Week 3
Rational and Expressive Choice
Rational Choice Theory and the Rational Voter Model (P = B > C; or Participation or voter choice (P) = perceived benefits of participation or choice (B) > perceived costs of participation or choice (C)) became popular in the 1970s. Pursuant to this theory and model, voters decide whether to vote and which candidate to vote for on some rational basis, usually on the basis of which action gives them greater expected benefits. The model lends itself more than others to predicting what effects changes in external conditions will have on the vote. A major contribution of the model was to emphasize the role of issues in voter choice.
The paradox of participation calls into question this theoretical perspective. The paradox theorizes that the rational individual will not waste resources by bearing the costs of taking part in the voting process but will instead take a free ride on the efforts of others. This is known as the free rider problem. The problem is especially acute when the individual does not perceive their vote as being decisive to the election outcome.
Some have used rational choice theory to argue that those in a high socio-economic class would be less active “because they have the education and intellectual sophistication to comprehend the free-rider problem and because their high salaries raise the opportunity cost of participation” (Verba 1995, 284). The facts however suggest this hypothesis is false. In fact, strong empirical evidence demonstrates that those in a high socio-economic class are actually the most likely to be active.
Other rational choice proponents, including Anthony Downs, have argued that lower information and transaction costs for the well educated imply that it is actually easier for them to participate in politics. Verba (1995) notes “[t]his approach has the virtue of fitting the facts but seems somewhat post hoc” (284).
Overall, rational choice theory must be praised for its theoretical elegance. But, the theory has done a poor job of predicting political participation. More specifically, the theory has failed to predict how much political activity and who will take part.
Some have argued that expressive choice theory can provide a more compelling explanation of voter behavior. According to Schuessler in A Logic of Expressive Choice (2000), individuals do not necessarily participate in collective action in order to produce outcomes but instead often do so in order to express who they are by attaching themselves to such outcomes.
Because under Schuessler’s perspective the value of participation emerges not from the outcome but from the process of participation itself, the free-rider problem is no longer a concern. Participation therefore is not a form of investment but rather a form of consumption. Schuessler wrote, “Consumption benefits are inextricably tied to expression: the sports fan’s expression of team support is required for him to enjoy his.
1 Week 3 Rational and Expressive Choice .docxMARRY7
1
Week 3
Rational and Expressive Choice
Rational Choice Theory and the Rational Voter Model (P = B > C; or
Participation or voter choice (P) = perceived benefits of participation or
choice (B) > perceived costs of participation or choice (C)) became popular
in the 1970s. Pursuant to this theory and model, voters decide whether to
vote and which candidate to vote for on some rational basis, usually on the
basis of which action gives them greater expected benefits. The model lends
itself more than others to predicting what effects changes in external
conditions will have on the vote. A major contribution of the model was to
emphasize the role of issues in voter choice.
The paradox of participation calls into question this theoretical
perspective. The paradox theorizes that the rational individual will not
waste resources by bearing the costs of taking part in the voting process but
will instead take a free ride on the efforts of others. This is known as the
free rider problem. The problem is especially acute when the individual
does not perceive their vote as being decisive to the election outcome.
Some have used rational choice theory to argue that those in a high
socio-economic class would be less active “because they have the education
and intellectual sophistication to comprehend the free-rider problem and
2
because their high salaries raise the opportunity cost of participation” (Verba
1995, 284). The facts however suggest this hypothesis is false. In fact,
strong empirical evidence demonstrates that those in a high socio-economic
class are actually the most likely to be active.
Other rational choice proponents, including Anthony Downs, have
argued that lower information and transaction costs for the well educated
imply that it is actually easier for them to participate in politics. Verba
(1995) notes “[t]his approach has the virtue of fitting the facts but seems
somewhat post hoc” (284).
Overall, rational choice theory must be praised for its theoretical
elegance. But, the theory has done a poor job of predicting political
participation. More specifically, the theory has failed to predict how much
political activity and who will take part.
Some have argued that expressive choice theory can provide a more
compelling explanation of voter behavior. According to Schuessler in A
Logic of Expressive Choice (2000), individuals do not necessarily participate
in collective action in order to produce outcomes but instead often do so in
order to express who they are by attaching themselves to such outcomes.
Because under Schuessler’s perspective the value of participation
emerges not from the outcome but from the process of participation itself,
3
the free-rider problem is no longer a concern. Participation therefore is not a
form of investment but rather a form of consumption. Schuessler wrote,
“Consumption ben ...
Sports, Business, Theatre or Drama; change seldom discriminates. It resonates in each and every walk of life. On the brink of a terrific change is Politics, courtesy the social media. Social media has rapidly grown as a forum for political discourse and activism. Its various platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Youtube etc. are providing a plethora of new ways to engage citizens in politics (Benkler, 2006). A great advantage inherent in social media is the possibility of personal, ie., one to one communication. Politicians as well as political parties are seemingly benefitting with this new found ability to reach out to their potential voters. It has become possible for politicians to reach voters in a well targeted manner without relying on the media as an intermediary (Gentle, 2012). Various reactions, messages, feedbacks and debates are generated online. In addition to this, support for offline causes of a political party are also generated through social media petitions
Mass Media and the Depoliticization of Personal Experience.docxaryan532920
Mass Media and the Depoliticization of Personal Experience
Author(s): Diana C. Mutz
Source: American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 36, No. 2 (May, 1992), pp. 483-508
Published by: Midwest Political Science Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2111487
Accessed: 22-11-2016 19:15 UTC
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted
digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about
JSTOR, please contact [email protected]
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://about.jstor.org/terms
Wiley, Midwest Political Science Association are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and
extend access to American Journal of Political Science
This content downloaded from 129.219.247.33 on Tue, 22 Nov 2016 19:15:23 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
Mass Media and the Depoliticization of Personal
Experience*
Diana C. Mutz, Department of Political Science and School of Journalism and
Mass Communication, University of Wisconsin-Madison
This study combines contemporary research on the effects of mass communication with findings
on sociotropic voting to build a general model that explains the origins and effects of economic per-
ceptions. This model is then tested in the context of retrospective personal and social concerns about
unemployment.
Survey evidence suggests that retrospective assessments of unemployment result primarily from
mediated information rather than from direct experiences. Mass media are found to have an "imper-
sonal impact," influencing social, but not personal perceptions of the issue, while personal experi-
ences with unemployment influence exclusively personal-level judgments.
Mass media also influence the weighting of pocketbook as opposed to sociotropic concerns by
means of a "sociotropic priming effect." Rather than priming all considerations that surround eco-
nomic issues, high levels of media exposure to economic news prime the importance of collective
perceptions to political evaluations and decrease the importance of personal concerns.
Early studies of economic influences on voting simply assumed that people
voted their pocketbooks: when national economic conditions worsened, more
citizens experienced economic problems in their own lives, and these people
logically voted against the incumbent party. When empirical findings at the indi-
vidual level failed to support this explanation, research shifted from a focus on
personal economic experiences to an emphasis on "sociotropic" judgments; that
is, individuals' retrospective assessments of economic change at the collective
level (see, e.g., Kinder and Kiewiet 1979, 1981; Schlozman and Verba 1979;
Kinder 1981; Kiewiet 1983).
Perceptions ...
Did Social Media Really MatterCollege Students’ Use of Onli.docxcuddietheresa
Did Social Media Really Matter?
College Students’ Use of Online
Media and Political Decision
Making in the 2008 Election
Matthew James Kushin
Department of Communication
Utah Valley University
Masahiro Yamamoto
The Edward R. Murrow College of Communication
Washington State University
This study examined college students’ use of online media for political
purposes in the 2008 election. Social media attention, online expression, and
traditional Internet attention were assessed in relation to political self-efficacy
and situational political involvement. Data from a Web survey of college stu-
dents showed significant positive relationships between attention to traditional
Internet sources and political self-efficacy and situational political involve-
ment. Attention to social media was not significantly related to political
self-efficacy or involvement. Online expression was significantly related to
situational political involvement but not political self-efficacy. Implications
are discussed for political use of online media for young adults.
Matthew James Kushin (Ph.D., Washington State University, 2010) is Assistant Professor in
the Department of Communication at Utah Valley University. His research interests include
political campaigns, online media, and social media.
Masahiro Yamamoto is a Doctoral Candidate in The Edward R. Murrow College of
Communication at Washington State University. His research interests include online media,
mass media and social organization, and public health.
Correspondence should be addressed to Matthew James Kushin, Department of Communi-
cation, Utah Valley University, Orem, UT 84058. E-mail: [email protected]
Mass Communication and Society, 13:608–630, 2010
Copyright # Mass Communication & Society Division
of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication
ISSN: 1520-5436 print=1532-7825 online
DOI: 10.1080/15205436.2010.516863
608
During the 2006 and 2008 election seasons, new technologies emerged
that enable individuals to participate in media-rich online communities
organized around the creation and exchange of media content (Kolbitsch
& Maurer, 2006; O’Reilly, 2005; Rainie, 2007b; Tapscott & Williams,
2006).1 Such social media were quite popular in the 2008 election
campaign among young adults. For example, young adults used video
sharing and social network sites to obtain campaign information and=
or share campaign news with others, exchange their political views,
and express support for a candidate (Kohut, 2008; Smith & Rainie,
2008).
As political actors used social media for their campaign, and young
adults were relying less on traditional news media and more on new
online media for political information (Kohut, 2008), some political
and media observers commented that social media played a significant
role in the 2008 campaign in affecting young voters’ political cognition
and behaviors (Hesseldahl, MacMillan, & Kharif, 2008; Marchese,
2008; Owen, 2008). Existing li ...
Did Social Media Really MatterCollege Students’ Use of Onli.docxmariona83
Did Social Media Really Matter?
College Students’ Use of Online
Media and Political Decision
Making in the 2008 Election
Matthew James Kushin
Department of Communication
Utah Valley University
Masahiro Yamamoto
The Edward R. Murrow College of Communication
Washington State University
This study examined college students’ use of online media for political
purposes in the 2008 election. Social media attention, online expression, and
traditional Internet attention were assessed in relation to political self-efficacy
and situational political involvement. Data from a Web survey of college stu-
dents showed significant positive relationships between attention to traditional
Internet sources and political self-efficacy and situational political involve-
ment. Attention to social media was not significantly related to political
self-efficacy or involvement. Online expression was significantly related to
situational political involvement but not political self-efficacy. Implications
are discussed for political use of online media for young adults.
Matthew James Kushin (Ph.D., Washington State University, 2010) is Assistant Professor in
the Department of Communication at Utah Valley University. His research interests include
political campaigns, online media, and social media.
Masahiro Yamamoto is a Doctoral Candidate in The Edward R. Murrow College of
Communication at Washington State University. His research interests include online media,
mass media and social organization, and public health.
Correspondence should be addressed to Matthew James Kushin, Department of Communi-
cation, Utah Valley University, Orem, UT 84058. E-mail: [email protected]
Mass Communication and Society, 13:608–630, 2010
Copyright # Mass Communication & Society Division
of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication
ISSN: 1520-5436 print=1532-7825 online
DOI: 10.1080/15205436.2010.516863
608
During the 2006 and 2008 election seasons, new technologies emerged
that enable individuals to participate in media-rich online communities
organized around the creation and exchange of media content (Kolbitsch
& Maurer, 2006; O’Reilly, 2005; Rainie, 2007b; Tapscott & Williams,
2006).1 Such social media were quite popular in the 2008 election
campaign among young adults. For example, young adults used video
sharing and social network sites to obtain campaign information and=
or share campaign news with others, exchange their political views,
and express support for a candidate (Kohut, 2008; Smith & Rainie,
2008).
As political actors used social media for their campaign, and young
adults were relying less on traditional news media and more on new
online media for political information (Kohut, 2008), some political
and media observers commented that social media played a significant
role in the 2008 campaign in affecting young voters’ political cognition
and behaviors (Hesseldahl, MacMillan, & Kharif, 2008; Marchese,
2008; Owen, 2008). Existing li.
What we see may not always be the reality and what we
presume as real may not be our observation always. In a democratic
set-up, this has often emerged as a reality. Democracies had always been subjected to criticism but it is astonishing to note how the
interplay of corrupt vision and changing social attitudes playing a
havoc in our democratic systems. This paper broadly investigates
the voting behavior and attitudes in response to sophisticated
tempting actions by political parties to pull voters. This research
demonstrates that higher the level of temptation combined with
many socio-economic perils leads to higher biasness towards
them. Participatory research, interviews, journals, publications,
and observation and media reporting have been studied, analyzed,
and scrutinized to discover how different poor and illiterate people
vote. Findings and results attribute a greater role of education,
financial liberty, backwardness, and awareness to political reality
in determining voting behavior.
1 Week 3 Rational and Expressive Choice .docxMARRY7
1
Week 3
Rational and Expressive Choice
Rational Choice Theory and the Rational Voter Model (P = B > C; or
Participation or voter choice (P) = perceived benefits of participation or
choice (B) > perceived costs of participation or choice (C)) became popular
in the 1970s. Pursuant to this theory and model, voters decide whether to
vote and which candidate to vote for on some rational basis, usually on the
basis of which action gives them greater expected benefits. The model lends
itself more than others to predicting what effects changes in external
conditions will have on the vote. A major contribution of the model was to
emphasize the role of issues in voter choice.
The paradox of participation calls into question this theoretical
perspective. The paradox theorizes that the rational individual will not
waste resources by bearing the costs of taking part in the voting process but
will instead take a free ride on the efforts of others. This is known as the
free rider problem. The problem is especially acute when the individual
does not perceive their vote as being decisive to the election outcome.
Some have used rational choice theory to argue that those in a high
socio-economic class would be less active “because they have the education
and intellectual sophistication to comprehend the free-rider problem and
2
because their high salaries raise the opportunity cost of participation” (Verba
1995, 284). The facts however suggest this hypothesis is false. In fact,
strong empirical evidence demonstrates that those in a high socio-economic
class are actually the most likely to be active.
Other rational choice proponents, including Anthony Downs, have
argued that lower information and transaction costs for the well educated
imply that it is actually easier for them to participate in politics. Verba
(1995) notes “[t]his approach has the virtue of fitting the facts but seems
somewhat post hoc” (284).
Overall, rational choice theory must be praised for its theoretical
elegance. But, the theory has done a poor job of predicting political
participation. More specifically, the theory has failed to predict how much
political activity and who will take part.
