age)
3)
Values
4)
Customs
5)
Holidays
6)
Colors and Music (National Flag and Anthem)
.
Assuming that you are in your chosen criminal justice professi.docxcockekeshia
Assuming that you are in your chosen criminal justice profession, e.g. law enforcement officer, probation officer, or criminal investigator, examine the Fourth and Fifth Amendments and discuss the steps you would take to ensure that actions do not violate the citizen’s Fourth and Fifth Amendment rights.
.
assuming that Nietzsche is correct that conventional morality is aga.docxcockekeshia
assuming that Nietzsche is correct that conventional morality is against our natural expression of passions, argue a case that suggests that while he is correct, the truth is that people must be restricted in their natural expression,
which moral statements clearly recognize dangerous natural inclinations and restrict them?
what benefits do these restrictions provide to the individual as well as to society as a whole?
how might Nietzsche react to your argument?
.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdf
Week 4 Fallacies, Biases, and RhetoricJust as it is important t.docx
1. Week 4: Fallacies, Biases, and Rhetoric
Just as it is important to find truth it is equally important to
learn to avoid error. It is analogous to playing defense. The
main way that we play defense in logic is by guarding against
fallacies and biases. Fallacies are common forms of inference
that are not good; they do not adequately support their
conclusions. The best way to learn to avoid them is to learn to
identify them so that you will see when they are occurring.
Since there are literally hundreds of fallacies, we will only have
time to discuss a small few. However, we will focus on some of
the most common, and readers can go on to learn more, both
from our book as well as other online resources. Here is a brief
summary of a few of the most important and most common
(these are explained in much greater detail in the book, and
there are many more fallacies addressed in the book, so make
sure to reach Chapter 7 before doing the activities of the week).
This week's guidance will cover the following topics:
1. Begging the Question
2. The Straw Man Fallacy
3. The Ad Hominem Fallacy
4. The Appeal to Popular Opinion
5. The Appeal to Emotion
6. Other Fallacies
7. Cognitive Biases
8. Argumentative Devices
9. Things to Do This Week
Begging the Question
Possibly the most commonly committed fallacy is Begging the
Question (by assuming a main point at issue). Here is a nice
explanation:
Circular reasoning is an extreme version of begging the
question in which a premise is identical to the conclusion.
Here are some examples of each:
2. 1. Don’t listen to that candidate; he’s untrustworthy.
2. You shouldn’t bet on that horse; it’s going to lose.
3. Don’t buy a Mac since PCs are better.
4. Marijuana should not be legalized because that would be
disastrous.
5. You should join my religion because it’s the true one.
6. That food is bad for you because it is unhealthy.How to
Avoid Begging the Question
In order to avoid this fallacy it is necessary to use premises that
do not assume the point at issue, but rather that are based in
principles and observations upon which both parties could in
principle agree.
Can you think of ways to fix each of the above arguments?
What premises could you add to make the arguments, not only
substantive, but also to support their conclusions in ways that
are likely to be acceptable to someone who doesn’t already
agree?An Example of Avoiding Begging the Question by
Creating a Supporting Argument
Suppose you want to say why abortion is wrong, and you use
the premise that abortion kills a human being. This argument
simply assumes that a human fetus is a human being, which is a
major point at issue. One way that you might seek to get out of
this problem is to come up with a supporting argument for that
premise. That is, you might construct a piece of reasoning
intending to demonstrate to the other parties why a fetus should
count as a human being.
To do this without begging the question will be difficult, but it
typically will involve appealing to a definition of what counts
as a human being. Once you are done the argument might look
as follows:
Premise 1: By definition, a human being is a living organism of
the human species.
Premise 2: A human fetus is a living organism from conception.
Premise 3: A human fetus is of the human species.
Conclusion: Therefore a human fetus is a human being from
conception.
3. Providing a supporting argument is a way to support a premise
rather than merely asserting it. This particular argument may or
may not be persuasive to the other party (the central question
may not be simply the entity’s species but the stage at which it
begins to have rights), but at least it is a sincere effort to
demonstrate the reasoning for one’s side in a way that attempts
to start on neutral ground, without simply assuming one answer
to the question.
