A vizsgálaton általában tesztelést értenek még a szakemberek is. A vizsgálat azonban ennél sokkal többféle módon történik.Sokféle eljárás létezik, és mindegyik többé-kevésbé érvényes ismeretekhez vezethet, azonban kombinációjuk a leghatásosabb. Természetesen az alkalmazott eljárási mód függ a vizsgálat céljától, tárgyától és a vizsgálati személy életkorától.
A pszichoterápia lehetőségei az (illegitim) droghasználókJozsef Racz
Pszichoterápiás lehetőségek droghasználók kezelésében, a változás-modellje (Prochaska-DiClemente), a motivációs interjú, a sóvárgás, a visszaesés megelőzés.
A vizsgálaton általában tesztelést értenek még a szakemberek is. A vizsgálat azonban ennél sokkal többféle módon történik.Sokféle eljárás létezik, és mindegyik többé-kevésbé érvényes ismeretekhez vezethet, azonban kombinációjuk a leghatásosabb. Természetesen az alkalmazott eljárási mód függ a vizsgálat céljától, tárgyától és a vizsgálati személy életkorától.
A pszichoterápia lehetőségei az (illegitim) droghasználókJozsef Racz
Pszichoterápiás lehetőségek droghasználók kezelésében, a változás-modellje (Prochaska-DiClemente), a motivációs interjú, a sóvárgás, a visszaesés megelőzés.
This document describes various in vitro models and methods that can be used to study hepatotoxicity, including hepatocyte cell cultures, assays to measure cell viability and metabolic activity (trypan blue dye exclusion test, MTT assay), staining to visualize lipid accumulation (Oil Red O), and techniques to examine gene and protein expression changes (RT-PCR, western blotting). Specifically, it discusses using these methods to establish models of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) by treating hepatocyte cultures with fatty acids like palmitic and oleic acid, and models of drug-induced hepatotoxicity by treating with acetaminophen or amiodarone. Key readouts include lipid accumulation, apoptosis levels
This document summarizes various liver diseases and their etiologies. It discusses alcoholic liver disease, drug-induced liver injury, viral hepatitis infections from hepatitis B, C, and D viruses, autoimmune disorders like autoimmune hepatitis and primary biliary cirrhosis, genetic disorders, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. The liver's important functions are outlined. Causes, pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment approaches are described for each disease.
An introduction to experimental epidemiology improvemed
This document provides an overview of experimental epidemiology methods. It discusses the key features and types of experimental epidemiology studies, including controlled field trials and community trials. Controlled field trials involve dividing healthy subjects into an exposed group that receives an active substance (like a vaccine) and an unexposed control group that receives a placebo. Community trials involve entire exposed and unexposed communities. Randomized controlled trials, which assign individual subjects randomly to intervention or control groups, are described as the most common experimental method but are covered in more depth separately. Overall, the document outlines the design and purpose of various experimental epidemiology study types.
Genotyping methods of nosocomial infections pathogenimprovemed
Nosocomial infections afflict around 2 million patients in the US each year, resulting in around 88,000 deaths and $4.5 billion in excess healthcare costs. Understanding the distribution and relatedness of pathogens that cause these infections is important for designing effective control methods. Historically, phenotypic characterization was used, but increasingly molecular or genotyping techniques are being used, including pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, multilocus sequence typing, and polymerase chain reaction-based methods. Studies have shown that integrating molecular typing into infection control programs can significantly reduce infection rates and healthcare costs.
Use of MALDI-TOF in the diagnosis of infectious diseasesimprovemed
MALDI-TOF MS has revolutionized clinical microbiology by drastically improving the time needed to identify bacterial cultures from over 24 hours to just a few minutes. Whereas the entire process from sampling to results previously took 2-3 days or more, new methods like MALDI-TOF MS and molecular technology have reduced this to just a few hours or one day. MALDI-TOF MS is a powerful, cost-effective, and easy to implement technique that provides rapid and reliable identification of bacteria and yeast from clinical samples at the genus and species level through analysis of their protein mass spectral signatures.