Some have argued that expressive choice theory can provide a more
compelling explanation of voter behavior. According to Schuessler in A
Logic of Expressive Choice (2000), individuals do not necessarily participate
in collective action in order to produce outcomes but instead often do so in
order to express who they are by attaching themselves to such outcomes.
Because under Schuessler’s perspective the value of participation
emerges not from the outcome but from the process of participation itself,
3
the free-rider problem is no longer a concern. Participation therefore is not a
form of investment but rather a form of consumption. Schuessler wrote,
“Consumption ben ...
Sports, Business, Theatre or Drama; change seldom discriminates. It resonates in each and every walk of life. On the brink of a terrific change is Politics, courtesy the social media. Social media has rapidly grown as a forum for political discourse and activism. Its various platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Youtube etc. are providing a plethora of new ways to engage citizens in politics (Benkler, 2006). A great advantage inherent in social media is the possibility of personal, ie., one to one communication. Politicians as well as political parties are seemingly benefitting with this new found ability to reach out to their potential voters. It has become possible for politicians to reach voters in a well targeted manner without relying on the media as an intermediary (Gentle, 2012). Various reactions, messages, feedbacks and debates are generated online. In addition to this, support for offline causes of a political party are also generated through social media petitions
Mass Media and the Depoliticization of Personal Experience.docxaryan532920
Mass Media and the Depoliticization of Personal Experience
Author(s): Diana C. Mutz
Source: American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 36, No. 2 (May, 1992), pp. 483-508
Published by: Midwest Political Science Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2111487
Accessed: 22-11-2016 19:15 UTC
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted
digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about
JSTOR, please contact [email protected]
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://about.jstor.org/terms
Wiley, Midwest Political Science Association are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and
extend access to American Journal of Political Science
This content downloaded from 129.219.247.33 on Tue, 22 Nov 2016 19:15:23 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
Mass Media and the Depoliticization of Personal
Experience*
Diana C. Mutz, Department of Political Science and School of Journalism and
Mass Communication, University of Wisconsin-Madison
This study combines contemporary research on the effects of mass communication with findings
on sociotropic voting to build a general model that explains the origins and effects of economic per-
ceptions. This model is then tested in the context of retrospective personal and social concerns about
unemployment.
Survey evidence suggests that retrospective assessments of unemployment result primarily from
mediated information rather than from direct experiences. Mass media are found to have an "imper-
sonal impact," influencing social, but not personal perceptions of the issue, while personal experi-
ences with unemployment influence exclusively personal-level judgments.
Mass media also influence the weighting of pocketbook as opposed to sociotropic concerns by
means of a "sociotropic priming effect." Rather than priming all considerations that surround eco-
nomic issues, high levels of media exposure to economic news prime the importance of collective
perceptions to political evaluations and decrease the importance of personal concerns.
Early studies of economic influences on voting simply assumed that people
voted their pocketbooks: when national economic conditions worsened, more
citizens experienced economic problems in their own lives, and these people
logically voted against the incumbent party. When empirical findings at the indi-
vidual level failed to support this explanation, research shifted from a focus on
personal economic experiences to an emphasis on "sociotropic" judgments; that
is, individuals' retrospective assessments of economic change at the collective
level (see, e.g., Kinder and Kiewiet 1979, 1981; Schlozman and Verba 1979;
Kinder 1981; Kiewiet 1983).
Perceptions ...
Did Social Media Really MatterCollege Students’ Use of Onli.docxcuddietheresa
Did Social Media Really Matter?
College Students’ Use of Online
Media and Political Decision
Making in the 2008 Election
Matthew James Kushin
Department of Communication
Utah Valley University
Masahiro Yamamoto
The Edward R. Murrow College of Communication
Washington State University
This study examined college students’ use of online media for political
purposes in the 2008 election. Social media attention, online expression, and
traditional Internet attention were assessed in relation to political self-efficacy
and situational political involvement. Data from a Web survey of college stu-
dents showed significant positive relationships between attention to traditional
Internet sources and political self-efficacy and situational political involve-
ment. Attention to social media was not significantly related to political
self-efficacy or involvement. Online expression was significantly related to
situational political involvement but not political self-efficacy. Implications
are discussed for political use of online media for young adults.
Matthew James Kushin (Ph.D., Washington State University, 2010) is Assistant Professor in
the Department of Communication at Utah Valley University. His research interests include
political campaigns, online media, and social media.
Masahiro Yamamoto is a Doctoral Candidate in The Edward R. Murrow College of
Communication at Washington State University. His research interests include online media,
mass media and social organization, and public health.
Correspondence should be addressed to Matthew James Kushin, Department of Communi-
cation, Utah Valley University, Orem, UT 84058. E-mail: [email protected]
Mass Communication and Society, 13:608–630, 2010
Copyright # Mass Communication & Society Division
of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication
ISSN: 1520-5436 print=1532-7825 online
DOI: 10.1080/15205436.2010.516863
608
During the 2006 and 2008 election seasons, new technologies emerged
that enable individuals to participate in media-rich online communities
organized around the creation and exchange of media content (Kolbitsch
& Maurer, 2006; O’Reilly, 2005; Rainie, 2007b; Tapscott & Williams,
2006).1 Such social media were quite popular in the 2008 election
campaign among young adults. For example, young adults used video
sharing and social network sites to obtain campaign information and=
or share campaign news with others, exchange their political views,
and express support for a candidate (Kohut, 2008; Smith & Rainie,
2008).
As political actors used social media for their campaign, and young
adults were relying less on traditional news media and more on new
online media for political information (Kohut, 2008), some political
and media observers commented that social media played a significant
role in the 2008 campaign in affecting young voters’ political cognition
and behaviors (Hesseldahl, MacMillan, & Kharif, 2008; Marchese,
2008; Owen, 2008). Existing li ...
Did Social Media Really MatterCollege Students’ Use of Onli.docxmariona83
Did Social Media Really Matter?
College Students’ Use of Online
Media and Political Decision
Making in the 2008 Election
Matthew James Kushin
Department of Communication
Utah Valley University
Masahiro Yamamoto
The Edward R. Murrow College of Communication
Washington State University
This study examined college students’ use of online media for political
purposes in the 2008 election. Social media attention, online expression, and
traditional Internet attention were assessed in relation to political self-efficacy
and situational political involvement. Data from a Web survey of college stu-
dents showed significant positive relationships between attention to traditional
Internet sources and political self-efficacy and situational political involve-
ment. Attention to social media was not significantly related to political
self-efficacy or involvement. Online expression was significantly related to
situational political involvement but not political self-efficacy. Implications
are discussed for political use of online media for young adults.
Matthew James Kushin (Ph.D., Washington State University, 2010) is Assistant Professor in
the Department of Communication at Utah Valley University. His research interests include
political campaigns, online media, and social media.
Masahiro Yamamoto is a Doctoral Candidate in The Edward R. Murrow College of
Communication at Washington State University. His research interests include online media,
mass media and social organization, and public health.
Correspondence should be addressed to Matthew James Kushin, Department of Communi-
cation, Utah Valley University, Orem, UT 84058. E-mail: [email protected]
Mass Communication and Society, 13:608–630, 2010
Copyright # Mass Communication & Society Division
of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication
ISSN: 1520-5436 print=1532-7825 online
DOI: 10.1080/15205436.2010.516863
608
During the 2006 and 2008 election seasons, new technologies emerged
that enable individuals to participate in media-rich online communities
organized around the creation and exchange of media content (Kolbitsch
& Maurer, 2006; O’Reilly, 2005; Rainie, 2007b; Tapscott & Williams,
2006).1 Such social media were quite popular in the 2008 election
campaign among young adults. For example, young adults used video
sharing and social network sites to obtain campaign information and=
or share campaign news with others, exchange their political views,
and express support for a candidate (Kohut, 2008; Smith & Rainie,
2008).
As political actors used social media for their campaign, and young
adults were relying less on traditional news media and more on new
online media for political information (Kohut, 2008), some political
and media observers commented that social media played a significant
role in the 2008 campaign in affecting young voters’ political cognition
and behaviors (Hesseldahl, MacMillan, & Kharif, 2008; Marchese,
2008; Owen, 2008). Existing li.
What we see may not always be the reality and what we
presume as real may not be our observation always. In a democratic
set-up, this has often emerged as a reality. Democracies had always been subjected to criticism but it is astonishing to note how the
interplay of corrupt vision and changing social attitudes playing a
havoc in our democratic systems. This paper broadly investigates
the voting behavior and attitudes in response to sophisticated
tempting actions by political parties to pull voters. This research
demonstrates that higher the level of temptation combined with
many socio-economic perils leads to higher biasness towards
them. Participatory research, interviews, journals, publications,
and observation and media reporting have been studied, analyzed,
and scrutinized to discover how different poor and illiterate people
vote. Findings and results attribute a greater role of education,
financial liberty, backwardness, and awareness to political reality
in determining voting behavior.
The Internet is a revolutionary force. If it means more significant participation in politics rather than a commitment to democratic values, it is democratization. Extremist groups that reject these values benefit from the "democratization" of knowledge and communication. The direct political impact of the Internet has been to strengthen the views of extremists and increase the number of people who represent them. According to Wajid khan's point of view, New political mechanisms are needed to control participation and dissent.
The decline in content moderation
The Internet's impact on content delivery has been particularly pronounced, with decentralized media replacing editors and fact-checkers of the past. Social media has become more and more disinterested. Facebook has become a primary news source for many Americans, but word on Facebook is automatically selected and tailored to group preferences, resulting in information that contradicts established beliefs. Are often included.
Companies design algorithms that maximize user engagement. Algorithms do this by selecting information based on the user's interests. Wajid Khan Mp concludes that User interests can automatically reflect and unwittingly reinforce biases.
Some studies suggest that the information overload unleashed by the internet fuels the spread of conspiracy theories that offer simple and coherent explanations for complex and unpredictable events. I'm here. The Internet provides proponents of these theories with a broader audience and an uncritical medium to disseminate them.
Legitimacy and Consent of Rulers
Legitimacy arises from the consent of the ruled to recognize authority and agree to its rules (often by voting, a symbolic act of affirmation). Permission can be obtained through moral authority, such as religion, coercion, or violence (where the subject does not oppose the issue out of fear) or through participation mechanisms. Moral authority and expertise can also exert influence, but this influence is most effective when reinforced or "operationalized" through formal institutions.
Communities where the consent of the governed is insufficient to confer authority, become unstable. The challenges to liberal democracy began before the Internet, but the online environment has reinforced them, allowing for competing narratives and unfiltered information, amplifying extremism and conspiracy theories.
The Internet has changed the requirements of political legitimacy and democratic consent. Currently, structured representative democracies have not fully lived up to the expectations that the Internet has brought to citizens regarding access to information, a voice in decision-making, and direct contact with political leaders.
Canadian Politician Wajid khan says the same pressures pushing companies to become flatter, less hierarchical organizations are also putting pressure on governance structures. Citizens also expect immediacy and authenticity of their messages. The
Impact of the Internet on politics
The Internet is a revolutionary force. If it means more significant participation in politics rather than a commitment to democratic values, it is democratization. Extremist groups that reject these values benefit from the "democratization" of knowledge and communication. The direct political impact of the Internet has been to strengthen the views of extremists and increase the number of people who represent them. According to Wajid khan's point of view, New political mechanisms are needed to control participation and dissent.
The decline in content moderation
The Internet's impact on content delivery has been particularly pronounced, with decentralized media replacing editors and fact-checkers of the past. Social media has become more and more disinterested. Facebook has become a primary news source for many Americans, but word on Facebook is automatically selected and tailored to group preferences, resulting in information that contradicts established beliefs. Are often included.
Companies design algorithms that maximize user engagement. Algorithms do this by selecting information based on the user's interests. Wajid Khan Mp concludes that User interests can automatically reflect and unwittingly reinforce biases.
Some studies suggest that the information overload unleashed by the internet fuels the spread of conspiracy theories that offer simple and coherent explanations for complex and unpredictable events. I'm here. The Internet provides proponents of these theories with a broader audience and an uncritical medium to disseminate them.
Legitimacy and Consent of Rulers
Legitimacy arises from the consent of the ruled to recognize authority and agree to its rules (often by voting, a symbolic act of affirmation). Permission can be obtained through moral authority, such as religion, coercion, or violence (where the subject does not oppose the issue out of fear) or through participation mechanisms. Moral authority and expertise can also exert influence, but this influence is most effective when reinforced or "operationalized" through formal institutions.
Communities where the consent of the governed is insufficient to confer authority, become unstable. The challenges to liberal democracy began before the Internet, but the online environment has reinforced them, allowing for competing narratives and unfiltered information, amplifying extremism and conspiracy theories.
The Internet has changed the requirements of political legitimacy and democratic consent. Currently, structured representative democracies have not fully lived up to the expectations that the Internet has brought to citizens regarding access to information, a voice in decision-making, and direct contact with political leaders.
Canadian Politician Wajid khan says the same pressures pushing companies to become flatter, less hierarchical organizations are also putting pressure on governance structures. Citizens also expect immediacy an
`Do assignments as detailed outNO WIKI for referncesPlease m.docxmelbruce90096
`Do assignments as detailed out
NO WIKI for refernces
Please make sure that ALL REFERNCES ARE APA CITED
TB BOOK CITATION:
Dyer, W. G., Jr., Dyer, J. H., & Dyer, W. G. (2013). Team building: Proven strategies for improving team performance (5th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
.
_____1.On July 9, Sheb Company sells goods on credit to .docxmelbruce90096
_____1.
On July 9, Sheb Company sells goods on credit to Wooley Company for $5,000, terms 1/10, n/60. Sheb receives payment on July 18. The entry by Sheb on July 18 is:
A)
Cash
5,000
Accounts Receivable
5,000
B)
Cash
5,000
Sales Discounts
50
Accounts Receivable
4,950
C)
Cash
4,950
Sales Discounts
50
Accounts Receivable
5,000
D)
Cash
5,050
Sales Discounts
50
Accounts Receivable
5,000
_____2.
The collection of a $1,000 account after the 2 percent discount period will result in a
A)
debit to Cash for $980.
B)
credit to Accounts Receivable for $1,000.
C)
credit to Cash for $1,000.
D)
debit to Sales Discounts for $20.
_____3.
Gross profit does
not
appear
A)
on a multiple-step income statement.
B)
on a single-step income statement.
C)
to be relevant in analyzing the operation of a merchandiser.