Learning not to beg the question can be a lifelong battle, but
one which, by attempting, you will find yourself to be not only
more intelligent, but also more fair minded.
The Straw Man Fallacy
One of the most challenging things to do when confronting
positions that are strongly contrary to one’s own is to learn to
represent the other side’s position fairly. This means actually
learning their side and then representing it well. We often find
it so much easier simply to make fun of the other side’s position
by making it sound ridiculous; however, to do so is to commit
the straw man fallacy.Intentional or Unintentional? It’s bad
either way
As the video mentions, people commit the straw man fallacy
either intentionally or unintentionally. Either case is bad. If
someone commits it unintentionally, it is generally because they
don’t fully understand the other side’s position. It is not
possible to come to a good conclusion about an issue if you
don’t properly understand the other position. Committing the
straw man in this way might fool people who also don’t
understand the other side, but to those on the other side, it just
reveals one’s ignorance.
The case is worse if someone commits the straw man
intentionally. This would mean that one perhaps knows that
one’s argument cannot stand up to the real opposing arguments,
so one is trying to fool one’s audience by putting one’s
argument against a weakened or absurd version of that side’s
views. This approach demonstrates a kind of dishonesty in
4. reasoning and is not part of how a mature critical thinker would
advocate for a position.
Furthermore, people with the other view often find it
unintelligent or even offensive to hear someone misrepresent
their views. Have you ever heard your views misrepresented? It
can be rather irking, and it does not lead to high respect for the
person who does so. This can be particularly troubling in
controversial arenas like religion, politics, and personal
relationships.
Here are some more examples of possible straw man fallacies
that might occur in daily life:
1. You never want to have any fun (in response to the lack of
interest in going to one party)
2. You think I should spend my whole life studying (in response
to parents asking him to finish his homework before going out)
3. Republicans don’t care about poor people
4. Democrats want the government to control everything
5. Israel just wants to wipe Palestine off the map
6. Palestine just wants to wipe Israel off the map
7. Vegetarians want us all to live on salad
8. Meat eaters don’t care how animals are treated
9. You hate my family (in response to expressing stress about a
visit)How to Avoid the Straw Man Fallacy
One of the great challenges of a sophisticated thinker is to
appreciate views that are contrary to one’s own. It may actually
be impossible to get there without learning to appreciate that
their views are not so dumb after all. The reason that otherwise
reasonable and decent people subscribe to a certain view is
usually not because they are all stupid or evil, but because they
have good reasons for those views. However, those reasons are
often complex and deeply rooted in their upbringing, their
religion, their sub-culture, their friends, their feelings, and their
personal experiences. Therefore, it is not easy to present views
in a convincing manner unless one can appreciate the depth and
breadth of the person’s point of view.
Gay marriage could be an example. Here are two straw man
5. versions of people’s views:
1. People oppose gay marriage just because they are
homophobic.
2. People who support gay marriage want to ruin the family.
Neither of those seems like a very fair representation of
people’s actual views and feelings. To understand those you
might have to do the following:
1. Actually listen to what people on the other side say. Read
high quality articles on both sides; listen to someone explain
their view without arguing back. Remember that they may not
yet have fully worked out their views themselves, so they may
require some thinking. Be patient and charitable.
2. Practice empathy; think about why someone might feel that
way and learn some of the experiences that led them to those
positions.
3. Repeat the process until it actually makes sense and until you
can explain their views to them without them objecting.
You can tell that you are on your way to overcoming this
fallacy when their views no longer seem offensive; you may
still not fully agree, but you can understand why a perfectly
intelligent person might come to such a view and you can
represent those views fairly to others.Exercise
See if you can fix the examples of the straw man above.
Actually write down what would be a more accurate
interpretation of what someone on that side of the issue
probably thinks. Writing them down will help you to develop
skills for writing more sophisticated interpretations in the
future.
The Ad Hominem Fallacy
It is important in life to focus on the issues at hand rather than
just the person arguing for the position. It is common, for
example, for people to pick sides of an issue based upon the
types of people that we like to hang around. We then dismiss
the views of others not because they are wrong but because we
object to the person him or herself. To do so would be to
6. commit the ad hominem fallacy. The ad hominem fallacy is a
dismissal of a person’s views simply because of who said the
view, not because of the merits of the arguments.