1. Molecular microbiology methods like PCR and hybridization have revolutionized clinical diagnostics by enabling fast and direct detection of pathogens from clinical samples.
2. PCR in particular has become a mainstay technique, allowing amplification of specific DNA sequences from small amounts of input DNA. Variations like real-time PCR, multiplex PCR, and broad-range PCR further expanded diagnostic capabilities.
3. Emerging technologies like DNA microarrays promise even greater multiplexing, with the ability to simultaneously genotype large genomic regions or measure expression of many genes, positioning them as promising future molecular diagnostic tools.
This document provides information about setting up and conducting experiments with isolated organs and tissue rings, including:
1. Describing the mechanical setup for a four-channel system bath for isolated organs.
2. Explaining the preparation of Krebs-Hanseleit solution and common drugs used.
3. Outlining typical experiment protocols, including stabilizing tissues, pre-contraction testing, and assessing endothelial function.
4. Noting that each experiment begins by preparing Krebs-Hanseleit solution and activating the system before surgery and setting rings in wells.
This document describes the components, work principles, and experimental protocols for using a pressure myograph system to study isolated blood vessels. The system allows measuring vessel diameter in response to drugs and stimuli while maintaining constant temperature. Experiments involve isolating small arteries from rats and attaching them to glass micropipettes in a chamber filled with physiological salt solution. Vessel diameter is recorded under varying pressures and drug exposures to study endothelial function and vasoactive mechanisms. Statistical analysis of diameter changes under different conditions uses repeated measures ANOVA to compare responses between experimental groups.
Notes for Measuring blood flow and reactivity of the blood vessels in the ski...improvemed
This document describes the laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) method for measuring blood flow in the microcirculation of skin. Specifically, it discusses post-occlusive reactive hyperemia (PORH) testing using LDF to assess microvascular reactivity by inducing a brief occlusion of blood vessels. It also covers iontophoresis of acetylcholine and sodium nitroprusside combined with LDF to evaluate endothelium-dependent and independent vasodilation respectively. Standardization of methods like occlusion duration and probe placement is important for reproducibility. LDF provides a general index of microvascular function rather than direct flow measurements.
Notes for STAINING AND ANALYSIS of HISTOLOGICAL PREPARATIONSimprovemed
This document provides an overview of histological staining techniques. It discusses how histological preparations are stained using interactions between dyes, solvents, and tissue components. Different staining methods result in different colors that highlight various structures. A classic example is hematoxylin and eosin staining, where hematoxylin stains acidic components blue and eosin stains basic components pink. Specialized staining techniques also exist, such as immunohistochemistry. Proper staining selection depends on the tissue and research goals. Histological preparations are then analyzed under a microscope to study cell and tissue morphology.
Notes for Fixation of tissues and organs for educational and scientific purposesimprovemed
Fixation of tissues and organs is done to preserve them for scientific and educational purposes. Various chemical fixatives are used including formaldehyde, alcohols, and acids. Formaldehyde cross-links proteins to harden the tissue while maintaining the original structure. Several fixation protocols are used for different purposes, balancing preservation of color and long-term durability. Key steps include diffusion or injection of fixatives, followed by storage in preservative solutions. Proper fixation and storage are necessary to prevent degradation over time.
The document summarizes the process of preparing tissue samples for histological analysis, including fixation, dehydration, infiltration/embedding, sectioning, staining, and examination. Key steps involve fixing tissues to prevent degradation, dehydrating using increasing alcohol concentrations, infiltrating with paraffin wax or resin for structural support during sectioning, precisely cutting thin sections, mounting them to glass slides, staining, and examining under a microscope. The quality of prepared samples depends on carefully following each step of the preparation process.