D)
on the income statement if the periodic inventory system is used because it cannot be calculated.
_____4.
During 2014, Parker Enterprises generated revenues of $90,000. The company's expenses were as follows: cost of goods sold of $45,000, operating expenses of $18,000 and a loss on the sale of equipment of $3,000.
Parker's gross profit is
A)
$24,000.
B)
$27,000.
C)
$45,000.
D)
$90,000.
_____5.
At the beginning of September, 2014, Stella Company reported Inventory of $8,000. During the month, the company made purchases of $35,600. At September 30, 2014, a physical count of inventory reported $8,400 on hand. Cost of goods sold for the month is
A)
$35,200.
B)
$35,600.
C)
$36,000.
D)
$43,600.
_____6.
The Freight-In account
A)
increases the cost of merchandise purchased.
B)
is contra to the Purchases account.
C)
is a permanent account.
D)
has a normal credit balance.
______7.
A company purchased inventory as follows:
150 units at $5
350 units at $6
The average unit cost for inventory is
A)
$5.00.
B)
$5.50.
C)
$5.70.
D)
$6.00.
______8.
A company just starting business made the following four inventory purchases in June:
June
1
150 units
$
390
June
10
200 units
585
June
15
200 units
630
June
28
150 units
510
$2,115
A physical count of merchandise inventory on June 30 reveals that there are 250 units on hand. Using the FIFO inventory method, the amount allocated to cost of goods sold for June is
A)
$683.
B)
$825.
C)
$1,290.
D)
$1,432.
PART II — BASIC INVENTORY COMPUTATIONS
(18 points)
9.
Joe Poultry uses a
periodic
inventory system. Its beginning inventory on May 1 consisted of 300 units of Product A at a cost of $6.25 per unit. During May, the following purchases and sales were made.
Purchases
Sales
May
6
300
units at $7.20
May
4
275
units
14
400
units at $9.10
8
300
units
21
100
units at $11.50
22
400
units
28
500
units at $11.80
24
225
units
1,300
1,200
Instructions:
Compute the May 31 ending inventory and May cost of goods sold under (a) Average Cost, (b) FIFO, and (c) LIFO. Provide appropriate supporting ca.
[removed]eltomate Son rojos y se sirven (they are serv.docxmelbruce90096
[removed]
el
tomate
: Son rojos y se sirven (
they are served
) en las ensaladas.
[removed]
los
entremeses
: Se come (
It is eaten
) antes del plato principal; es líquida y caliente (
hot
).
[removed]
la
zanahoria
: Son unas verduras anaranjadas, largas y delgadas
.
[u07d2] Unit 7 Discussion 2Conflict and ChangeResourcesDiscuss.docxmelbruce90096
[u07d2] Unit 7 Discussion 2
Conflict and Change
Resources
Discussion and Participation Scoring Guide
.
Change is part of our lives. Change is viewed as positive and negative. It is accompanied with excitement and confidence, opportunity, progress, growth, innovation, fear and anxiety, upheaval, threat, and unpredictability. People react to change differently.
Based on the assigned readings, briefly answer the following questions.
List and explain the three approaches to change.
Explain the dynamics of change as you see it.
.
[removed]1.Which of the following processes addresses when to sp.docxmelbruce90096
[removed]
1.
Which of the following processes addresses when to speak, what to say, and how to organize one's message?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2.
When a speaker uses supporting material based on what he or she has seen or heard, that type of support is called:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3.
When a room is too large, you can enhance the volume of your voice by using:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
4.
A speaker can combat the problem of the audience's limited attention span by:
a.
b.
c.
d.
5.
Parallel statements at the same level of importance in the outline are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
6.
A simplified drawing or sketch that resembles a more complex object is known as a:
a.
b.
c.
d.
7.
When your audience analysis focuses on the perceptual processes of the audience, including their tendencies toward selective exposure and selective attention, you are assessing audience:
a.
b.
c.
d.
8.
When asked to deliver a speech for which you are allowed to decide the purpose, you should assess how the:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
9.
Public speaking is a communication process that can best be described as a(n):
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
10.
All of the following are goals of research in preparation for a speech, except:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
11.
Which of the following is not good advice when preparing to deliver your speech?
a.
b.
c.
d.
12.
When group reports are presented orally to others, the occasion is called:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
13.
What is an internal summary?
a.
b.
c.
d.
14.
Which element of the body in delivery not only helps communicate effectively to the audience, but also provides feedback to the speaker regarding the audience's response to the speech?
a.
b.
c.
d.
15.
In order to respond appropriately to the rhetorical situation, you need to develop a(n) __________ that identifies the purpose of your speech.
a.
b.
c.
d.
16.
Informative strategies ask listeners to:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
17.
When analyzing the four factors of the rhetorical situation, which of the following characteristics is a concern for the speaker?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
18.
Careful listening relies on two techniques:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
19.
The process of invention involves:
a.
b.
c.
d.
20.
When a speech is well-suited to the expectations of a particular occasion, it has the quality of:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
21.
The principle of the residues pattern of arrangement is best reflected in which of the following phrases?
a.
b.
c.
d.
22.
Which of the following conditions give rise to deliberative speaking?
a.
b.
c.
d.
23.
Which of the following resources does not help to create vividness in a speech?
a.
b.
c.
d.
24.
Which of the following represent the two types of testimony?
a.
b.
c.
d.
25.
Which type of outline is made simple and brief to provide a memory aid while delivering the speech?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
26.
Organization is important for all of the following reasons, except:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
27.
Hearing is the __________ sounds.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
28.
The .
Your paper should be a literary essay in which you present a combina.docxmelbruce90096
Your paper should be a literary essay in which you present a combination of primary and secondary research. Use MLA style for formatting (margins, spacing, numbering pages, heading, title etc.) and citing sources (parenthetical notes and works cited page)
Choose an English Romantic writer (William Wordsworth)
Choose a work by that writer as the focus of your research (Tintern Abbey)
Analyze and interpret the work to plan our approach to it and do some preliminary reading to evaluate the topic.
8 pages 4 secondary sources
.
[removed]1.Photographs are an important source of data because t.docxmelbruce90096
[removed]
1.
Photographs are an important source of data because they:
a.
b.
c.
d.
2.
The Ju/'hoansi are best described as a band because:
a.
b.
c.
d.
3.
A bifurcate kinship system is one where:
a.
b.
c.
d.
4.
The "honeymoon" phase in anthropological fieldwork can be described as a:
a.
b.
c.
d.
5.
Theoretical models in anthropology are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
6.
If your informant describes how her peers treat her differently because her father is an important film star, this is termed her __________ status.
a.
b.
c.
d.
7.
Rank societies are those where individuals gain prestige and wealth by using:
a.
b.
c.
d.
8.
Agriculturally based societies are primarily associated with which of the following economic institution(s)?
a.
b.
c.
d.
9.
An anthropologist that includes his or her thoughts about what he or she sees as well as quotations from his or her informants is presenting what type of ethnography?
a.
b.
c.
d.
10.
Anthropological interest in sexuality can be traced back to which of the following anthropologists?
a.
b.
c.
d.
11.
Which of the following chromosomal pairs shows that an individual is male?
a.
b.
c.
d.
12.
A key informant is selected using a:
a.
b.
c.
d.
13.
Which of the following situations is considered a suitable fieldwork setting for an anthropologist?
a.
b.
c.
d.
14.
The most common kinship system in North America today consists of __________ descent groups known as __________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
15.
Members of the Yurok, Karuk, Hupa, and Tolowa use valued items such as obsidian blades, white deer skins, and elaborately carved paddles and spoons to:
a.
b.
c.
d.
16.
The production maximization model of intensive agriculture strives to maximize production through:
a.
b.
c.
d.
17.
Forensic anthropologists apply their knowledge to legal issues by studying what materials?
a.
b.
c.
d.
18.
The Zuni recognize the berdache gender person as being:
a.
b.
c.
d.
19.
The Zuni recognize the berdache gender person as being:
a.
b.
c.
d.
20.
Initial attempts by AID to bring about reforestation in Haiti failed because:
a.
b.
c.
d.
21.
What type of evidence is used to analyze the evolutionary model of human cultural adaptations?
a.
b.
c.
d.
22.
The four fields of anthropology are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
23.
The description of a single society based on fieldwork is called a(n):
a.
b.
c.
d.
24.
A societal type common in foraging groups and marked by egalitarian social structure and lack of specialization is a:
a.
b.
c.
d.
25.
Among the New Zealand Maori, facial tattoos communicated all of the following, EXCEPT:
a.
b.
c.
d.
26.
The advantages of polygyny across cultures include all of the following, EXCEPT:
a.
b.
c.
d.
27.
Every aspect of culture influences every other aspect of that culture. Thus culture is:
a.
b.
c.
d.
28.
An informant tells a fieldworker that the preferred marriage custom in his culture is for a man to marry his mother's brot.
Your paper should address the following questionsWhen you hear th.docxmelbruce90096
Your paper should address the following questions:
When you hear the word “scientist” what do you envision? Which famous people or characters from the media come into your mind? What characteristics do they have in common? Discuss at least three characteristics of your vision of a scientist.
Has your image of what a scientist does and how they look changed over time? If so, how has this changed and what influenced you?
Are fictional scientists usually the heroes, villains, or a combination of the two? Provide at least two detailed examples to support your position.
How is science portrayed in fictional media (television shows, movies, music, books, etc.)? Is it seen as a positive, negative, or neutral force in the world? Give specific examples supporting your position.
Do you think the portrayal of scientists in the various forms of media influences how society views people in this profession? Why, or why not?
Can the portrayal of science in media influence how certain research and technology is viewed, and accepted, by the general public (e.g., cloning)?
Your Final Project should be written in an essay format, with an introduction and conclusion. The paper will require you to include details from research including the course materials and sources you locate on your own. Use APA format to cite your sources of information, both within parenthetical citations and also within a reference page at the end of the project.
Basic Writing Expectations:
A minimum of 1,500 words, not counting the title or reference pages
At least 3 academic resources utilized
Include a title page, double space, font size 10 or 12
Include a highly developed viewpoint/thesis, purpose, and exceptional content
Demonstrate superior organization: use logic
Free of grammar and spelling errors
No evidence of plagiarism.
Note:
no more than 10% of your paper should be direct quotes
Use the APA style for all in-text citations, references, and body of paper
.
Your Final Project from this course will enable you to compare cultu.docxmelbruce90096
Your Final Project from this course will enable you to compare cultural viewpoints toward death and dying in Western society to those in other parts of the world.
Final Project Information
Overview
Your Final Project will be a medium-length essay in which you address the cultural viewpoints toward death and dying in Western society and compare these to the perspectives toward death and dying in other parts the world. As the course content will point out, much about the Western response to death and dying amplifies the process of grief and bereavement, perhaps unnecessarily. In the West, death is something that is denied and, in many ways, is something that people seem ill-equipped to deal with once the event occurs or is imminent. Your job in this paper will be to put on your social scientist cap and offer “cultural solutions” to the way that death and dying is dealt with in Western society.
Assignment
Based on your own independent research in which you compare the cultural beliefs toward death and dying in Western societies to those in Eastern societies such as China, Vietnam, Japan, and so forth, write an essay that addresses the following points:
Describe in detail the major differences between the Western viewpoint toward death and dying and those in these Eastern societies (you may focus on one country, such as China, or talk about Eastern societies more generally). Be sure to describe the rituals involved with the process of death and dying, the various technologies, or anything that helps explain these differences.
Give one specific example of a famous case of death and dying in Western society that demonstrates some of the problems or dysfunctions of the Western viewpoint (examining cases in the media, for example, will be a great place to start!).
Finally, conclude your final paper with a detailed commentary about what we can do to change the cultural beliefs toward death and dying in Western societies in a way that makes us less afraid of the dying process. Be very specific in your commentary.
.
Your Final Paper is to be a comprehensive research study on one of t.docxmelbruce90096
Your Final Paper is to be a comprehensive research study on one of the following public policy topics:
Environmental Concerns
Immigration
Health Care
Primary and Secondary Public Education
Social Security
Welfare
Your analysis of the topic will include:
The scope and nature of the public policy problem.
How the problem came to public and political awareness.
The evolution of related public policy.
Level of government and the actors involved.
The intergovernmental structure and political concerns.
Conflicting public opinion and impact on policy solutions.
The approaches to policy formulation, adoption, and evaluation.
The suggested policy direction (continuation, change or termination) and future impact.
Writing the Final Paper
The Final Paper:
Must be eight to ten double-spaced pages in length (including title and reference pages), and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.
Must include a title page with the following:
Title of paper
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must begin with an introductory paragraph that has a succinct thesis statement.
Must address the topic of the paper with critical thought.
Must end with a conclusion that reaffirms your thesis.
Must use at six to ten scholarly sources, including a minimum of four from the Ashford University Library.
Must document all sources in APA style, as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.
Must include a separate reference page, formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center
.
Your director is not aware of the involvement of the Department of H.docxmelbruce90096
Your director is not aware of the involvement of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) with private enterprise and has requested an information paper that provides her with an explanation about why this is important and how the DHS engages private enterprise in the protection of critical infrastructure and key resources (CIKR). Provide at least 1 example of each program that addresses state, local, tribal, and territorial (SLTT) governments, private enterprises, and individuals in the following DHS mission areas:
Prevention
Response
Recovery
.
YOull need to know The purpose of this research is to focus atte.docxmelbruce90096
YOu'll need to know:
The purpose of this research is to focus attention on how to help newly brought children adapt to the new environment at the child care, given that the children have never been to such environments before.
Content Expectations
Forms of Data (1.5 Points
): In two-to-three paragraphs, describe the multiple forms of data that you will collect (observations, interviews, artifacts, etc.) and how this information will inform your research.
Value of Data (2.5 Points):
In two-to-three paragraphs, explain the value of the selected forms of data and how this information will inform the focus and research questions.
.
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The Internet is a revolutionary force. If it means more significant participation in politics rather than a commitment to democratic values, it is democratization. Extremist groups that reject these values benefit from the "democratization" of knowledge and communication. The direct political impact of the Internet has been to strengthen the views of extremists and increase the number of people who represent them. According to Wajid khan's point of view, New political mechanisms are needed to control participation and dissent.
The decline in content moderation
The Internet's impact on content delivery has been particularly pronounced, with decentralized media replacing editors and fact-checkers of the past. Social media has become more and more disinterested. Facebook has become a primary news source for many Americans, but word on Facebook is automatically selected and tailored to group preferences, resulting in information that contradicts established beliefs. Are often included.