Here would be two examples (one on each side):
· Environmentalism is wrong because they are just a bunch of
dirty hippy tree huggers.
· You should support the environment because people who don’t
are heartless and greedy.
If we are to address the question of whether to support a
particular piece of environmental legislation we should
carefully look at the merits of the arguments on each side of the
issue, not simply take a global stance because of the types of
people that advocate either side.
One version of the ad hominem dismisses someone’s view
because he or she does not fully live up to that view. This
would be a more specific type of fallacy called tu quoque,
which is Latin for “you too!” The fact that Al Gore has a large
house, for example, has been used to dismiss his climate
advocacy as insincere or hypocritical. How he personally lives
does not change the merits of his arguments.The Difference
Between Ad Hominem Fallacy and Questioning an Appeal to
Authority
Sometimes the person giving an argument is relevant to the
strength of the argument. This is the case if the argument is an
appeal to authority. It is fully legitimate in such arguments to
call into question a source’s credibility; to fail to do so might
lead us to commit a fallacious appeal to inadequate authority.
The difference between a legitimate questioning of an authority
and an ad hominem fallacy, then, is largely about whether we
are dismissing someone’s views (and reasoning) because of who
said them or whether we are simply challenging the
trustworthiness of a source. Here is an example of each:
Legitimate: I do not trust the claims in that ad since it was
produced by the company that stands to make money from it.
Fallacious: We shouldn’t listen to his reasoning about this issue
because he has been to jail twice.
7. It is sometimes tricky to tell the difference, for example, if we
object to a speaker not having a degree in the subject matter.
Some subjects require vast amounts of knowledge (and perhaps
a degree), but often people can have good arguments even
without having majored in the field. Often the best way to tell
the difference is based on whether we are seeking to dismiss or
ignore their reasoning. To do so is generally fallacious. To
avoid this fallacy we should actually be more careful about
assessing the quality of their reasoning itself rather than just the
person giving that reasoning.Exercise
See if you can identify whether each of the following is
fallacious, and see if you can fix each one that is:
1. You have no right to tell me how to parent my kids, just look
at how yours turned out?
2. You say that climate change is real, but then, why do you do
drive a car?
3. Why should I trust your arguments about wearing seat belts;
you smoke!
4. I heard that politician’s speech, and he was loud and
obnoxious. I would not vote for him.
5. I wouldn’t listen to that study. The people who wrote it are
employees of the industry being studied.
6. I would not listen to chiropractors; they just make claims in
order to get your money.
The Appeal to Popular Opinion
The appeal to popular opinion (covered in the book) is more
common that one might think. Whether we realize it or not,
most of our views are formed by the culture in which we live.
Therefore, much of what we take to be true we have received
from the popular views of our society. It can even be very
difficult to think truly independently. The great philosopher
Immanuel Kant defined “enlightenment” as the ability to think
for one’s self; it can be a rare and even dangerous skill.
Here are some examples of appeals to popular opinion based on
things that are commonly taken to be true:
8. · “It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in
possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.”
(Austin, n.d.)
· One would have to be crazy to give all of one’s money to
famine relief; that is just too extreme.
· You should obviously take the job that will bring you the most
wealth and prestige. To drop out and live as a poor person is
very irresponsible.
The list could go on and on. Closely related to the appeal to
popular opinion is the appeal to tradition in which one reasons
that something is right because that is what people have
believed or done for generations. Though tradition is good in
many cases for building unity within a people, there are plenty
of cases in which there are good reasons to break from a
tradition or to modify it.Exercise
See if you can tell which of the following are fallacious appeals
to popular opinion and which are legitimate appeals to
authority:
1. I won’t buy a Ford; everyone says that they are unreliable.
2. Everyone eats meat, so it must be right.
3. 97% of climate scientists agree that global warming is real
(NASA, n.d.), so it is.
4. All physicists believe that Einstein was wrong about
Quantum Mechanics, so he was.
5. Hershey’s is by far the most popular candy bar, so it must be
the best.
6. Rotten Tomatoes (a movie reviewing site) has that movie at
95% approval, so I am going to see it.