Notes for The principle and performance of capillary electrophoresisimprovemed
This document provides an overview of capillary electrophoresis (CE). It begins by introducing CE and its advantages over other separation techniques. It then describes the basic theory behind CE, including electrophoretic mobility, electroosmotic flow, and how samples migrate through the capillary when an electric field is applied. The document details the key components of a CE instrument and various CE separation techniques such as capillary zone electrophoresis, micellar electrokinetic chromatography, and capillary isoelectric focusing. It focuses on the principles and applications of CE.
Notes for The principle and performance of liquid chromatography–mass spectro...improvemed
This document provides an overview of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). It describes the basic components and functioning of an LC-MS system, including the liquid chromatograph and mass spectrometer connected by an interface. The document discusses various ionization sources like electrospray ionization and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization, as well as mass analyzers like quadrupoles and time-of-flight analyzers. It also covers detectors used in LC-MS like electron multipliers and photomultipliers. Overall, the document serves as a technical introduction to the principles and components of LC-MS.
This document provides an overview of basic cell culture techniques. It discusses the history of cell culture, defining primary and secondary cell cultures. It describes different types of cell lines and how cells grow as monolayers or in suspension. The document outlines the key equipment needed for a cell culture laboratory, including biosafety cabinets, CO2 incubators, centrifuges, microscopes, and supplies. It emphasizes the importance of aseptic technique to prevent microbial contamination when working with cell cultures.
This document discusses systems biology and its goals of understanding how biological molecules interact and systems function as a whole. It covers:
1) Systems biology uses large datasets from "omics" experiments and computational models to understand complex biological interactions beyond individual molecules.
2) Pioneering work used microarrays to measure thousands of genes in serum-stimulated cells, finding over 500 changed in proliferation.
3) The field aims to discover emergent system properties and functions not evident from separate parts, like switches that change cell behavior.
Systems biology for Medicine' is 'Experimental methods and the big datasetsimprovemed
This document discusses experimental methods used in systems biology to generate large datasets, including microarrays, sequencing-based methods, mass spectrometry, and liquid chromatography. It explains that systems biology studies must be quantitative and enable computational modeling. Key methods covered are microarrays, RNA-seq, ChIP-seq, whole-genome sequencing, whole-exome sequencing, proteomics using mass spectrometry, and combining liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry for lipidomics, metabolomics and glycomics. Sources of variation are also discussed for genomic and proteomic studies.
Systems biology for medical students/Systems medicineimprovemed
Systems biology takes a holistic approach to studying biological systems by considering all the interactions within a system and how they generate complex behaviors. Lecture 1 introduces key concepts in systems biology like how increasing levels of biological organization give rise to new system properties like robustness. Lecture 2 discusses experimental methods like genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics that generate large data sets for systems analysis. Lecture 3 covers mathematical and statistical tools for analyzing these data sets, such as using differential equations to model signaling networks. Lecture 4 provides examples of medical applications of systems biology in finding diagnostic markers, personalizing therapy, and predicting disease interactions from human disease networks, with the future of medicine taking a more predictive, preventive, and personalized approach
The document discusses several use cases for applying data mining and machine learning techniques in healthcare and biomedical research. Three examples are:
1) Early diagnosis of cancers like lung cancer and breast cancer through predictive modeling of patient data to detect cancers at earlier stages when survival rates are higher.
2) Predicting patient responses to drug therapies for cancers like breast cancer by combining different types of molecular profiling data using techniques like support vector machines and random forests.
3) Using imaging data and temporal analysis of metrics like medication purchases to better understand and predict chronic diseases like diabetes and associated health complications.