Companies design algorithms that maximize user engagement. Algorithms do this by selecting information based on the user's interests. Wajid Khan Mp concludes that User interests can automatically reflect and unwittingly reinforce biases.
Some studies suggest that the information overload unleashed by the internet fuels the spread of conspiracy theories that offer simple and coherent explanations for complex and unpredictable events. I'm here. The Internet provides proponents of these theories with a broader audience and an uncritical medium to disseminate them.
Legitimacy and Consent of Rulers
Legitimacy arises from the consent of the ruled to recognize authority and agree to its rules (often by voting, a symbolic act of affirmation). Permission can be obtained through moral authority, such as religion, coercion, or violence (where the subject does not oppose the issue out of fear) or through participation mechanisms. Moral authority and expertise can also exert influence, but this influence is most effective when reinforced or "operationalized" through formal institutions.
Communities where the consent of the governed is insufficient to confer authority, become unstable. The challenges to liberal democracy began before the Internet, but the online environment has reinforced them, allowing for competing narratives and unfiltered information, amplifying extremism and conspiracy theories.
The Internet has changed the requirements of political legitimacy and democratic consent. Currently, structured representative democracies have not fully lived up to the expectations that the Internet has brought to citizens regarding access to information, a voice in decision-making, and direct contact with political leaders.
Canadian Politician Wajid khan says the same pressures pushing companies to become flatter, less hierarchical organizations are also putting pressure on governance structures. Citizens also expect immediacy and authenticity of their messages. The
Impact of the Internet on politics
The Internet is a revolutionary force. If it means more significant participation in politics rather than a commitment to democratic values, it is democratization. Extremist groups that reject these values benefit from the "democratization" of knowledge and communication. The direct political impact of the Internet has been to strengthen the views of extremists and increase the number of people who represent them. According to Wajid khan's point of view, New political mechanisms are needed to control participation and dissent.
The decline in content moderation
The Internet's impact on content delivery has been particularly pronounced, with decentralized media replacing editors and fact-checkers of the past. Social media has become more and more disinterested. Facebook has become a primary news source for many Americans, but word on Facebook is automatically selected and tailored to group preferences, resulting in information that contradicts established beliefs. Are often included.
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Legitimacy arises from the consent of the ruled to recognize authority and agree to its rules (often by voting, a symbolic act of affirmation). Permission can be obtained through moral authority, such as religion, coercion, or violence (where the subject does not oppose the issue out of fear) or through participation mechanisms. Moral authority and expertise can also exert influence, but this influence is most effective when reinforced or "operationalized" through formal institutions.
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Canadian Politician Wajid khan says the same pressures pushing companies to become flatter, less hierarchical organizations are also putting pressure on governance structures. Citizens also expect immediacy an
`Do assignments as detailed outNO WIKI for referncesPlease m.docxmelbruce90096
`Do assignments as detailed out
NO WIKI for refernces
Please make sure that ALL REFERNCES ARE APA CITED
TB BOOK CITATION:
Dyer, W. G., Jr., Dyer, J. H., & Dyer, W. G. (2013). Team building: Proven strategies for improving team performance (5th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
.
_____1.On July 9, Sheb Company sells goods on credit to .docxmelbruce90096
_____1.
On July 9, Sheb Company sells goods on credit to Wooley Company for $5,000, terms 1/10, n/60. Sheb receives payment on July 18. The entry by Sheb on July 18 is:
A)
Cash
5,000
Accounts Receivable
5,000
B)
Cash
5,000
Sales Discounts
50
Accounts Receivable
4,950
C)
Cash
4,950
Sales Discounts
50
Accounts Receivable
5,000
D)
Cash
5,050
Sales Discounts
50
Accounts Receivable
5,000
_____2.
The collection of a $1,000 account after the 2 percent discount period will result in a
A)
debit to Cash for $980.
B)
credit to Accounts Receivable for $1,000.
C)
credit to Cash for $1,000.
D)
debit to Sales Discounts for $20.
_____3.
Gross profit does
not
appear
A)
on a multiple-step income statement.
B)
on a single-step income statement.
C)
to be relevant in analyzing the operation of a merchandiser.
D)
on the income statement if the periodic inventory system is used because it cannot be calculated.
_____4.
During 2014, Parker Enterprises generated revenues of $90,000. The company's expenses were as follows: cost of goods sold of $45,000, operating expenses of $18,000 and a loss on the sale of equipment of $3,000.
Parker's gross profit is
A)
$24,000.
B)
$27,000.
C)
$45,000.
D)
$90,000.
_____5.
At the beginning of September, 2014, Stella Company reported Inventory of $8,000. During the month, the company made purchases of $35,600. At September 30, 2014, a physical count of inventory reported $8,400 on hand. Cost of goods sold for the month is
A)
$35,200.
B)
$35,600.
C)
$36,000.
D)
$43,600.
_____6.
The Freight-In account
A)
increases the cost of merchandise purchased.
B)
is contra to the Purchases account.
C)
is a permanent account.
D)
has a normal credit balance.
______7.
A company purchased inventory as follows:
150 units at $5
350 units at $6
The average unit cost for inventory is
A)
$5.00.
B)
$5.50.
C)
$5.70.
D)
$6.00.
______8.
A company just starting business made the following four inventory purchases in June:
June
1
150 units
$
390
June
10
200 units
585
June
15
200 units
630
June
28
150 units
510
$2,115
A physical count of merchandise inventory on June 30 reveals that there are 250 units on hand. Using the FIFO inventory method, the amount allocated to cost of goods sold for June is
A)
$683.
B)
$825.
C)
$1,290.
D)
$1,432.
PART II — BASIC INVENTORY COMPUTATIONS
(18 points)
9.
Joe Poultry uses a
periodic
inventory system. Its beginning inventory on May 1 consisted of 300 units of Product A at a cost of $6.25 per unit. During May, the following purchases and sales were made.
Purchases
Sales
May
6
300
units at $7.20
May
4
275
units
14
400
units at $9.10
8
300
units
21
100
units at $11.50
22
400
units
28
500
units at $11.80
24
225
units
1,300
1,200
Instructions:
Compute the May 31 ending inventory and May cost of goods sold under (a) Average Cost, (b) FIFO, and (c) LIFO. Provide appropriate supporting ca.
[removed]eltomate Son rojos y se sirven (they are serv.docxmelbruce90096
[removed]
el
tomate
: Son rojos y se sirven (
they are served
) en las ensaladas.
[removed]
los
entremeses
: Se come (
It is eaten
) antes del plato principal; es líquida y caliente (
hot
).
[removed]
la
zanahoria
: Son unas verduras anaranjadas, largas y delgadas
.
[u07d2] Unit 7 Discussion 2Conflict and ChangeResourcesDiscuss.docxmelbruce90096
[u07d2] Unit 7 Discussion 2
Conflict and Change
Resources
Discussion and Participation Scoring Guide
.
Change is part of our lives. Change is viewed as positive and negative. It is accompanied with excitement and confidence, opportunity, progress, growth, innovation, fear and anxiety, upheaval, threat, and unpredictability. People react to change differently.
Based on the assigned readings, briefly answer the following questions.
List and explain the three approaches to change.
Explain the dynamics of change as you see it.
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[removed]1.Which of the following processes addresses when to sp.docxmelbruce90096
[removed]
1.
Which of the following processes addresses when to speak, what to say, and how to organize one's message?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2.
When a speaker uses supporting material based on what he or she has seen or heard, that type of support is called:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
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When a room is too large, you can enhance the volume of your voice by using:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
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A speaker can combat the problem of the audience's limited attention span by:
a.
b.
c.
d.
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Parallel statements at the same level of importance in the outline are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
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A simplified drawing or sketch that resembles a more complex object is known as a:
a.
b.
c.
d.
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When your audience analysis focuses on the perceptual processes of the audience, including their tendencies toward selective exposure and selective attention, you are assessing audience:
a.
b.
c.
d.
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When asked to deliver a speech for which you are allowed to decide the purpose, you should assess how the:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
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Public speaking is a communication process that can best be described as a(n):
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
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All of the following are goals of research in preparation for a speech, except:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
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Which of the following is not good advice when preparing to deliver your speech?
a.
b.
c.
d.
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When group reports are presented orally to others, the occasion is called:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
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What is an internal summary?
a.
b.
c.
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Which element of the body in delivery not only helps communicate effectively to the audience, but also provides feedback to the speaker regarding the audience's response to the speech?
a.
b.
c.
d.
15.
In order to respond appropriately to the rhetorical situation, you need to develop a(n) __________ that identifies the purpose of your speech.
a.
b.
c.
d.
16.
Informative strategies ask listeners to:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
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When analyzing the four factors of the rhetorical situation, which of the following characteristics is a concern for the speaker?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
18.
Careful listening relies on two techniques:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
19.
The process of invention involves:
a.
b.
c.
d.
20.
When a speech is well-suited to the expectations of a particular occasion, it has the quality of:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
21.
The principle of the residues pattern of arrangement is best reflected in which of the following phrases?
a.
b.
c.
d.
22.
Which of the following conditions give rise to deliberative speaking?
a.
b.
c.
d.
23.
Which of the following resources does not help to create vividness in a speech?
a.
b.
c.
d.
24.
Which of the following represent the two types of testimony?
a.
b.
c.
d.
25.
Which type of outline is made simple and brief to provide a memory aid while delivering the speech?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
26.
Organization is important for all of the following reasons, except:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
27.
Hearing is the __________ sounds.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
28.
The .
Your paper should be a literary essay in which you present a combina.docxmelbruce90096
Your paper should be a literary essay in which you present a combination of primary and secondary research. Use MLA style for formatting (margins, spacing, numbering pages, heading, title etc.) and citing sources (parenthetical notes and works cited page)
Choose an English Romantic writer (William Wordsworth)
Choose a work by that writer as the focus of your research (Tintern Abbey)
Analyze and interpret the work to plan our approach to it and do some preliminary reading to evaluate the topic.
8 pages 4 secondary sources
.
[removed]1.Photographs are an important source of data because t.docxmelbruce90096
[removed]
1.
Photographs are an important source of data because they:
a.
b.
c.
d.
2.
The Ju/'hoansi are best described as a band because:
a.
b.
c.
d.
3.
A bifurcate kinship system is one where:
a.
b.
c.
d.
4.
The "honeymoon" phase in anthropological fieldwork can be described as a:
a.
b.
c.
d.
5.
Theoretical models in anthropology are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
6.
If your informant describes how her peers treat her differently because her father is an important film star, this is termed her __________ status.
a.
b.
c.
d.
7.
Rank societies are those where individuals gain prestige and wealth by using:
a.
b.
c.
d.
8.
Agriculturally based societies are primarily associated with which of the following economic institution(s)?
a.
b.
c.
d.
9.
An anthropologist that includes his or her thoughts about what he or she sees as well as quotations from his or her informants is presenting what type of ethnography?
a.
b.
c.
d.
10.
Anthropological interest in sexuality can be traced back to which of the following anthropologists?
a.
b.
c.
d.
11.
Which of the following chromosomal pairs shows that an individual is male?
a.
b.
c.
d.
12.
A key informant is selected using a:
a.
b.
c.
d.
13.
Which of the following situations is considered a suitable fieldwork setting for an anthropologist?
a.
b.
c.
d.
14.
The most common kinship system in North America today consists of __________ descent groups known as __________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
15.
Members of the Yurok, Karuk, Hupa, and Tolowa use valued items such as obsidian blades, white deer skins, and elaborately carved paddles and spoons to:
a.
b.
c.
d.
16.
The production maximization model of intensive agriculture strives to maximize production through:
a.
b.
c.
d.
17.
Forensic anthropologists apply their knowledge to legal issues by studying what materials?
a.
b.
c.
d.
18.
The Zuni recognize the berdache gender person as being:
a.
b.
c.
d.
19.
The Zuni recognize the berdache gender person as being:
a.
b.
c.
d.
20.
Initial attempts by AID to bring about reforestation in Haiti failed because:
a.
b.
c.
d.
21.
What type of evidence is used to analyze the evolutionary model of human cultural adaptations?
a.
b.
c.
d.
22.
The four fields of anthropology are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
23.
The description of a single society based on fieldwork is called a(n):
a.
b.
c.
d.
24.
A societal type common in foraging groups and marked by egalitarian social structure and lack of specialization is a:
a.
b.
c.
d.
25.
Among the New Zealand Maori, facial tattoos communicated all of the following, EXCEPT:
a.
b.
c.
d.
26.
The advantages of polygyny across cultures include all of the following, EXCEPT:
a.
b.
c.
d.
27.
Every aspect of culture influences every other aspect of that culture. Thus culture is:
a.
b.
c.
d.
28.
An informant tells a fieldworker that the preferred marriage custom in his culture is for a man to marry his mother's brot.
Your paper should address the following questionsWhen you hear th.docxmelbruce90096
Your paper should address the following questions:
When you hear the word “scientist” what do you envision? Which famous people or characters from the media come into your mind? What characteristics do they have in common? Discuss at least three characteristics of your vision of a scientist.
Has your image of what a scientist does and how they look changed over time? If so, how has this changed and what influenced you?
Are fictional scientists usually the heroes, villains, or a combination of the two? Provide at least two detailed examples to support your position.
How is science portrayed in fictional media (television shows, movies, music, books, etc.)? Is it seen as a positive, negative, or neutral force in the world? Give specific examples supporting your position.
Do you think the portrayal of scientists in the various forms of media influences how society views people in this profession? Why, or why not?
Can the portrayal of science in media influence how certain research and technology is viewed, and accepted, by the general public (e.g., cloning)?
Your Final Project should be written in an essay format, with an introduction and conclusion. The paper will require you to include details from research including the course materials and sources you locate on your own. Use APA format to cite your sources of information, both within parenthetical citations and also within a reference page at the end of the project.
Basic Writing Expectations:
A minimum of 1,500 words, not counting the title or reference pages
At least 3 academic resources utilized
Include a title page, double space, font size 10 or 12
Include a highly developed viewpoint/thesis, purpose, and exceptional content
Demonstrate superior organization: use logic
Free of grammar and spelling errors
No evidence of plagiarism.
Note:
no more than 10% of your paper should be direct quotes
Use the APA style for all in-text citations, references, and body of paper
.