The Appeal to Emotion
We all have emotions, and we are all deeply influenced by them
all of the time. It is not wrong or fallacious to care about one’s
emotions and to act in ways that are meant to make us happy.
The fallacy of appeal to emotion is to use emotion instead of or
in contradiction to careful reasoning.
If one buys a car partly because it will be fun to drive
9. (providing one can afford it), this is not necessarily fallacious.
However, if one buys a car because it will be fun even though it
is financially unwise, one has committed the fallacy.
It is not always easy, however, to know where our emotions end
and our reasoning begins. In the issue of capital punishment, for
example, we often feel that the person deserves to be killed for
certain heinous crimes. Is this feeling merely an emotion or is it
based in reason? These are sometimes difficult questions for
philosophers and ethicists.
Closely related is the appeal to pity, in which one argues that a
decision should be made out of the emotion of pity rather than
in reason.
There is a famous commercial for the ASPCA in which a song
by Sarah McClachan tears at one’s heartstrings while images of
dejected puppies in cages, etc. are shown. This is seen by many
as a blatant appeal to pity. It may, however, be a borderline
case. To the extent that the commercial informs viewers of
actual realities that happen to be very sad, it may not be
fallacious. Emotion in response to viewed suffering may not be
an instance of a fallacy but of compassion. However, if the
money given may not do much actually to relieve the suffering
of animals, but the commercial tugs on people’s emotions to
make them feel that they should give, then it would be.
Determining officially whether the commercial is fallacious,
therefore, may require doing actual research into the specifics
of ASPCA’s charitable practices.
Here are two more commercials to consider:
The appeal to fear is in the same category, but the emotion is
fear instead. Whether the appeal is fallacious is generally based
on whether the fear is rationally justified or not.Exercise
Try to make a reasoned determination about whether each of the
following constitutes an appeal to emotion or appeal to pity
fallacy:
1. Judge, you should let this guy have a short sentence, because
he has had a hard life.
2. You shouldn’t break up with me because I need you.
10. 3. You should give money to famine relief because children are
starving (pictures shown).
4. You should not fly in a plane because it could crash, and you
would die.
5. You should marry her because you love her, and you will be
happier.
6. Without this war, our country could be taken over by
terrorists.
7. He should get the death penalty because he is a monster.
Other Fallacies
There are many other fallacies that can be learned within
chapter 7 of the book, including the appeal to force, appeal to
ignorance, appeal to ridicule, biased sample, cherry picking,
equivocation, fallacy of accident, fallacy of composition,
fallacy of division, false cause, false dilemma, hasty
generalization, non sequitur, poisoning the well, red herring,
shifting the burden of proof, and the slippery slope.
Rather than focus on these fallacies in more detail, we instead
will take some time to go over the very common phenomenon of
cognitive biases. Here is a set of exercises to test your skills at
identifying fallacies:Exercise
Match the fallacy to the example (be aware that many examples
can be examples of more than one fallacy, however, one fallacy
is supposed to be dominant in each one):ExampleFallacy
1. “What you are doing is wrong because it isn’t right.”
a. Ad hominem
2. “I wore the red shirt and won; it must be lucky.”
b. Appeal to popular opinion
3. “You should catch your refrigerator because it’s running!”
c. Appeal to emotion/pity
4. “Both of my friends didn’t like the movie, so no one does.”
d. Appeal to fear
5. “You either agree with me or you are a bad person.”
e. Appeal to force
6. “Don’t listen to him; he’s a Cowboys fan.”
11. f. Appeal to ignorance/Shifting the burden of proof
7. “Speeding is bad, so don’t speed on the way to the emergency
room.”
g. Begging the question/Circular reasoning
8. “If we legalize marijuana, then soon we will have to legalize
heroin too.”
h. Biased sample/Hasty generalization
9. “John is going to talk to you; don’t believe a word he says.”
i. Equivocation
10. “Don’t buy that kind of soda or you will lose all of your
teeth.”
j. Fallacy of accident
11. “Don’t bet on that horse; everyone knows he will lose.”
k. Fallacy of composition/division
12. “I you don’t agree with me, you are fired!”