This document describes various in vitro models and methods that can be used to study hepatotoxicity, including hepatocyte cell cultures, assays to measure cell viability and metabolic activity (trypan blue dye exclusion test, MTT assay), staining to visualize lipid accumulation (Oil Red O), and techniques to examine gene and protein expression changes (RT-PCR, western blotting). Specifically, it discusses using these methods to establish models of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) by treating hepatocyte cultures with fatty acids like palmitic and oleic acid, and models of drug-induced hepatotoxicity by treating with acetaminophen or amiodarone. Key readouts include lipid accumulation, apoptosis levels
This document summarizes various liver diseases and their etiologies. It discusses alcoholic liver disease, drug-induced liver injury, viral hepatitis infections from hepatitis B, C, and D viruses, autoimmune disorders like autoimmune hepatitis and primary biliary cirrhosis, genetic disorders, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. The liver's important functions are outlined. Causes, pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment approaches are described for each disease.
An introduction to experimental epidemiology improvemed
This document provides an overview of experimental epidemiology methods. It discusses the key features and types of experimental epidemiology studies, including controlled field trials and community trials. Controlled field trials involve dividing healthy subjects into an exposed group that receives an active substance (like a vaccine) and an unexposed control group that receives a placebo. Community trials involve entire exposed and unexposed communities. Randomized controlled trials, which assign individual subjects randomly to intervention or control groups, are described as the most common experimental method but are covered in more depth separately. Overall, the document outlines the design and purpose of various experimental epidemiology study types.
Genotyping methods of nosocomial infections pathogenimprovemed
Nosocomial infections afflict around 2 million patients in the US each year, resulting in around 88,000 deaths and $4.5 billion in excess healthcare costs. Understanding the distribution and relatedness of pathogens that cause these infections is important for designing effective control methods. Historically, phenotypic characterization was used, but increasingly molecular or genotyping techniques are being used, including pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, multilocus sequence typing, and polymerase chain reaction-based methods. Studies have shown that integrating molecular typing into infection control programs can significantly reduce infection rates and healthcare costs.
Use of MALDI-TOF in the diagnosis of infectious diseasesimprovemed
MALDI-TOF MS has revolutionized clinical microbiology by drastically improving the time needed to identify bacterial cultures from over 24 hours to just a few minutes. Whereas the entire process from sampling to results previously took 2-3 days or more, new methods like MALDI-TOF MS and molecular technology have reduced this to just a few hours or one day. MALDI-TOF MS is a powerful, cost-effective, and easy to implement technique that provides rapid and reliable identification of bacteria and yeast from clinical samples at the genus and species level through analysis of their protein mass spectral signatures.
1. Molecular microbiology methods like PCR and hybridization have revolutionized clinical diagnostics by enabling fast and direct detection of pathogens from clinical samples.
2. PCR in particular has become a mainstay technique, allowing amplification of specific DNA sequences from small amounts of input DNA. Variations like real-time PCR, multiplex PCR, and broad-range PCR further expanded diagnostic capabilities.
3. Emerging technologies like DNA microarrays promise even greater multiplexing, with the ability to simultaneously genotype large genomic regions or measure expression of many genes, positioning them as promising future molecular diagnostic tools.
This document provides information about setting up and conducting experiments with isolated organs and tissue rings, including:
1. Describing the mechanical setup for a four-channel system bath for isolated organs.
2. Explaining the preparation of Krebs-Hanseleit solution and common drugs used.
3. Outlining typical experiment protocols, including stabilizing tissues, pre-contraction testing, and assessing endothelial function.
4. Noting that each experiment begins by preparing Krebs-Hanseleit solution and activating the system before surgery and setting rings in wells.
This document describes the components, work principles, and experimental protocols for using a pressure myograph system to study isolated blood vessels. The system allows measuring vessel diameter in response to drugs and stimuli while maintaining constant temperature. Experiments involve isolating small arteries from rats and attaching them to glass micropipettes in a chamber filled with physiological salt solution. Vessel diameter is recorded under varying pressures and drug exposures to study endothelial function and vasoactive mechanisms. Statistical analysis of diameter changes under different conditions uses repeated measures ANOVA to compare responses between experimental groups.