Your Final Project from this course will enable you to compare cultu.docxmelbruce90096
Your Final Project from this course will enable you to compare cultural viewpoints toward death and dying in Western society to those in other parts of the world.
Final Project Information
Overview
Your Final Project will be a medium-length essay in which you address the cultural viewpoints toward death and dying in Western society and compare these to the perspectives toward death and dying in other parts the world. As the course content will point out, much about the Western response to death and dying amplifies the process of grief and bereavement, perhaps unnecessarily. In the West, death is something that is denied and, in many ways, is something that people seem ill-equipped to deal with once the event occurs or is imminent. Your job in this paper will be to put on your social scientist cap and offer “cultural solutions” to the way that death and dying is dealt with in Western society.
Assignment
Based on your own independent research in which you compare the cultural beliefs toward death and dying in Western societies to those in Eastern societies such as China, Vietnam, Japan, and so forth, write an essay that addresses the following points:
Describe in detail the major differences between the Western viewpoint toward death and dying and those in these Eastern societies (you may focus on one country, such as China, or talk about Eastern societies more generally). Be sure to describe the rituals involved with the process of death and dying, the various technologies, or anything that helps explain these differences.
Give one specific example of a famous case of death and dying in Western society that demonstrates some of the problems or dysfunctions of the Western viewpoint (examining cases in the media, for example, will be a great place to start!).
Finally, conclude your final paper with a detailed commentary about what we can do to change the cultural beliefs toward death and dying in Western societies in a way that makes us less afraid of the dying process. Be very specific in your commentary.
.
Your Final Paper is to be a comprehensive research study on one of t.docxmelbruce90096
Your Final Paper is to be a comprehensive research study on one of the following public policy topics:
Environmental Concerns
Immigration
Health Care
Primary and Secondary Public Education
Social Security
Welfare
Your analysis of the topic will include:
The scope and nature of the public policy problem.
How the problem came to public and political awareness.
The evolution of related public policy.
Level of government and the actors involved.
The intergovernmental structure and political concerns.
Conflicting public opinion and impact on policy solutions.
The approaches to policy formulation, adoption, and evaluation.
The suggested policy direction (continuation, change or termination) and future impact.
Writing the Final Paper
The Final Paper:
Must be eight to ten double-spaced pages in length (including title and reference pages), and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.
Must include a title page with the following:
Title of paper
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must begin with an introductory paragraph that has a succinct thesis statement.
Must address the topic of the paper with critical thought.
Must end with a conclusion that reaffirms your thesis.
Must use at six to ten scholarly sources, including a minimum of four from the Ashford University Library.
Must document all sources in APA style, as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.
Must include a separate reference page, formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center
.
Your director is not aware of the involvement of the Department of H.docxmelbruce90096
Your director is not aware of the involvement of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) with private enterprise and has requested an information paper that provides her with an explanation about why this is important and how the DHS engages private enterprise in the protection of critical infrastructure and key resources (CIKR). Provide at least 1 example of each program that addresses state, local, tribal, and territorial (SLTT) governments, private enterprises, and individuals in the following DHS mission areas:
Prevention
Response
Recovery
.
YOull need to know The purpose of this research is to focus atte.docxmelbruce90096
YOu'll need to know:
The purpose of this research is to focus attention on how to help newly brought children adapt to the new environment at the child care, given that the children have never been to such environments before.
Content Expectations
Forms of Data (1.5 Points
): In two-to-three paragraphs, describe the multiple forms of data that you will collect (observations, interviews, artifacts, etc.) and how this information will inform your research.
Value of Data (2.5 Points):
In two-to-three paragraphs, explain the value of the selected forms of data and how this information will inform the focus and research questions.
.
Your draft should establish and develop a single thesis [or co.docxmelbruce90096
Your draft should establish and develop a single thesis [or controlling idea], develop in parts. You may also write from the earlier handout on an author you haven’t yet written about.
Gandhi’s “Economic and Moral Progress” suggests that morality and economic prosperity do not go hand in hand. In fact, he argues, oftentimes, one loses one’s morality when one becomes wealthy. Do you agree with Gandhi? Does wealth correlate with immorality? Yes or no. Explain by referring to passages from the essay.
Compare David Suzuki’s understanding of interdependence [interconnectedness] with Ricard and Thuan’s.
Discuss the ways in which Gandhi supports his argument—first with historical examples, then with famous people, then by using the writing of a famous scientist. Is his essay more effective as he adds this type of support?
Desmond Tutu describes South Africa’s decision to seek a middle path between two extremes. What are these extremes and what is this middle path? Is Tutu right in arguing for this road down the middle?
Compare Desmond Tutu’s “middle path” with the teachings of Lao Tzu. Does Lao Tzu advocate a similar position? You might include other famous historical figures who’ve argued a similar position.
David Suzuki’s “The Sacred Balance” appears to be in two parts: first, he identifies the problem in three parts, then he identifies the solution in three parts. What is the essential problem and what is Suzuki’s solution?
Tom Shadyac’s film, “I Am” has a central thesis and advocates a certain solution. What is the basic thesis of the film and what is the solution or solution[s] he advocates? What’s the basic problem and what’s the answer? And how does he convince the audience of these truths?
Kenzaburo Oe develops a very smart and very controversial thesis. What is his thesis and what exactly does he refer to in an attempt to develop, support that thesis.
Kenzaburo Oe discusses the Great Flood [Noah] at the end of his essay and identifies something very troubling about the Western mind. What is this thing he is identifying here? How does it relate to the overall theme of the essay [man’s inhumanity to man]?
Rachel Carson’s “Obligation to Endure” identifies large increases in human populations that create conditions in which insects and other forms of life must be controlled. Name a few of these patterns of behavior that cause an increase in the amount of insects among us.
Identify Rachel Carson’s thesis and her solution. What’s the problem she outlines and what does she propose we do?
How do Carson’s ideas seem to influence David Suzuki? Are they on to the same problems? How are they similar or different?
Plato’s Gorgias is a discussion of the problem of rhetoric and the need for conversation. What is rhetoric, according to Plato, and why is it so dangerous? Does he convince the reader that discourse [words] can be used inappropriately and in dangerous ways?
Discuss any of the questions that follow the readings [Understa.
Your company has just hired your foreign friend to work in a middle-.docxmelbruce90096
Your company has just hired your foreign friend to work in a middle-management position. Since you have lived in the United States for many years, your friend believes that you understand job coaching for a traditional American company. She wants to work with you and has many questions—some of which concern the manner in which cultural nuances related to religious customs, verbal and nonverbal communication, etc. may affect leadership roles.
Write a five to seven (5-7) page paper in which you:
Recommend whether or not your friend should insert herself as a coach from the beginning. Provide a rationale for your response.
Determine two (2) conflicts that could possibly arise as a result of asking people to work on days of religious significance. Propose concrete solutions for these two (2) possible conflicts.
Determine whether or not cultural quirks could restrain the foreign manager from expressing his or her ideas readily. Provide a rationale for your response.
Determine two (2) actions that you can take in order to prepare yourself and your friend to become multicultural leaders. Provide two (2) examples to support your response.
Predict two (2) major conflicts that may arise out of nonverbal communication misunderstandings (e.g., words misinterpreted, hand gestures, looks, shoulder shrugs, names of objects, etc.). Suggest two (2) actions that your friend could take in order to diffuse these types of misunderstandings and thus make the workplace more harmonious. Justify your response.
Use at least five (5) quality academic resources in this assignment. Note: Wikipedia does not qualify as an academic resource.
Please DO NOT use "I, me, you, us, or we" in the research paper.
Please include a introduction paragraph.
Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:
Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
.
Your boss has asked you to write a Project Management Plan. Your pla.docxmelbruce90096
Your boss has asked you to write a Project Management Plan. Your plan should contain the following sections:
Initiating
Planning
Executing
Monitoring and Controlling
Closing
In addition, your plan should touch upon the following components:
Integration
Cost
Human resources
Stakeholder management
Scope
Quality
Communications
Time
Procurement
Risk management
.
Your boss has chosen you to give a presentation to a number of forei.docxmelbruce90096
Your boss has chosen you to give a presentation to a number of foreign officials (We have Chosen Italy) regarding the United States Federal Reserve System. These officials are very interested in doing business in the United States, but they would like to learn more about the Federal Reserve and how it operates as compared to the official's home country.
*
Your instructor will provide a list of countries from which you may select as the home country of the "foreign officials".
Develop
a 3- to 4-slide Microsoft
®
PowerPoint
®
presentation including detailed speaker notes.
Incorporate
any feedback from peer review discussion.
Address
the following questions and include a notes page which contains the write-up portion to each question:
How does monetary policy aim to avoid inflation?
How does monetary policy control the money supply?
How does a stimulus program (through the money multiplier) affect the money supply?
Format
consistent with APA guidelines including a reference slide.
.
your assignment is to submit a presentation on Native-American liter.docxmelbruce90096
your assignment is to submit a presentation on Native-American literature. You may choose ONE of the stories below..
"The Shawl"
"The Years of My Birth"
Here are the specifications for the assignment:
1. Please submit your presentation to the Presentation Drop Box under Module 4 Hispanic-American Literature. The deadline is 12/05.
2. Your presentation will consist of a PowerPoint or Prezi. The format MUST allow for video clips to be incorporated. In order to fulfill the oral communication component of this course, you will videotape yourself speaking onto a camera or record yourself speaking. Please submit an mp3 file, not a wave file, and include this video or audio clip in your presentation. Audio is required.
3. The presentation should include:
A. First slide with your name and the story or poem you selected for your presentation.
B. Slides that show your research of a minimum of 3 facts or statistics that help enhance our understanding of Native American/ Hispanic/ African-American literature, culture, history, or traditions (depending on your last name, you will focus on one of these types of literature. Please see above). Please explain HOW these 3 facts relate to the story or poem you chose to discuss. Please provide MLA citation regarding where the facts and statistics came from (URL or article you found).
B. Please include one video clip of the author and/or historic event related to the poem or story you are presenting on.
C. Please present 2 ways in which the story or poem you chose relates to ONE literary criticism theory.
(Please see Introduction to Literary Analysis Folder under Content.) You can do this orally in video and/or audio.
D. Please audiotape yourself for 5 minutes speaking to us about the literary theory that applies to the story or poem you have chosen for your presentation. This video or audio clip should be included with your presentation or prezi.
F. On the video of yourself, please ask one question you have about the story or poem and provide a possible answer.
This presentation will be graded on:
-- complete information required
-- clarity of oral presentation
-- use of video and/or audio
-- research and explanation of literary theoy
-- analysis of story or poem.
.
Your assignment is to report on TWO cultural experience visits y.docxmelbruce90096
Your assignment is to report on TWO "cultural experience" visits you make during this term. After each visit, write a 500-800 word report about the visit and what you learned.
Your instructor may modify this assignment.
Instructions
For your two reports, attend two different venues from this list.
art museum or sculpture garden
significant or notable architectural site (if there is explanatory material there to help you understand it)
music concert
theater play
poetry reading or spoken word performance
dance performance
religious service, ceremony or ritual for a religion very different from yours, if you practice (for instance, if you are Christian, you may not go to another Christian denomination's service)
other displays or performances may be acceptable. Check with your instructor for approval beforehand.
Restrictions: The experience should be done in person. If this is impossible, contact the instructor to arrange for alternatives. You may not report on a cultural experience from prior to this class.
Write a report after each cultural experience (Cultural Experience Report #1 and #2).
Each report should include the following information. Include photos or links that help convey the information. As always, be sure to document all sources you consult in preparing your work.
Name and location of the museum, site, or performance event. If there is on-line information about the site or performance, include a link.
Type of museum, site or event. For example, is it a portrait museum, a poetry slam, an outdoor Shakespeare festival performance? If you attended a performance, name the performer or the piece. Be specific about what you attended, when, and where.
Briefly describe the general setting.
Describe at least one aspect of the experience that you found especially interesting. For example, you might write about a particular work of art, cultural artifact, song, dance section, scene in a play, costumes or lighting, a particular actor or vocalist, etc. Explain what impressed you, and why. Your reaction can be positive or negative, as long as you offer an explanation.
Identify and use at least two things you've learned in class in your essay. For example, if you visit a museum, you might point out the architectural style, discuss an artist you've learned about in the course, or tie your experience to a class discussion.
Reflect on the relevance--if any--of your experience to your everyday life. How did the experience engage your feelings or emotions, if at all? What does this tell you about human culture, or about yourself?
.
your article must be a research article You can tell it is a researc.docxmelbruce90096
your article must be a research article You can tell it is a research journal article, and not just an editorial article, because a research article will have the
7 parts of a research article
(i.e.
Title, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, References
). Once you have chosen your research journal article, then write up a 3-4 page analysis of your chosen research article answering the questions in the
“Reading a Research Article”
(attached to this page)
.
.
Your administrator has come to you for information for a present.docxmelbruce90096
Your administrator has come to you for information for a presentation regarding electronic health records to the Board of Directors at your facility. Your administrator wants you to explain what the difference between ICD-9/ICD-10 and SNOMed as related to the EHRs. What would you tell them and what 2 primary points would you want to identify and why?
.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
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Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Week 3Rational and Expressive Choice Rational Choice The.docx
1. Week 3
Rational and Expressive Choice
Rational Choice Theory and the Rational Voter Model (P =
B > C; or Participation or voter choice (P) = perceived benefits
of participation or choice (B) > perceived costs of participation
or choice (C)) became popular in the 1970s. Pursuant to this
theory and model, voters decide whether to vote and which
candidate to vote for on some rational basis, usually on the
basis of which action gives them greater expected benefits. The
model lends itself more than others to predicting what effects
changes in external conditions will have on the vote. A major
contribution of the model was to emphasize the role of issues in
voter choice.
The paradox of participation calls into question this
theoretical perspective. The paradox theorizes that the rational
individual will not waste resources by bearing the costs of
taking part in the voting process but will instead take a free ride
on the efforts of others. This is known as the free rider
problem. The problem is especially acute when the individual
does not perceive their vote as being decisive to the election
outcome.
Some have used rational choice theory to argue that those
in a high socio-economic class would be less active “because
they have the education and intellectual sophistication to
comprehend the free-rider problem and because their high
salaries raise the opportunity cost of participation” (Verba
1995, 284). The facts however suggest this hypothesis is false.
In fact, strong empirical evidence demonstrates that those in a
high socio-economic class are actually the most likely to be
active.