l. False cause
13. “Don’t buy that car because, well, hey, didn’t you like that
movie yesterday?”
m. False dilemma
14. “You should agree with me unless you can prove I am
wrong.”
n. Non sequitur/Red herring
15. “Each fish is light, so a net full of them should be light.”
o. Poisoning the well
16. “You should give me an A; my dog just died.”
p. Slippery slope
Cognitive Biases
We are not as rational as we might think. It turns out that all of
us are subject to certain tendencies to think of things in ways
that are not truly objective; we see things in ways that favor
maintaining certain beliefs and activities, for example, those
that are approved of by our social groups. A general term for
such biases that lead us away from pure objectivity is called
cognitive bias.
There are many specific types of cognitive bias. One of the
12. most famous and common is known as confirmation bias the
tendency to accept only that information that confirms what we
already believe. We tend only to notice, remember, and accept
only things that confirm our opinions. Studies have even shown
that when faced with contrary evidence to our cherish beliefs
we not only do not change our views we actually dig in and
become even more persuaded than before; this is known as the
backfire effect (Silverman, 2011).
The bandwagon effect is very similar to the appeal to popular
opinion except that it is not as much an inference as a tendency
to believe what other people do. Such views are socially
reinforced as we have all kinds of social incentives to agree
with our friends, family, and other associates. Examples
throughout history have shown that people are usually even
willing to go as far as to dismiss the rights of entire categories
of human beings if almost all others in their society do.
We also tend to be more aware of information that stands out to
us. Information that is emotionally charged or in someother way
noticeable is the type that we remember and focus on. This is
the phoneonenon of availability heuristic in which we take
much greater account of information that is more available to
our minds. This combined with the negativity bias in which
people have greater recall of negative memories than positive
ones may help explain so-called Murphy’s Law. Even if we tend
to hit normal amounts of red lights and long shopping lanes we
tend to remember the times in which everything goes wrong; we
therefore think of ourselves as victims of Murphy’s law when
we are really just susceptible to the availability
heuristic.Paradigms and Bias
Combine these things and what we get is a real resistance to
entertain views that are not our own and that are not shared by
our social groups. Politics would be a good example of this
phenomenon. We tend to listen to people whose views agree
with our own and we have whole paradigms (loosely defined as
the interwoven set of things that we believe) that are constantly
being reinforced against opposition.
13. What happens next is that when we encounter a contrasting view
especially about an emotionally charged topic we then have a
hard time fitting it into our own paradigms. As a result we can
see the view as ridiculous or unsupported. That is because we
don’t share the surrounding beliefs that help to explain why
they believe it.The Interconnected Webs of Belief
This diagram shows how difficult it can be to fully understand
what other people think. We can’t just understand just one
thing; we have to understand all of the other beliefs that
surround and support it, and all the beliefs that surround and
support those, etc. We have to understand a whole paradigm!
Expanding one’s points of view, can therefore be a lifelong
exercise in open minded exploration.Bias and the Media
People like to have their views confirmed and they especially
do not like to have them shot down. This is one of the reasons
that people tend to listen to media sources that support their
own points of view (McRaney, 2010). This can lead to deeper
levels of entrenchment when it comes to things like politics and
religion. Unfortunately these levels of entrenchment are part of
the source of deep political divides and can even harm close
relationships. Is there a solution to this problem?
Logic may be part of the solution by challenging us to see the
reasons for our differences of interpretation. Logic demands
that we do not misrepresent other views or dismiss them easily
by merely assuming that they are wrong because they don’t
agree with our own views.
One of the ways that the media can influence us is to tell us
how to interpret the information that is out there. The same
piece of information can be taken in totally different ways and
in ways that support opposite conclusions depending upon who
is telling us the information. This is a bias called the framing
effect. Our media source frames the information for us telling
us what it means and how to interpret it. Sometimes most of the
work in drawing conclusions from a piece of information is in
the interpretation. The same event for example in the Middle
14. East can be seen as verifying either democratic or republican
foreign policies depending upon who is explaining the event to
us. This supplies yet another reason to hear from multiple points
of view when it comes to any question. A common way to react
to views being presented to us that we do not like is to reject
their source as being biased. This is known as the hostile media
effect in which we consider a source to be biased because what
it presents is so contrary to our own views.