Notes for Measuring blood flow and reactivity of the blood vessels in the ski...improvemed
This document describes the laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) method for measuring blood flow in the microcirculation of skin. Specifically, it discusses post-occlusive reactive hyperemia (PORH) testing using LDF to assess microvascular reactivity by inducing a brief occlusion of blood vessels. It also covers iontophoresis of acetylcholine and sodium nitroprusside combined with LDF to evaluate endothelium-dependent and independent vasodilation respectively. Standardization of methods like occlusion duration and probe placement is important for reproducibility. LDF provides a general index of microvascular function rather than direct flow measurements.
Notes for STAINING AND ANALYSIS of HISTOLOGICAL PREPARATIONSimprovemed
This document provides an overview of histological staining techniques. It discusses how histological preparations are stained using interactions between dyes, solvents, and tissue components. Different staining methods result in different colors that highlight various structures. A classic example is hematoxylin and eosin staining, where hematoxylin stains acidic components blue and eosin stains basic components pink. Specialized staining techniques also exist, such as immunohistochemistry. Proper staining selection depends on the tissue and research goals. Histological preparations are then analyzed under a microscope to study cell and tissue morphology.
Notes for Fixation of tissues and organs for educational and scientific purposesimprovemed
Fixation of tissues and organs is done to preserve them for scientific and educational purposes. Various chemical fixatives are used including formaldehyde, alcohols, and acids. Formaldehyde cross-links proteins to harden the tissue while maintaining the original structure. Several fixation protocols are used for different purposes, balancing preservation of color and long-term durability. Key steps include diffusion or injection of fixatives, followed by storage in preservative solutions. Proper fixation and storage are necessary to prevent degradation over time.
The document summarizes the process of preparing tissue samples for histological analysis, including fixation, dehydration, infiltration/embedding, sectioning, staining, and examination. Key steps involve fixing tissues to prevent degradation, dehydrating using increasing alcohol concentrations, infiltrating with paraffin wax or resin for structural support during sectioning, precisely cutting thin sections, mounting them to glass slides, staining, and examining under a microscope. The quality of prepared samples depends on carefully following each step of the preparation process.
Notes for The principle and performance of capillary electrophoresisimprovemed
This document provides an overview of capillary electrophoresis (CE). It begins by introducing CE and its advantages over other separation techniques. It then describes the basic theory behind CE, including electrophoretic mobility, electroosmotic flow, and how samples migrate through the capillary when an electric field is applied. The document details the key components of a CE instrument and various CE separation techniques such as capillary zone electrophoresis, micellar electrokinetic chromatography, and capillary isoelectric focusing. It focuses on the principles and applications of CE.
Notes for The principle and performance of liquid chromatography–mass spectro...improvemed
This document provides an overview of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). It describes the basic components and functioning of an LC-MS system, including the liquid chromatograph and mass spectrometer connected by an interface. The document discusses various ionization sources like electrospray ionization and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization, as well as mass analyzers like quadrupoles and time-of-flight analyzers. It also covers detectors used in LC-MS like electron multipliers and photomultipliers. Overall, the document serves as a technical introduction to the principles and components of LC-MS.
This document provides an overview of basic cell culture techniques. It discusses the history of cell culture, defining primary and secondary cell cultures. It describes different types of cell lines and how cells grow as monolayers or in suspension. The document outlines the key equipment needed for a cell culture laboratory, including biosafety cabinets, CO2 incubators, centrifuges, microscopes, and supplies. It emphasizes the importance of aseptic technique to prevent microbial contamination when working with cell cultures.
This document discusses systems biology and its goals of understanding how biological molecules interact and systems function as a whole. It covers:
1) Systems biology uses large datasets from "omics" experiments and computational models to understand complex biological interactions beyond individual molecules.
2) Pioneering work used microarrays to measure thousands of genes in serum-stimulated cells, finding over 500 changed in proliferation.
3) The field aims to discover emergent system properties and functions not evident from separate parts, like switches that change cell behavior.