Other rational choice proponents, including Anthony
Downs, have argued that lower information and transaction
2. costs for the well educated imply that it is actually easier for
them to participate in politics. Verba (1995) notes “[t]his
approach has the virtue of fitting the facts but seems somewhat
post hoc” (284).
Overall, rational choice theory must be praised for its
theoretical elegance. But, the theory has done a poor job of
predicting political participation. More specifically, the theory
has failed to predict how much political activity and who will
take part.
Some have argued that expressive choice theory can
provide a more compelling explanation of voter behavior.
According to Schuessler in A Logic of Expressive Choice
(2000), individuals do not necessarily participate in collective
action in order to produce outcomes but instead often do so in
order to express who they are by attaching themselves to such
outcomes.
Because under Schuessler’s perspective the value of
participation emerges not from the outcome but from the
process of participation itself, the free-rider problem is no
longer a concern. Participation therefore is not a form of
investment but rather a form of consumption. Schuessler wrote,
“Consumption benefits are inextricably tied to expression: the
sports fan’s expression of team support is required for him to
enjoy his participation. Similarly, participation in politics,
under a consumption-benefit regime, is inextricably tied to the
expression of partnership, or the expression of preference
toward one of the candidates” (46) (emphasis in original). So
while participation was often seen as a cost under the rational
choice perspectives, expressive choice theorists see
participation as a huge benefit logically driving the individual
voter when making voting choices.
Mobilization
Mobilization is the process by which candidates, parties,
activists and groups induce other people to participate. Two
types of mobilization: (1) Directly – leaders mobilize people
directly when they contact citizens personally and encourage
3. them to take action and (2) Indirectly – leaders mobilize people
indirectly when they contact citizens through mutual associates
(family, friends, neighbors or colleagues).
Political leaders do not try to mobilize everyone, and not all the
time. For maximum effect, they target their efforts on
particular people, and they time them for particular occasions.
When targeting, political leaders are (1) more likely to mobilize
people they already know; (2) more likely to mobilize people
who are centrally positioned in social networks; (3) more likely
to mobilize people whose actions are most effective at
producing political outcomes; and (4) more likely to mobilize
people who are likely to respond by participating. Thus,
political leaders are more likely to mobilize (1) people who are
employed, especially in large workplaces; (2) people who
belong to associations; (3) leaders of organizations, businesses
and local government; and (4) the wealthy, educated and
partisan. Timing becomes critical when we consider that (1)
people participate more when salient issues top the agenda; (2)
people participate more when other concerns do not demand
their attentions; (3) people participate more when important
decisions are pending; (4) people participate when outcomes
hang in the balance; and (5) people participate more when
issues come before legislatures rather than before bureaucracies
and courts.
Social Capital
Social capital is the features of social life – networks,
norms and trust – that enable participants to act together more
effectively to pursue shared objectives. Putnam (2000) in his
famous work Bowling Alone advances a theory of social capital
that presumes that generally speaking the more we connect with
others the more we trust them. Social trust and civic
engagement are strongly correlated. Significantly, education is
the strongest correlate of civic engagement. However education
has increased with time but yet, civic engagement has declined.
Putnam (2000) examined a number of potential factors to
explain the decline in social capital, social trust and civic
4. engagement. These factors included pressure of time and
money; mobilization and suburbanization; the changing role of
woman; marriage and family; the rise of the welfare state; the
race and civil rights revolutions; age; and television. Putnam
concluded that television and generational effects are the most
likely culprits to explain the decline.
Life-cycle effects are differences attributable to a stage of life.
Period effects affect all people who live in a given era. With
generational effects individuals do not change, but society does;
like life cycle effects, generational effects show up as
disparities among age groups at a single point in time, but like
period effects they produce real social change.
Citizen Engagement
Scholars debate whether the general decline in civic
participation since the 1960s represents a disengagement from
political activity, including voting. Niemi et al. (2010) note
that academics have become concerned about the decline in
voter turnout and other forms of political participation. Signs
of disengagement appeared in the 1960s, and at a time when
trust in the American government lessened. Disengagement was
also observed in other nations (2010).
Moreover, political knowledge also appears to be
declining. The quality of news coverage has worsened. The
development of many specialized cable channels and web sites
gives individuals the ability to either fully pay attention to
politics or avoid it entirely. It is expected that these
developments will widen the knowledge gaps between those
who regularly follow political news and those who merely use
new technology for entertainment (Niemi et al. 2010).
As noted above, Putnam concluded that the observed
decline was “generational in nature” (Niemi et al. 2010, 23).
For example, it was observed that the decline in participation
and political knowledge is especially acute in young people
(2010).
Niemi et al. (2010) also acknowledge that other academics
see disengagement as a myth. These scholars agree that cable
5. channels and the internet are replacing network television as the
primary news source. But, they also argue a change in values
has occurred, which young people were eager to adopt. Prior to
the 1960s, the World War II generation placed an emphasis on
civic duty. Later generations focused instead on engagement,
which emphasizes individual autonomy and non-electoral
behavior such as community service and directly helping others
(2010). “These changes in modes of communication, news
dissemination, and values have naturally caused changes in
some kinds of political behavior” (2010, 30).
Niemi et al. (2010) also make an important point about the
difference in calculating voter turnout. Historically, the base
was calculated using the VAP (voting age population). Since
the 1970s, however, many individuals in the voting age
population have become ineligible to vote, including large
numbers of legal or illegal non-citizens and felons or ex-felons
who were denied the voting franchise by state laws. A more
accurate measure appears to be the VEP (voting eligible
population), which actually shows that after 1972, the decline in
voting turnout was much smaller than previously observed
(2010). A challenge with using the VEP, however, is that each
state’s laws must be taken into account so as to capture the most
accurate picture of the voting eligible population.
Putnam (2000) acknowledged that it was too early to tell
the true impact of the internet on social capital and citizen
engagement. Even if we accepted the arguments from the
academics that believe disengagement is a myth, the quality of
the experience is ultimately very important to political
participation. The time spent viewing cable channel news and
web sites is increasingly becoming an individual activity. This
contemporary experience contrasts with the pre-1960s
experience of families listening to the radio together and
individuals enjoying face-to-face bridge games where they
would discuss the issues of the day collectively (2000). As
Putnam (2000) states, “More and more of our time and money
are spent on goods and services consumed individually, rather
6. than those consumed collectively” (245).
Civic engagement is subject to criticism. Some scholars
have argued: (1) the lack of involvement may signal widespread
satisfaction with the status quo rather than a crisis of
democracy; (2) participation sparks feelings of powerlessness
and frustration; (3) citizen participation may encourage unwise
decisions (due to lack of expertise); and (4) highly engaged
majorities may repress minorities and produce other injustices.
In response, others have argued: (1) there has never been non-
self-interested elites who could be trusted to advance the
common good; (2) those who are active do a poor job of
representing the interests of the inactive; (3) through
institutional design, it may be possible to reconcile tensions
between just and good government and enhanced participation;
(4) civic debate is the best way to discern the truth; and (5)
higher turnouts produce electorates less dominated by extremes.
Regardless of one’s position with respect to civic
engagement, most agree political participation in the United
States is dangerously low. I do not argue that extremely high
rates of participation must be achieved, but when government
legitimacy is perceived as low and indifference to government
and collective life too common, then increased engagement is
needed. We must remember that the amount, quality and
distribution of political and civic engagement are mostly the
product of our political choices.
Youth Participation
Regardless of whether youth participate as much as older
individuals, the nature of their participation is clearly different.
Instead of traditional political activity such as working for a
campaign and voting, youth are engaging in activities such as
boycotting and protesting (Niemi et al. 2010). However the
quality of these political activities may not yield the same
benefit to the newer generations that more traditional political
activity had for previous generations.
Verba et al.’s work only deepens the concern. Verba et al.
(1995) argue that resources such as time, money and skills are
7. required for political participation. The origins of such
resources were traced back to the involvement of individuals in
major social institutions such as the family, school, workplace,
voluntary associations and religious institutions (1995).
“Socially structured circumstances and the constrained choices
affect the stockpile of time, money and civic skills available for
politics” (271). If individuals choose to engage in activities
either alone or in non-traditional organizations and groups, then
they may not have the same quality of access to the resources
that are necessary for effective political engagement.
Newer generations may prefer to engage in contemporary
forms of non-electoral political activity, choosing not to vote.
But, evidence exists that government rewards those who vote
(Griffin and Newman 2005). Elections can be “successful in
refocusing public officials’ attention to the electorate’s desires”
(Bennett and Resnick 1990, 800).
If decline in voting continues, even prolonged slight
declines using a VEP measure, a shift in the voting model may
be warranted so as to better fit this important democratic
activity to the non-traditional paradigm embraced by newer
generations. Compulsory voting or voting via a secure internet
platform or a platform provided by another technology may
eventually be an essential change (Niemi et al. 2010).
Additional research on the quality of contemporary participation
may help inform our electoral policy options.
1
Week 2
Progressive Era Reforms
The Progressive Era (1890 – 1913) was a period of United
States (US) history that sought to curb many of the excesses of
8. the patronage period, including the institution of major
government reforms such as civil service. Progressives wanted
to clean up government, use government to advance human
welfare and apply scientific management theories to
government.
Famously, during this era (1906), Upton Sinclair wrote
The Jungle chronicling abuses in the meat packing industry,
which led President Theodore Roosevelt to press Congress to
pass laws regulating the meat industry. In addition,
Progressives had many other successes: They attacked voting
allegiances between US Senators and the railroad industry;
introduced the direct primary (to avoid party conventions);
obtained more equitable taxes; obtained regulation of railroad
rates; secured the passage of the
Sherman Anti-Trust Act; and secured the passage of the Pure
Food and Drug Law.
Progressives were also successful at introducing the
Australian ballot, which was a secret ballot printed by the state.
Previously, parties had made the ballots and there were charges
of invasion of privacy and multiple voting. For those opposed
to machine politics, the democratic virtues of secret balloting
seemed obvious. But, the reform had the unintended
consequence of becoming an obstacle to voting for many
illiterate foreign-born voters in the North and uneducated
African-Americans in the South. In some states, this problem
was remedied by having illiterate voters assisted or by attaching
party emblems next to the names of candidates.
The situation in Southern states, however, deteriorated for
African-Americans during this era. The year 1890 marked the
beginning of efforts by southern states to disenfranchise
African-American voters. Faced with recurring electoral
challenges, annoying expense of buying votes and epidemics of
fraud and violence, Southern Democrats chose to solidify their
hold over the region by amending the state voting laws so as to
exclude African-Americans without overtly violating the
Fifteenth Amendment.
9. Mississippi led the way by imposing a stricter residency
requirement, a two-dollar poll tax and a literacy test that
required voters to demonstrate that they understood the
Constitution. Other southern states soon followed by including
some combination of these requirements, and eventually
Democratic primaries were restricted to only white voters.
Laws were also adopted to disenfranchise men convicted of
minor offenses, such as vagrancy and bigamy: The goal was to
keep poor and illiterate minorities (in Texas this included
Mexican Americans) from the polls. Importantly, local election
officials were given a great deal of discretion in implementing
the requirements, which often worked to the benefit of
“gentlemen” whites but was harmful to the poor and for
minorities.
Sadly, these state laws worked. In Mississippi after 1890,
less than 9,000 out of 147,000 voting-age African-Americans
were registered to vote. In Louisiana, where more than 130,000
African-Americans were registered in 1896, as little as 1,342
were registered by 1904. Consequently, the African-American
population remained disenfranchised until the 1960s, electoral
participation was low and one-party rule by Southern Democrats
dominated southern politics.
Vote Determinants
What determines the choice a voter will select on election
day is an important question asked by many political scientists.
The most widely accepted view of what drives vote choice is
party identification. Campbell et al. (1960), in their famous
work titled The American Voter, note that “partisan preferences
show great stability between elections.” The strength and
direction of party identification are of central importance in
explaining political attitudes and behaviors (such as voting).
Campbell et al., however, caution that party identification does
not fully explain vote choice, stating “party identification could
not account for all aspects of the image formed by the public of
the elements of national politics; but it gives to this image a
central partisan coherence.” Thus, other facts likely also
10. influence vote choice albeit to a minor extent than party
identification, and I suggest that such factors may vary for
individuals depending on the nature of any given election.
Niemi and Weisberg draw our attention to many other
factors that can partly explain vote choice. These include the
role of incumbency, media influence, the state of the economy
and group attachments.
Achen and Bartels (2004) present a creative argument that
natural disasters, including drought, flu and shark attacks, also
can influence voter choice. The 1916 New Jersey example,
involving shark attacks, clearly included an economic harm
component. Query whether the true driver of vote choice is the
voters’ assessment that the political leaders should have done
more to avoid the damage or is it the damage itself and the
economic consequences that follow from the damage. Achen
and Bartels suggest that a community’s pain and pleasure are
key determinants regardless of how much influence the
incumbent really has over the disaster.
1
Week 1
In recent times, not many Americans bother to turnout at the
polls. Voter turnout in Presidential elections is typically less
than half of the potential voters. In mid-term elections (non-
Presidential elections), turnout is even lower. Some fear these
numbers reflect a serious problem for American democracy,
which depends on citizen participation. Others are less
concerned arguing that the numbers mean that things are going
well in the country; if it was not going well more people would
be motivated to have their voice heard through voting.
Solving the mystery of the cause of the decline in participation
and understanding its true impact on American democracy are
11. important issues for political science to address. To help us
understand these issues, it is helpful to review them in their
historical context, improving our understanding of electoral
rules and other factors that influence voting.
Early US Elections and Voting Rules
In America’s early days, a decade before the founding
fathers
arrived in Philadelphia to consider the adoption of the US
Constitution, the colonies had written their own suffrage laws.
These colonial laws were based on colonial precedents and
English thought, which restricted voting to adult men who
owned property. Both in England and the colonies, property
requirements to vote were justified using two arguments: (1)
men who owned property had a unique stake in society and had
a personal interest in the activities of the state, especially
taxation and (2) property owners had sufficient independence,
free from dependence on others, giving them a voice free of
control or manipulation.
Such concerns also promoted colonial governments to
adopt residency and citizenship requirements. Women were
also barred from voting because they were considered dependent
on males and because their “nature” made them unfit to engage
in politics.
It is unclear how many individuals actually voted during
colonial times. It is most likely that voting percentages varied
by locality. There probably were some communities with 70 or
80 percent enfranchisement of white male landowners. While
other locales, such as coastal towns, cities and frontier
settlements, probably were closer to 40 or 50 percent.