One way to try to avoid these types of biases is to seek out
media sources of high quality whose views are contrary to one’s
own. One can also open one’s mind to principles and
interpretations of facts from multiple perspectives. These types
of activities can lead one to become more fair minded as will be
discussed in the final week of this course.
Argumentative Devices
In addition to giving arguments there are many other techniques
that can really help to strengthen one’s presentation of an
argument. However, each can be misused as well. The book
explains a few examples of argumentative devices and how they
can be misused:
Evaluative language describes something in a positive or
negative way. For example we can call a smart person a genius
(positive) or a nerd (negative). Slanting is the trick of overusing
evaluative language or the use of evaluative language as a
substitute for actual arguments.
Assuring Terms use phrases like “I know,” “studies show,” and
“definitely” to indicate to our audience a high degree of
certainty that our claim is true. These tools are not necessarily
fallacious as there often are good reasons in support of our
claims even if we are not in a good position to give those
details at the moment. However this tool also can be abused as
when we use this tool as a substitute for good reasoning or
when there may not be an actual source as strong as our claim
that there is. There is even such a thing as an abusive assurance
when one gives an assurance that is designed to make people
15. feel stupid if they disagree. Examples of abusive assurances
include “obviously,” “everyone knows,” and “there is no
question.” Proof Surrogates occur when someone claims
authoritative support when that support may not exist. We
should be wary of falling for an assurance that implies that we
should not challenge the support for a claim.
Qualifiers (or guarding/hedging terms) weaken a claim so that it
is more likely to be true. Words like “most” (rather than “all”)
“some” (rather than “most”) “usually” (rather than “always”)
are used to make a claim much more plausible. The good news
is that sentences with guarding terms are much more likely to be
true than the stronger version. The bad news is that the claim is
not as strong. This can be a problem especially when the
sentence is being used as a premise but the guarding terms
makes it no longer strong enough to support the conclusion
adequately.
The mistake of overguarding a premise so that it no longer
adequately supports the conclusion is known as the disappearing
hedge (because guarding terms are called hedging terms and the
hedge in these cases seems to have disappeared by the time we
get to the conclusion. Qualifying a claim so much that it means
very little at all makes it a weasel word, as discussed in the
book.
Other rhetorical devices used in the book include Weasel words,
euphemisms and dysphemisms, proof surrogates, hyperbole, and
innuendo and paralipsis. Make sure to read chapter 8 to
understand these terms.An Example of Logical/Rhetorical
Analysis
While this may be hard to read, here is what an example of what
it can look like to circle and label the terms discussed in this
section in a newspaper article, and to notice the rhetorical
moves and logical tricks committed by things that we see every
day:
This helps demonstrate the ways in which these types of
analyses can be relevant to daily life. We can tear apart nearly
16. everything noticing the logical and rhetorical maneuvers, both
legitimate and otherwise! This kind of ability can be highly
useful in daily life!
Things to Do This Week
1. Read the required materials for the week, including this
guidance and chapters 7 & 8 from the textbook.
2. Watch the weekly intro video and all of the videos under the
“Lectures” tab for this week of the course and view all other
required materials.
3. Post a timely (initial post by day 3) and thorough response to
the first discussion forum as well as substantive replies to
peers. This discussion topic is up to your instructor. The
specific prompt will be posted by your instructor as the first
response in the discussion forum. Make sure to follow carefully
all elements of the discussion prompt.
4. Respond to the second discussion prompt as well (initial post
by day 3) as well as responses to peers. This discussion topic is
also up to your instructor.
5. Take the Quiz for the week (by day 7). It covers the central
concepts of the course as covered in the textbook, this guidance,
and the lecture videos for this week.
6. Post a response to the journal prompt as well. Make sure that
your response is at least one full page (double spaced) and that
you respond to all aspects of the instructions.
7. Start working on your final papers (due next week and 20%
of your grade). An early start will help you to succeed.
If you have any questions, make sure to let your instructor
know, either via email or in the Ask Your Instructor forum.