Systems biology for Medicine' is 'Experimental methods and the big datasetsimprovemed
This document discusses experimental methods used in systems biology to generate large datasets, including microarrays, sequencing-based methods, mass spectrometry, and liquid chromatography. It explains that systems biology studies must be quantitative and enable computational modeling. Key methods covered are microarrays, RNA-seq, ChIP-seq, whole-genome sequencing, whole-exome sequencing, proteomics using mass spectrometry, and combining liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry for lipidomics, metabolomics and glycomics. Sources of variation are also discussed for genomic and proteomic studies.
Systems biology for medical students/Systems medicineimprovemed
Systems biology takes a holistic approach to studying biological systems by considering all the interactions within a system and how they generate complex behaviors. Lecture 1 introduces key concepts in systems biology like how increasing levels of biological organization give rise to new system properties like robustness. Lecture 2 discusses experimental methods like genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics that generate large data sets for systems analysis. Lecture 3 covers mathematical and statistical tools for analyzing these data sets, such as using differential equations to model signaling networks. Lecture 4 provides examples of medical applications of systems biology in finding diagnostic markers, personalizing therapy, and predicting disease interactions from human disease networks, with the future of medicine taking a more predictive, preventive, and personalized approach
The document discusses several use cases for applying data mining and machine learning techniques in healthcare and biomedical research. Three examples are:
1) Early diagnosis of cancers like lung cancer and breast cancer through predictive modeling of patient data to detect cancers at earlier stages when survival rates are higher.
2) Predicting patient responses to drug therapies for cancers like breast cancer by combining different types of molecular profiling data using techniques like support vector machines and random forests.
3) Using imaging data and temporal analysis of metrics like medication purchases to better understand and predict chronic diseases like diabetes and associated health complications.
2. Definíció
a klinikai vizsgálatok olyan embereken végzett kutatások,
amelyek várhatóan feltárják vagy megerősítik a kutatási
eredmény(ek) klinikai, farmakológiai és / vagy egyéb
farmakodinámiás hatásait, és / vagy meghatározzák a
kutatási eredmény(ek)re gyakorolt mellékhatásokat, és / vagy
a kutatási eredmény (ek) felszívódásának, eloszlásának,
anyagcseréjének és kiválasztásának vizsgálatát azzal a céllal,
hogy meggyőződjünk annak biztonságosságáról és / vagy
hatásosságáról
3. Véletlenszerű, kontrollált kísérletek
Az RCT a bizonyítékok legmagasabb
szintje
Meta-elemzések és
szisztematikus
felülvizsgálatok
RCT
Kohorsz
tanulmányok
Eset kontroll
tanulmányok
Keresztmetszeti vizsgálatok
Állatkísérletek és in vitro vizsgálatok
Esettanulmányok, vélemények és levelek
A tudományos bizonyítékok hierarchiája
4. Az RCT megközelítése
konkrét kutatási kérdés megfogalmazása
döntés az alanyok kiválasztásának módjáról
biztosítsák a lehető legmagasabb számú résztvevőt a
vizsgálati időszakban
5. Az RCT megközelítése
a mintavétel után véletlenszerűsítésre van szükség ahhoz,
hogy az alanyokat legalább két vizsgált csoportra osszuk
(kitett és nem kitett vagy kontroll csoport)
a nem kitett csoport placebót kap, ha egészséges alany,
vagy arany mérték, vagy ha betegségben szenved.