The American Revolution, and its calls for greater equality
among men and the expansion of freedom, fostered tensions
with existing colonial electoral rules. Voting was increasingly
being viewed as a right, even a natural right by some. The view
12. was supported with republican theory and notions of the social
contract that considered government legitimacy as requiring,
what John Locke termed, the consent of the governed.
An important expansion of the voting franchise occurred in
Pennsylvania during the first few months of the Revolution.
With the support of prominent reformers such as Ben Franklin
and Thomas Paine, and allied with western Pennsylvania
farmers who had long been under represented in the colonial
government, adopted a new constitution that abolished property
requirements and enfranchised all taxpaying adult males and the
sons of non-taxpaying freeholders. Since Pennsylvania had a
“head tax,” which required each citizen to pay tax, the new state
constitution greatly expanded the franchise.
A year later, Vermont went even further and adopted a
state constitution that removed the franchise from any
connection to property or taxpaying. Any adult male who took
an oath could vote.
Under the Articles of Confederation, the states had
complete control over voting. But the US Constitution pierced
this exclusivity by linking state suffrage rules and the right to
vote in national elections by mandating that those who
participated in elections for the “most numerous Branch of the
state legislature” were automatically entitled to vote for
members of the US House of Representatives. At the
Constitutional Convention, some founding fathers advocated for
national suffrage requirements, but after some debate the
delegates chose to avoid additional reference to voting rights
more for practical reasons than ideology. The delegates wished
to avoid jeopardizing ratification as a national suffrage
requirement was likely to generate opposition by state
governments. Madison expressed the point in the Federalist
Papers, “One uniform rule would probably have been as
dissatisfactory to some of the States as it would have been
difficult to the convention.”
The decision to forgo a national suffrage requirement was
a significant compromise, one of many major compromises.
13. But, the compromise would have significance for the future.
While the Constitution was adopted in the name of “We the
People,” the states retained the power to define the “people.” In
other words, citizenship in the new nation, which was controlled
by the federal government, was separated from the right to vote.
In the 1830s, voter registration became increasingly
popular, especially among Whigs who feared ineligible
transients and foreigners were supporting the Democratic Party.
In fact, increasing immigration fueled greater interest in
requiring voters to register. Although most supporters of
registration laws argued they were necessary to prevent fraud,
opponents insisted the real intent was to reduce participation by
the poor.
In 1985, the Fifteenth Amendment was ratified. The
amendment provided that the right of citizens of the United
States to vote shall not be denied on account of race, color, or
previous condition of servitude. After 1865, however, the
intensity of the conflict over the right to vote increased. In the
South, the abolition of slavery created a new class of potential
voters – former slaves. Radical Republicans believed that
freedom was illusory without political rights, including the
right to vote. So during reconstruction, former slaves were
enfranchised. During reconstruction, southern African-
Americans were elected to office, and they supported public
policies that promoted education and economic welfare for
former slaves. These changes were rapid and caused Southern
white leaders to fear a loss of control if their region’s African-
American population remained enfranchised.
Also, in 1866, the moderate majority of Republicans in
Congress secured the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment to
the US Constitution. The amendment created a national
definition of citizenship and confirmed that former slaves were
citizens. The amendment also prohibited states from passing
laws that would “abridge the privileges or immunities” of
citizens or deny them “the equal protection of the laws.”
This time was also part of an era known as the patronage
14. period. It was a time when political machines, led by party
bosses, dominated. Many political machines were well
developed in the cities and served to increase the political
power of immigrants. These machines, however, were often
accused of corruption and only selectively helping certain
immigrant groups at the expense of others.
Between 1870 and 1890, many states contracted the right
to vote rolling back many of the gains that were achieved
earlier. During this period, two significant contractions in the
right to vote were made: (1) the disenfranchisement of Southern
African-Americans; and (2) the loss of political rights for
working class immigrant men in the North and West.
Does Voting Matter?
Elections serve many purposes. Elections give the
government legitimacy so citizens will obey the laws (consent
of the governed). Elections also solve the problem of
succession without violence: Prior to the use of elections,
contests for political power frequently involved physical
violence or war. Elections also provide a means of
accountability: Political leaders are held to account for their
policies. For these reasons, elections are important.
Elections can also have bad effects. For example, in the
United States representatives in the House only have two-year
terms that require almost constant campaigning (this is known
as short planning time for an election). Also, elections may
legitimize policies that are bad for the public. For example, in
New Hampshire, voters elected a state representative who did
not like police officers.
Liphart, in Unequal Participation: Democracy’s
Unresolved Dilemma, argued democratic responsiveness
depends upon citizen participation. For some, a “moral
obligation to vote” exists such that it is every citizen’s duty to
vote.
Liphart also noted that inequality of representation and
influence are biased in favor of the more privileged citizens –
those with higher incomes, education and wealth. Similarly,
15. Rosenstone et al. (1993) found that in the United States the
smaller the number of participants in political activity, the
greater the inequality in participation.
Other empirical studies have found that socioeconomic
status and voting were positively linked. Tingsten (1937) found
the general rule was “voting frequency rises with social
standard.” The data clearly shows that the obvious way to
reduce the inequality in voting is to increase voter turnout.
Simply put, low voter turnout means unequal and
socioeconomically biased turnout. Lipset nicely summed up the
conclusion by stating that elections are “the expression of the
democratic class struggle.”
Verba et al. (1995) in their important work titled Voice
and Equality make an important observation: While
policymakers are not necessarily equally sensitive to all
constituents, they are sensitive to citizen inputs. Having a great
concern for either their own re-election or the maintenance of
power for their political party, political leaders are more
responsive to voters than to those involved in other political
activities such as boycotting, protesting or letter writing. For
these reasons, we can be confident that voting matters.
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t !27: rE i ti :=;t€t;:= ii;:: fr gf: ; i; ;3;;
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E 3 I: r t s ',i : i * * I * g E ; { E E3 }E E *T
JiFE i IjFI$! E Ef;EI iiiEEE IgEgIi € EEI rIi EE
+ rEE i* * E E i { E f E i E t E st r?: ;t E ; t *i i f i i 3 i I
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bE =";i s.=8 en:Ei{s_r -#rrSlEgil ;rEii Eg8E?glEigE E;-
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t 2 i .= E ! z ; E r : F - = ' ' ; ' c : E r:S' i {i:
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"i i: i r; LEiiE iiil,iliEEl= iliiii?itiiii
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60. Blind Retrospection
Electoral Responses to Drought, Flu, and Shark Attacks
Christopher H. Achen
Deparlment of Politics,
Princeton University
;-' :;t i;''';
,r ''' 1 ';'
-'
: '
Larry M. Bartels
Department of Politics and
Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs.
Princeton University
r ;iti'ii;i' i ti l: J;t' ji,ir ",)t{i Jr' i i.,itl
Revised: 27 January 2004
Abstract
Students of democratic politics have long believed that voters
punish incumbents for hard times.
Governments bear the responsibility for the economy in the
modern era, so that replacing incompetent
managers with capable alternatives appears to be a well-
informed, rational act. However, this vision of
a sophisticated retrospective electorate does not bear close
61. examination. We llnd that voters regularly
punish governments for acts of God. including droughts, floods,
and shark attacks. As long as
responsibility for the event itself (or more commonly, for its
amelioration) can somehow be attributed
to the government in a story persuasive within the folk culture,
the electorate will take out its
frustrations on the incumbents and vote for out-parties. Thus,
voters in pain are not necessarily
irrational. but they are ignorant about both science and politics,
and that makes them gullible when
ambitious demagogues seek to profit from their misery. Neither
conventional understandings of
democratic responsiveness nor rational choice interpretations of
retrospective voting survive under this
interpretation of voting behavior.
Blind Retrospection
Electoral Responses to Drought, Flu, and Shark Attacksr
And Moses stretched forth his rod over the land of Egypt, and
the Lord brought an east
wind upon the land all that day. and all that night; and when it
was morning. the east wind
62. brought the locusts. And the locusts went up over all the land of
Egypt, and rested in all the
coasts of Egypt: very grievous were they; befbre them there
were no such locusts as they,
neither after thern shall be such. For they covered the face of
the whole earth, so that the land
was darkened;and they did eat every herb of the land, and allthe
fruit of the trees which the
hail had left: and there remained not any green thing irT the
trees. or in the herbs of the field,
thror-rgh all the land of Egypt.
Then Pharaoh called for Moses and Aaron in haste; and he said,
I have sinned against the
Lord l orrr God. and against you.
-Exodus
10: 13- l6 (King James version)
When collective misfoftune strikes a society, somebody has to
take the blame. For ancient Israel,
disasters were God's punishment lbr sin-perhaps the ruler's sin,
perhaps Israel's. Theology did not
single out the guilty pafiy, but it structured the search and set
limits on what counted as a credible
explanation.
63. 1 Earlier versions of this repoft were presented at the 2002
Annual Meeting of the Arnerican Political Science
Association and in seminars atthe Juan March Institute, the
University of Michigan's Centerfbr Political
Studies, and Princeton University's Center for the Study of
Democratic Politics. We are grateful to various
colleagues and friends for helpfLrl discussions and comments;
to Jonathan Ladd for organizing data; to Helene
Wood fbr graphical assistance;to Sasha Achen, Bryan Jones,
John Londregan. Arlene Saxonhouse. W. phillips
Shively, John Wilkerson, and Natasha Zharinova for pointing us
to examples and references; and to John
Blydenburgh and David Mayhew fbr help with New Jersey
political history. Achen also expresses his thalks to
the Center fbr the Study of Democratic Politics. Princeton
University, and to the Department of Political
- Science, University of Michigan, for their financial sr-rpport
of a fellowship year.
In the theology of classical Egypt, pharaohs were divine beings
responsible for making the Nile
flood annually. When it failed to do so, as happened repeatedly
in the famines and political disorder of
64. the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2200 BCE), some scholars
believe that the pharaoh's reign was
shortened, and perhaps his life as well (Bell 1971; Hassan
1994).
Through the centuries, competitors of the ruler have been well
aware that disaster presents them
with an opporlunity. When disasters take on catastrophic
dimensions. not just the ruler but the entire
regime can come under suspicion. Writing of the Black Death in
the 14th century, which may have
killed a third or more of the European population, Herlihy
(1997.64) remarks:
The plague also discredited the leaders of society, its governors,
priests, and intellectuals, and the
laws and theories supporled by them. These elites were
obviously failing in their prime social
function, the def-ense of the common welfare. in the name of
which they enjoyed their privileges.
During the plague years, spontaneous religious and political
movements arose to threaten church
and government. A few of these bands agitated against the
groaning inequities of medieval society.
Most were less attractive. Some, fired by conspiracy theories,
targeted disliked minorities such as
65. beggars and Jews. Across Europe. thousands of Jews were
murdered befbre the traditional spiritual
and secular authorities managed to halt the fury of the mobs
(Herlihy 1997,66).
Contemporary democratic rulers have little aura of divinity
about them, nor have they faced
Biblical famines or medieval plagues. Nonetheless, the citizenry
continues to hold them responsible
for routine hardships and misfbrtune when election time comes.
In this paper we examine electoral
responses to natural disasters that are clearly beyond the control
of incumbent politicians. We find that
voters regularly punish incumbent governments for such events.
as long as they can find some
psychologically appealing connection-whether plausible or not-
between the disaster and the
government.
fsection on "pocketbook voting!!-v61g1s punishing the
incumbents for hard economic times-
omitted herel
Shark Attacks in New Jersey, 1916: The voters Bite Back
On the four-day Fourth of July weekend in 1916, the beaches of
66. New Jersey were packed with
crowds happy to escape the summer heat of nearby cities.2 On
Saturday, July l, a young Ivy League
graduate from Philadelphia, Charles Vansant, was swimming
jLrst beyond the breakers in four feet of
water at Beach Haven. He was attacked by a shark. Skillful
lif'eguards managed to get him to shore,
but he died soon after from blood loss.
Five days later, a young Swiss bellhop named Charles Bruder, a
strong swimmer like Vansant,
also ventured out past the lifelines at Spring Lake beach, some
forty five miles nor-th of Beach Haven.
He, too, was attacked by a shark. Though rescued by lifeguards
in a small boat, he died of his wounds
befbre reaching shore.
Nearly all of the diminished numbers of Jersey Shore swimmers
stuck close to shore in the days
after the two deaths. However, no one worried about boys
swimming in a creek on July 12 in the town
of Matawan, about two miles fiom open water. One was
attacked and killed by a shark, as was a
young man from the town who dove in to recover the boy's
body. Downstream, another group of boys
67. were swimming at the same time in ignorance of the attacks.
Within half an hour, one of them had his
leg mauled by a passing shark. However" he was quickly pulled
liom the water. reached the local
hospital, and survived.
By this time, the mounting panic reached a crescendo. Even the
distant San Francisco Chronicle
had a front-page headline on.Iuly 14: EAST COAST BEGINS
wAR oN RAVtrNOUS MAN-
' Unles, otherwise noted, the historical renditiorr follows
Fernicola (2001). the most cornplete account. See also
Capuzzo (2001).
EATERS (Fernicola 2001, 87). Steel mesh was being installed
at beaches. Bounties were offered. and
sharks were killed in sizable numbers along the shore. Finally,
one great white shark was hauled in
near Matawan Creek with what appeared to be human bones in
its stomach. Perhaps for that reason,
the attacks stopped. ending the most serious string of shark-
related fatalities in American history.
Before the attacks, no arm of government had patrolled for
sharks or set up barriers against them
in New Jersey, since there had never been a recorded shark
68. attack in the history of the state. Indeed"
prominent American scientists doubted that unprovoked shark
attacks on human beings ever occurred,
certainly not as t-ar north as New Jersey.3 (Fernicola 2001, 22).
The general climate of skepticism lecl
the l/ev' York Times to place its article about the flrst attack
only on page 18, headlined "Dies After
Attack by Fish"-no doubt a consolation to the New.lersey resort
owners, who were anxious to avoid
publicity.4
In the aftermath of the attacks. governments, particularly the
federal government, were called on
fbr help. The resorts were losing money rapidly, with a quarter
million dollars in reservations
cancelled within a week. Some resorts had 75 percent vacancy
rates in the midst of their high season
(Captzzo 2001. 274). Losses may have amounted to perhaps as
much as $1 million for the season
altogether, a sizable sum in 1918 (Fernicola 2001 .174). Letters
poured into Cor-rgressional offlces
from the affected counties, demanding federal action, though
there was little any government agency
'' Indeed. two scientists who were later called in to investigate
the attacks. Dr. Jolrn T. Nicols. an ichthyologist
69. and director of the Fishes Wing of the American Museum of
Natural History. and Dr. Frederick Lucas, director
of the museum. had recently coauthored with athird scientist an
article arguingthat unprovoked sharks never
attack human beings.
a
Parallels to the film "Jaws" arrd its sequels are no accident.