References
Austin, J. (n.d.). Pride and Prejudice. Retrieved from
https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1342/1342-h/1342-
h.htm#link2HCH0001 George Argento (2013). Love is a fallacy
[Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7_81fz6kUJI
17. Hardy, J. (2013).Arguments vs. explanations [HT1] [PDF file].
College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Ashford University, San
Diego, CA.
Konnikova, M. (2014, May 16). I don't want to be right. The
New Yorker. Retrieved from
http://www.newyorker.com/science/maria-konnikova/i-dont-
want-to-be-right
McRaney (2010). Confirmation bias. Retrieved from
http://youarenotsosmart.com/2010/06/23/confirmation-bias/
Mobil (1992, August 27). Currents of change. The New York
Times.
NASA (n.d.). Consensus 97% of climate scientists agree.
Retrieved from http://climate.nasa.gov/scientific-consensus/
PBS Idea Chanel (2014). The ad hominem fallacy | Idea Channel
| PBS Digital Studios [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IVFK8sVdJNg
PBS Idea Channel (2014). The strawman fallacy | idea channel |
PBS digital [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cGZkCPo7tC0
Philosophy Tube (2014). Begging the question – the gentleman
thinker [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OAXKc-rvMa8
Silverman (2011). The backfire effect: More on the press’s
inability to debunk bad information. Retrieved
fromhttp://www.cjr.org/behind_the_news/the_backfire_effect.ph
p?page=all
Woolbob96’s channel (2013). Commercial appeal to
emotion.wmv [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RwhzbzZSAYg
Just for fun, if you've got a little time (warning: this video uses
some of the old Latin fallacy names):
Fallacies and Biases #2
Discussion Title
18. Prior to posting in this discussion, completeThe Parking Garage
interactive scenario. As you work through the scenario, stop to
consider the reasons why you make the choices you do and the
degree to which those reasons provide a good basis for your
choice. Note any biases and assumptions that may occur to you,
and keep this in mind as you complete this discussion.
Your instructor will choose the discussion question and post it
as the first post in the discussion forum. The requirements for
the discussion this week are a minimum of four posts on four
separate days, including responses to at least two classmates..
The total combined word count for all of your posts for this
discussion, counted together, should be at least 600 words.
Answer all the questions in the prompt, and read any resources
that are required to complete the discussion properly.
In order to satisfy the posting requirements for the week,
complete your initial post by Day 3 (Thursday) and your other
posts by Day 7 (Monday). We recommend that you get into the
discussion early and spread out your posts over the course of
the week. Reply to your classmates and instructor. Attempt to
take the conversation further by examining their claims or
arguments in more depth or responding to the posts that they
make to you. Keep the discussion on target, and analyze things
in as much detail as you can.
19. Media & Bias
Instructor Paik
2/16/2017 4:32:33 PM
Modified:2/19/2017 1:57 PM
Media & Bias
The media we consume affects us, but we also affect it. Most
people think that they perceive truth objectively, as it is.
However, we all see things from a point of view. Furthermore,
people tend to seek media that supports their points of view.
This can serve to further entrench us in a more narrow way of
looking at things while at the same time making us feel more
certain that our point of view is objective and neutral. We also
learned in Chapter 8 that people have biases (such as the
confirmation bias) that make it hard for them to embrace ideas
20. that contradict with their own points of view. This week’s
discussion seeks to explore how we can free ourselves from
these tendencies.
Prepare: Before addressing this discussion, take a look at the
following video about the relationship between media and
ideology:
Next, Make sure to read Chapter 8, for example on “Media and
Mediated Images” (including all sub-headings).
Reflect: Think about the ways in which people consume media
that supports their own points of view. Consider what we might
do to learn to think more objectively and see things from
multiple points of view.
Write: Answer the following questions: In what ways are people
manipulated by the media that they consume? Make sure to give
specific examples. What types of consequences can follow from
people having more choices of what media they can consume?
Do we control our media or does it control us? What can people
do to break free from media hypnosis and have broader, more
objective points of view? In what ways might we strive to
overcome confirmation bias? Address anything else that you
find relevant and interesting in the chapter and video.
Guided Response: Respond substantively to at least three of
your classmates’ posts in a way that furthers the conversation.
For example, you might discuss other similar areas in which you
have noticed the media creating or responding to bias. You
might comment on to what degree we control our media and to
what degree it controls us. You might comment on the example
they have chosen and contribute to the points they are making.
You might comment further on the value of consuming a wide
variety of high quality of media sources.
Example
There will be no example for this discussion: please make sure
to do some self reflection and respond to all aspects of the
21. prompt, including:
· Answer in what ways are people manipulated by the media
that they consume
· Give specific examples of that manipulation
· Explain the types of consequences that can follow from people
having more choices of what media they can consume
· Answer whether we control our media or or whether it controls
us
· Answer what people can do to break free from “media
hypnosis” and have broader, more objective points of view.
· In what ways might we strive to overcome confirmation bias?
· Address anything else that you find relevant and interesting in
the chapter and video.
Fallacies and Biases #1
Discussion Title
Prior to answering this week’s discussion prompt, complete
theBuying a Car interactive scenario. In the car buying scenario,
just like in real life, you were presented with an argument for
making a different purchase than you had originally intended.
Notice any similarities between the arguments offered by the
car salesman and the kinds of arguments you have read about in
the assigned readings. Consider how you can apply what you
have learned in the class so far to the kinds of arguments given
by the salesman. Keep these sorts of considerations in mind as
you complete this discussion.
Your instructor will choose the discussion question and post it
as the first post in the discussion forum. The requirements for
the discussion this week are a minimum of four posts on four
separate days including responses to at least two classmates..
The total combined word count for all of your posts, counted
together, should be at least 600 words. Answer all the questions
in the prompt, and read any resources that are required to
22. complete the discussion properly.
In order to satisfy the posting requirements for the week,
complete your initial post by Day 3 (Thursday) and your other
posts by Day 7 (Monday). We recommend that you get into the
discussion early and spread out your posts over the course of
the week. Reply to your classmates and instructor. Take the
conversation further by examining their claims or arguments in
more depth or responding to the posts that they make to you.
Keep the discussion on target, and analyze examples in as much
detail as you can.
For further instruction about how to address discussion prompts
in the new format, view the key terms and Discussion Videos
visible in the Week One Standard Form Arguments discussion.
Your Most Common Fallacy
Instructor Paik
2/16/2017 4:26:01 PM
Modified:2/19/2017 1:56 PM
Your Most Common Fallacy
We have all committed fallacies at one point or another in our
lives, so for this discussion we ask you to reflect on the fallacy
that you find that you commit the most frequently.
Prepare: Read Chapter 7 of the textbook, and take notes. Make a
selection from the fallacies that are explained in that chapter
23. (Make sure to choose a fallacy from the textbook for this course
and not from any other source. Also, do not stop at the first
fallacy that you recognize since your knowledge of all fallacies
will not only enhance your overall knowledge, it will also come
in handy for the second discussion).
Reflect: Reflect on the fallacies that you have read and find the
one that you commit the most. Think about how frequently you
have committed the fallacy and what kinds of things tend to
lead to you committing it.
Write: Present an example of an argument (or arguments) that
you have made that commits that particular fallacy. Present the
reasoning in standard form. Evaluate your argument (or
arguments) by indicating the name of the fallacy that you
committed and explaining why this argument is fallacious. What
might you do to avoid committing that type of fallacy in the
future? How might learning to avoid this fallacy benefit your
life?
Guided Response: Respond to at least two (2) other intros in
this forum by the end of day seven of this first week. Your goal
should be to see if the classmate has exemplified the fallacy
correctly and/or presented the description of the fallacy
correctly as well. You might also mention if the fallacy in
question is also an example of any other type of fallacy that we
have studied. You may also examine the correctness of the
standard form. Is it presented in the vertical fashion with
premises on top and the conclusion at the end? Are the premises
clearly presented? Any corrections or examples that you may
offer your classmates will not only help your classmate learn
the material, it will give you the practice that you need in order
to learn the material yourself.
Example
There will be no example for this discussion: please make sure
to do some self-reflection and respond to all aspects of the
prompt, including:
· Articulate your fallacious reasoning in standard form
· Name the fallacy
24. · Explain why your argument is fallacious
· Explain how you might avoid this fallacy in the fiture, and the
benefits of doing so.