AngolAngolAngol
6. Randomizálás
olyan folyamat, amely lehetővé teszi a tárgy eloszlásának
kiszámíthatatlanságát a kitett csoportban és a nem kitett
csoportjában
lehetővé teszi számunkra, hogy megszüntessük a zavaró
tényezők hatását
a vizsgálati alanyok egy csoportjának összehasonlíthatósága a
tárgyak bizonyos, jelentős jellemzői tekintetében (az összes
jellemző egyenlő eloszlás vizsgálva)
7. Randomizálás
többféleképpen is megvalósítható: véletlenszámtáblák
használata, lezárt borítékok használata, piros vagy zöld golyó
rajzolása, és ma a legegyszerűbb a számítógéppel, statisztikai
programokkal.
a rétegzett randomizációs módszer biztosítja a
csoportokban lévő egyének teljes összehasonlíthatóságát
nagyon fontos zavaró tényezők, például életkor és nemek
szerint
8. Monitoring és adatgyűjtés
az adatgyűjtésnek egy előre meghatározott protokollt kell
követnie, és mindkét alanycsoportban egyformán jól kell
teljesítenie, hogy elkerülhető legyen a diagnosztikai eljárás
megszűntetése.
biztosítani kell vak teszteléssel, álcázással, mely lehet
egyszeri, dupla vagy háromszoros
9. Monitoring és adatgyűjtés
egyszeres vakteszt- csak az alanyok nem tudják, hogy
melyik csoportba kerültek
kettős vakteszt - sem az alanyok, sem a kutatók, akik az
alanyok nyomon követési időszakában gyűjtötték az
adatokat, nem tudják, hogy melyik alany melyik csoportban
van
10. Monitoring és adatgyűjtés
hármas vakteszt - sem az alanyok, sem a kutatók, sem az
adatok elemzője nem tudja, hogy melyik alany melyik
csoportban van
a vakteszt csak akkor elvégezhető, ha a placebo vagy az
arany standard gyógyszer ugyanolyan megjelenésű (szín és
forma), súly, íz és szag, mint a vizsgált gyógyszer.
11. Monitoring és adatgyűjtés
lehetséges, hogy a placebóhatás akkor jelentkezik, amikor
az amúgy hatástalan anyag javítja az egészségügyi állapotot,
vagy amikor a Hawthorne hatás megjelenik, amelyet az
alanyok „pozitív” reakciója jellemez, mert a kutatók
gondoskodnak róluk
12. Az egészségügyi eredmények mérése
a kutatási kérdés és a vizsgálandó betegségtől függ
az eredmények lehetnek elsődlegesek és másodlagosak
a kutatásban általában az elsődleges egészségügyi eredmény
az, ami választ ad a legfontosabb kutatási kérdésre
a másodlagos eredmény lehet a gyógyszer mellékhatása, de
lehet betegség, funkcionális károsodás, fogyatékosság stb.
13. Az RCT típusai
a leggyakrabban használt tervezési módszerek mellett, ahol az
alanyokat két vagy több csoport egyikébe véletlenszerűen
választják ki, és az egyes csoportokon eltérő kezelést
alkalmaztak - úgynevezett párhuzamos kialakítás
A kísérleti epidemiológiában végzett kutatás más lehetséges
megközelítése az úgynevezett áthidaló tervezés alkalmazása
vagy a ténybeli tervezés alkalmazása
15. Az RCT típusai
a kereszttípus-tervezés alapelve az, hogy véletlenszerűsítéssel,
a vizsgált gyógyszer alkalmazását a kitett csoportba és a placebo
/ gold standard hatóanyagot a nem exponált csoportba
helyezzük és megvizsgáljuk a kimenetet egy időn keresztül
ennek a megközelítésnek az a jellemzője, hogy a vizsgált
csoportok kitettségét változtatjuk és a kutatás második részében
a kitett csoport válik a nem kitetté és fordítva
16. Az RCT típusai
az expozíciós és nem expozíciós állapot változásával egyes
alanyok esetében elérhető, hogy egy bizonyos idő elteltével a
korábban alkalmazott anyag teljes mértékben kiürüljön a testből
ebben a kísérlet típusban minden alany önmagát kontrollálja
17. Az RCT típusai
probléma: a kiindulási kitettség (vagy a nem kitettség) állandó
hatása, amelyet félrevezetően értelmezhető a nem kitettség
(vagy kitettség) hatásával
probléma: az expozíció és annak hiányának a sorrendje, mert a
placebo hatás hangsúlyosabb a vizsgálat elején, valamint az,
hogy ez a megközelítés nem mindig alkalmazható
18. Az RCT típusai
a tényalapú tervezés segítségével egyszerre több gyógyszer
hatását vizsgáljuk
ezeknek a gyógyszereknek elkerülhetetlenül eltérő
farmakokinetikájuk van, és hatásuknak teljesen függetlennek
kell lennie
Előny: egy alanyok esetében több gyógyszer hatásának
vizsgálatára nyílik lehetőség, amely jelentős mennyiségű pénzt
és egyéb erőforrásokat takaríthat meg
19. Az RCT típusai
előny: az alanyok megfigyelése során leállíthatjuk az egyik
hatóanyag expozícióját, ha erre szükség van, és a kutatás
második része megszakítás nélkül folytatódhat
probléma: a kísérleti tervezés és a statisztikai elemzés
összetettsége
20. Az eredmények bemutatása
kiszámíthatjuk az egészségre gyakorolt hatás relatív kockázatát
az expozíciós és a nem kitett személyek csoportjában
kimutathatjuk, hogy a csoportokban a betegek túlélése fennáll,
amelyhez a Kaplan-Meier túlélési görbét használhatjuk, amely a
túlélők arányát mutatja a követési idő alatt
21. Az eredmények bemutatása
a túlélés elemzéséhez használhatjuk a túlélés többváltozós
elemzését - a Cox regressziós modellt (arányos-veszélyes
modell), és ennek eredményeként megkapjuk a kockázati arányt
Kaplan-Meier módszerével ellentétben a Cox regressziója
figyelembe veszi a zavaró tényezők hatását
22. Az eredmények bemutatása
végül kiszámíthatjuk a hatékonyságot
a kitett csoport az a csoport, amely megkapta a vizsgált
hatóanyagot, míg a nem kitett csoport az, aki placebót vagy gold
standard gyógyszert kapott
𝐻𝑎𝑡é𝑘𝑜𝑛𝑦𝑠á𝑔 =
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑎 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑚 𝑘𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑠𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑏𝑎𝑛 − 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑎 𝑎 𝑘𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑠𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑏𝑎𝑛
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑎 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑚 𝑘𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑠𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑏𝑎𝑛
× 100
23. Az eredmények bemutatása
kiszámíthatjuk, hogy mennyi embert kell egy bizonyos módon
kezelni ahhoz, hogy elkerüljük a nemkívánatos eredményt (az
NNT kezeléséhez szükséges szám)
𝑁𝑁𝑇
=
1
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐ia a nem kitett csoportban − 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐ia a kitett csoportban
24. Konklúzió
mivel egy randomizált, ellenőrzött klinikai vizsgálat eredményei
jelentős hatást gyakorolhatnak az emberi egészségre és az
egészségügyi ellátás nyújtásának módjára, nagyon fontos
megérteni az egyes kutatások teljes lefolyását
CONSORT (Konszolidált beszámolási kísérleti szabványok) -
amely a kutatás elemeinek listáját tartalmazza, és amelyeket a
tudományos cikkben és a felmérés folyamatának diagramjában
kell leírni
25. Az RCT típusai? (jelölje meg a helyes választ)
keresztmetszeti, esettanulmány, kohorsz
ROSSZ
párhuzamos, áthidaló, tényező
HELYES
26. Randomizálás? (jelölje meg a helyes választ)
lehetővé teszi számunkra, hogy megszüntessük a zavaró
tényezők hatását
HELYES
egyszerűbb, mint a rétegzett
ROSSZ
27. A tudományos bizonyítékok hierarchiája? (jelölje meg a
helyes választ)
a kohorsz tanulmányok a legmagasabb szintű bizonyítékot
szolgáltatják
ROSSZ
Az RCT a legmagasabb szintű bizonyítékot nyújtja
HELYES