Peter Benchley. the author of the book on rvhicl.r
the film was based, is a New Jersey resident, and the film
version. thor-rgh set on Long Island, New york.
inclr-rdes a reference to the l9l6 New Jersev attacks.
could do. Fernicola (2001, 70) describes the atmosphere, as the
shark attacks entered popular imagery
and became a metaphor for other political crises as well:
Newspaper cartoons now poftrayed Wilson's chances fbr
reelection in November, using the shark
fin as the symbol for his potential loss. The black fin labeled
"def-eat" was shown slicing through
shark-inf-ested northeast regions. Other political cartoons of the
day showed lawyers, represented
by sharks heading toward a beleaguered sailboat, embossed with
"Union Bank." At the stern of
the bank boat. a chewed and legless victim dangled over the
gunnel depicting "deposits."
70. As it happened, the Secretary of the Treasury, William McAdoo,
had a summer home in Spring
Lake and was in residence at the time of the second attack.
Joseph Tumulty, Wilson's powerful aide
fbr political affairs. had a summer home in Asbury Park, about
five miles norlh of Spring Lake.
President Wilson himself, a former president of Princeton
University and former governor of New
Jersey, had been looking for a summer White House in New
Jersey as well, and chose a hotel in
Asbury Park, moving there shortly after the attacks ended. Thus
the attacks received immediate
federal attention.
Wilson held a Cabinet meeting to discuss the attacks (Fernicola
2001, 70), but the Bureau of
Fisheries could suggest nothing beyond killing sharks at random
and warning bathers. "No cefiainly
efTective preventive measure could be recommended," they said
(Capuzzo 2001, 277). The president
could only direct the Coast Guard to inspect the beaches and
patrol the water. However, the problem
disappeared and autumn arrived before much could be done. By
election time in November, Wilson
71. ll'as back at his Asbury Park headquarters, but other election
issues, notably potential U.S. entry into
World War I. took over the headlines (Link 954.247 -251). In
the end, Wilson lost nearly all the
northeastern and Great Lakes states, including New Jersey, but
managed to squeak out his re-election
by adding most of the Great Plains. Mountain States and West
to the Democrats' customary Solid
South.
Did the shark attacks influence the presidential election in the
affected areas of New Jersey?
Hitherlo, sharks have not been suspects in any electoral
analysis. Nonetheless, if our argument is
correct. they should have reduced Wilson's vote. First. the
attacks were a natural disaster causing
several deaths plus considerable emotional and financial
distress to entire communities. Second, the
government was thought to be responsible for dealing with the
crisis, and high federal officials were
present at the scene from the beginning. Third, the election
lbllowed the crisis quickly enough that the
summer's events would have been fresh in the minds of the
voters. The fact that no government has
72. any influence over sharks should have been irrelevant.
The evidence for a shark effect turns out to be rather strong. We
now-turn to the first piece of
that evidence, using election returns at the New Jersey county
level. The Wilson vote in 1916 is the
variable to be explained. Our key independent variable is
"beach county," defined as Monmouth,
Ocean, Atlantic. and Cape May counties. These were, and are,
the classic "Jersey Shore" counties
listed in the guidebooks, whose beach areas are heavily
dependent upon summer tourism. They are the
places in which the shark attacks would have had the most
pronounced economic effects. The attacks
themselves took place in Monmouth (three deaths) and Ocean
(one).
[[email protected]
irg The main finding is:]
The estimated negative effect on Wilson's vote in the beach
counties is a little more than 3
percentage points" with a 95% confidence interval confined
between 1.2 and 5.2. The shark attacks
indeed seem to have had an impact-about one-fourth the eftbct
that the Great Depression had on
73. Herberl Hoover's vote in New Jersey 16 years later.5
' Hoover's vote share in New Jersey fell from 59.8%in l92B to
41.6o/o ir"r 1932.
6
We underlook two additional investigations with different
samples. First, we examined the vote
in the first two shore townships where the attacks took place.6
Both Beach Haven and Spring Lake
were small, stable communities. making comparison sensible.T
Figure 2 shows the vote change fbr
Wilson between l9l2 and 1916 in these two communities, and
compales it with the change in their
respective counties and in New.lersey as a whole. Both
townships show remarkable drops in Wilson's
support. 11 points in Beach Haven and 9 in Spring Lake, far
more than the negligible changes in the
Wilson vote in their counties and in the state. These are vote
losses equal to those Herbert Hoover
suffbred statewide in New Jersey in 1932 at the height of the
Great Depression. It is apparent that
something drastically reduced enthusiasm for Woodrow Wilson
in these two townships.
74. *** Figure 2 ***
We also investigated whether Beach Haven and Spring Lake
were typical of beach areas. To
answer this question, we examined the townships in Ocean
County near the water. Ocean was chosen
because it has many beach communities, nearly all on a bank of
land clearly separated from the
mainland. Thus there is no difficulty in separating those seven
communities right on the beach from
the twelve near the beach but not on it.8 The western border of
the near-beach area was set to the
.r
"{_Matarvalr Township and Matarvan Borough, where the final
two shark deatlrs occurred, were excluded from
this analysis since they are not beach resort communities and
thr-rs suffered no widespread economic loss from
their shark attacks or anyone elt"'t] [n any case, the rapid
growth in the number of voters in both places
between 1912 and 1916 makes comparison impossible;morethan
aquarterof the l9l6 voters in Matawan
township had not been there in 1912.
7
Beach Haven cast I I 2 votes fbr president in 1 912 and 1 1 9 in
1 9 1 6. The corresponding numbers for Spring
Lake are 271 and265.
75. t
One beach township, Sea Side Park. apparently split into two
between I912 and 1916 and jointly nearly
doubled in size; we dropped it from the analysis.
current New Jersey turnpike, which runs within a few miles of
the shore in Ocean County. These two
areas had nearly identical Democratic percentages for
Wilsoninlgl2 (36.3% at the beach and34.loh
in the near-beach), and thus are comparable.
In each area, we compared Wilson's vote percentages in 1912
and 1916. If the argument of this
paper is correct, the beach voters should show the largest drop
in support for Wilson, while the near-
beach citizenry should be largely unaffected. The actual vote
change turns out to be a drop of 8.2
percentage points in the beach area. compared to a tiny 0.2
percentage point gain in the near beach, an
easily statistically significant difl'erence.e Again, we flnd that
disaft-ection lbr Wilson was widespread
in the beach areas whose livelihood was most directly affected
by the shark attacks. far different from
the otherwise comparable areas next door. where Wilson's vote
was nearly constant.l0
76. In summary, then, every indication in the New Jersey vote
returns fbr 1912 and 191 6 is that the
horrifying shark attacks during the summer of 1916 reduced
Wilson's vote in the fall. Retrospection
here was surely blind. If bathers insist on swimming in the
ocean, governments then and now can do
nothing about shark attacks, as the subsequent attacks in New
Jersey in 1960 and the regular
encottnters in Florida, California, South Africa. and Australia
demonstrate (Fernicola 2001, ch. 5).
" Therervere3llbeach and2645 non-beachvoters in1912.and349
beachand2B5gnon-beachvotersin 1916.
This comparison includes Point Pleasant Beach Boror,rgh as
pafi of the near-beach. In spite of its name, the
overwhelming bLrlk of its population lived in Point Pleasant,
which is not on the beach. However^ this
borough's30percentincreaseinthevotefrom 19l2to
lgl6isthelargestofanybeachornear-beach
community. rnaking its two presidential years less comparable
and suggesting that it shor,rld be excluded fiom
the analysis. If Point Pleasant Beach Borough is excluded, the
near-beach vote change alters fiom +0.2
percentage points to -0.6, still very different from the -8.2
effect at the beach. Sirnilarly, if all beach and non-
77. beachcommunitieswithmorethan20%o increaseinthevotefrom
l912to lgl6areexcluded,thenon-beach
vote change becomes -0.5, while the beach change is -l l.B. In
shoft, these alternate versions of the sample lead
to precisely the same substantive conclusion.
"' Tlie sarr-re finding fiom the Ocean County township sample
holds when rnedians are used irr place of means,
and when (weighted or unweighted) regressions are run with the
townships as units of observation.
Shark attacks are natural disasters in the purest sense of the
term. and they have no governmental
solution. Yet the voters punished any*ay. "
Of course, it is possible that the voters did not blame the
government for the attacks themselves.
but did blame it for not helping them with their economic
distress. In that case, retrospection might not
be blind. No doubt voters told themselves something like that at
the time. Yet in the case of the
sharks, it is not clear what the government could have done to
help the local economy. The truth could
not be covered up. The vacationers could not be compelled to
come to the beach, nor could the sharks
be forced to stay away. Of course, from the perspective of a
century later, it is obvious that extending
78. welfare benefits and unemployment compensation would have
helped. But these social programs did
not exist at the time, they could not have been put in place
quickly, and no one would expect them to
be enacted in response to a single local disaster in any case. In
sum, for the case of the New Jersey
shark attacks, "failed disaster assistance" seems a w-eak
hypothesis driven by insufficient historical
perspective.
[section on droughts and 1918 flu epidemic omitted here]
Conclusion
Our account of democratic politics strikes directly at key
assumptions in two different
contemporary schools of thought. Perhaps most obviously, it
questions the ability of ordinary citizens
to assess their public life critically, listen to the proposals for
change coming from contenders for
public office" and then choose between the candidates in
accordance with their own values. Like most
survey researchers who have talked extensively to real voters,
we believe that few such citizens exist.
" On l7 December 1967 Australian prime minister Harold Holt
disappeared while swimming in shark-infested
79. waters at Cheviot Beach near Poftsea, Victoria. His body was
never found. Being devotees of democracy,
however, we disapprove of this apparent attempt by the sharks
to cut outthe middleman.
The present paper is one more item of evidence. The central fact
about democracies is that the voters
understand little beyond their own and their community's pain
and pleasure, and they think about
causes and effects as the popular culture advises them to think.
The romantic vision of thoughtful
democratic participation in the common life is largely mythical.
Democracy must be defended some
other way, if it is to be defended at all.
Our work also strikes a blow at the customary tallback position
for contemporary defenders of
democracy, namely the view that the voters may know very
little, but they can recognize good and bad
government performances when they see them. Hence they can
choose retrospectively in a defensible
way. In most recent scholarly accounts, retrospection is a
natural and rational feature of democratic
politics. In our view it is natural but not so obviously rational.
Voters operating on the basis of a
80. valid, detailed understanding of cause and ellbct in the realm of
public policy could reward good
performance while ridding themselves of leaders who are
malevolent or incompetent. But real voters
oflen have only a vague, more or less primitive understanding
of the connections (if any) between
incumbent politicians' actions and their own pain or pleasure.
As a result, rational retrospective voting
is harder than it seems, and blind retrospection sometimes
produces consistently misguided patterns of
electoral rewards and punishments.
What we have not oft-ered here is any systematic account of the
circumstances under which
citizens will find-and accept-a cultural understanding that holds
public officials responsible for
changes in the public's welfare. We know that the framing of
news by the mass media may increase or
decrease the likelihood that citizens will attribute responsibility
for social problems to the government
(Iyengar 1991). We know that politicians themselves may be
more or less successful in "managing
blame," exploiting competing explanations to exonerate
themselves (McGraw 1991). l2 These
81. rr Ideological commitments may play a significant independent
role in elite constrr"rctions olexplanations fbr
natural or social disasters, as with the Federalists' and
Republicans'competing explanations of the yello1v Fever
epidemic of 1793 (Pernick l9l2). Physicians "divided bitterly
overthe cause of the epidemic," with
10
alternate explanations are always present: some medieval towns
blamed the plague on prostitutes,
beggars. or foreign agents (Herlihy 1997 , 65-67); some New
Jersey residents in 1916 thought that
German U-boats might have induced the sharks to attack
(Fernicola 2001, 166-170'); some Americans
in the grip of the Spanish Influenza pandemic two years later
feared that "plague germs were inserled
into aspirin made by the German drug company Bayer" (Kolata
1999, 3).
When is one explanation accepted rather than another? Much
seems to depend on plausibility
within the folk culture. Unfortunately, a general theory of
political accountability explaining when and
why specific attributions or evasions of responsibility actually
work is nowhere in sight. The
82. development of such a theory strikes us as a very high priority
for students of democratic politics.
We end, then, on a discouraging note. For those who take the
evidence about voter capacities
seriously, neither Rousseau nor Downs will save us.
Democracies take their electoral direction liom
human beings with fewer capacities for self-government than
either writer imagined. Under sufficient
pressure, those voters may lash out blindly. Such events are not
bizarre historical footnotes rendered
irrelevant by modern education and hygiene. They are inevitable
consequences of human cognitive
limitations-limitations which democratic government has not
altered. Thus, as Sophocles taught and
as the destruction of the Weimar Republic reminds us, when the
inevitable hard times appear, tragedy
may ensue.
Republicans generally attributing it to poor sanitation, climatic
conditions, and the unhealthy location of
Philadelphia. while Federalists blamed disembarking refugees
from Haiti (Pernick 1912.562-563). In fact,
Pernick notes, "both sides were right."
11
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12
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14
Figure 2. Change in Woodrow Wilson's Vote in New
Jersey,1912-1916,
in Two Beach Resort Counties with Fatal Shark Attacks during
July 1916
2
New Jersey
o I
2
Ocean County
Monmouth County
o
'6a
o
oo
G
oo
Spring Lake township (site of
90. Change in Woodrow Wilson's Vote in New Jersey,
1912-'1916, in Ocean County Townships
Beach townships
16
US Voting Rights and Rules
Book Review
What is the point of Wattenberg’s work, and would you
recommend it to a colleague, why or why not?
Book
Wattenberg, Martin P. (2012). Is Voting for Young People? 3rd.
ed. New York: Pearson Education. ISBN-10: 0205217729;
ISBN-13: 978-0205217724
Instructions:
Please write an original book review addressing the question
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Guidance: