- The study assessed the prevalence of vitamin-A deficiency and its determinants among 681 preschool children in Dembia District, Ethiopia.
- The overall prevalence of xerophthalmia (a clinical sign of vitamin-A deficiency) was found to be 8.6%.
- Factors significantly associated with vitamin-A deficiency included non-attendance at antenatal care clinics, being male, and being between 49-59 months of age.
This document provides background information and outlines the objectives and methodology for a study on acute malnutrition among children aged 6-59 months in Ewa district, Afar region, Ethiopia. Specifically:
- It discusses the high prevalence of malnutrition in Ethiopia and Afar region.
- The general objective is to assess the prevalence of acute malnutrition and associated factors, while specific objectives are to determine malnutrition prevalence and identify associated factors.
- A cross-sectional study will be conducted at health centers, collecting data from caregivers and anthropometric measurements of children. Factors like socioeconomics, childcare, maternal health, and environment will be examined.
- 113 children will be sampled proportionally from health centers
This study examined the utilization of skilled birth attendance among women in Sidama Zone, Ethiopia. The researchers found that:
1) Only 26.8% of mothers gave birth at a health facility, attended by a skilled birth attendant.
2) Younger age, higher education levels, fewer births, more antenatal care visits, previous facility delivery experience, and greater maternal knowledge were associated with increased use of skilled birth attendance.
3) Reasons for preferring home delivery over facilities included the proximity of traditional birth attendants and perceptions of unclean equipment, lack of supplies, and unfriendly providers at facilities.
This document summarizes a research study that assessed the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of reproductive age women regarding antenatal care services at Dr. Khalid MCH in Hargeisa, Somaliland. The study used a descriptive cross-sectional design and questionnaire to collect data from 112 women. The results found that most women (66.2%) had good knowledge of antenatal care services, while 20% had poor knowledge. Most respondents (72.3%) had a positive attitude, while 23.4% had a negative attitude. The study concludes that health workers should provide more information to women on the benefits of antenatal care and community programs are needed to improve attitudes.
This document summarizes a study that used multilevel logistic regression to identify individual and community level factors associated with exclusive breastfeeding among infants under six months in Ethiopia. The study used 2016 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey data including 1,185 infants. Results found that at the individual level, factors like infant age, sex, health issues, household wealth, and antenatal care were associated with exclusive breastfeeding. At the community level, region, postnatal care visits, and maternal employment were associated factors. Both individual and community factors explained around 47% of the variation in exclusive breastfeeding.
Evaluation of the impacts of care givers on malnourished children in Ishaka A...PUBLISHERJOURNAL
This study was done to evaluate the knowledge, attitude and practices of care givers of malnourished children less than five years in Ishaka Adventist Hospital, Uganda. This was a cross-sectional descriptive study that targeted care givers of malnourished children below five years. Forty two care givers (using fishers’ method) were sampled using simple random technique and basing on the inclusion and exclusion criteria stated therein. Data was collected using semi structured questionnaires and data was analyzed using SPSS version 22.1 and was also assisted by excel in drawing charts and figures. During data collection, absolute ethical considerations were followed. 100% response rate was achieved, and the results showed that the majority of participants 20 (48%) were aged 18-24 years and 83% were females and majority of care takers were peasants 37(88%) and surprisingly 30(74%) had never completed primary level. 71% of respondents defined malnutrition as when the child is having a big head and a swollen stomach and a majority 26(62%) mentioned poor hygiene, un safe water, diseases and infection were the causes of malnutrition, good enough majority of them had knowledge on signs of malnutrition, care takers had a mixed attitude about malnutrition and some attributed it to bad lack in the family and majority of the mothers were breast feeding their children. In conclusion, participants had good knowledge and the care takers also had good attitude towards different feeding habits and it was recommended that outreach programs targeting care takers should be emphasized.
Keywords: malnutrition, feeding habits, care takers, infection
This document provides background information and outlines the objectives and methodology for a study on acute malnutrition among children aged 6-59 months in Ewa district, Afar region, Ethiopia. Specifically:
- It discusses the high prevalence of malnutrition in Ethiopia and Afar region.
- The general objective is to assess the prevalence of acute malnutrition and associated factors, while specific objectives are to determine malnutrition prevalence and identify associated factors.
- A cross-sectional study will be conducted at health centers, collecting data from caregivers and anthropometric measurements of children. Factors like socioeconomics, childcare, maternal health, and environment will be examined.
- 113 children will be sampled proportionally from health centers
This study examined the utilization of skilled birth attendance among women in Sidama Zone, Ethiopia. The researchers found that:
1) Only 26.8% of mothers gave birth at a health facility, attended by a skilled birth attendant.
2) Younger age, higher education levels, fewer births, more antenatal care visits, previous facility delivery experience, and greater maternal knowledge were associated with increased use of skilled birth attendance.
3) Reasons for preferring home delivery over facilities included the proximity of traditional birth attendants and perceptions of unclean equipment, lack of supplies, and unfriendly providers at facilities.
This document summarizes a research study that assessed the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of reproductive age women regarding antenatal care services at Dr. Khalid MCH in Hargeisa, Somaliland. The study used a descriptive cross-sectional design and questionnaire to collect data from 112 women. The results found that most women (66.2%) had good knowledge of antenatal care services, while 20% had poor knowledge. Most respondents (72.3%) had a positive attitude, while 23.4% had a negative attitude. The study concludes that health workers should provide more information to women on the benefits of antenatal care and community programs are needed to improve attitudes.
This document summarizes a study that used multilevel logistic regression to identify individual and community level factors associated with exclusive breastfeeding among infants under six months in Ethiopia. The study used 2016 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey data including 1,185 infants. Results found that at the individual level, factors like infant age, sex, health issues, household wealth, and antenatal care were associated with exclusive breastfeeding. At the community level, region, postnatal care visits, and maternal employment were associated factors. Both individual and community factors explained around 47% of the variation in exclusive breastfeeding.
Evaluation of the impacts of care givers on malnourished children in Ishaka A...PUBLISHERJOURNAL
This study was done to evaluate the knowledge, attitude and practices of care givers of malnourished children less than five years in Ishaka Adventist Hospital, Uganda. This was a cross-sectional descriptive study that targeted care givers of malnourished children below five years. Forty two care givers (using fishers’ method) were sampled using simple random technique and basing on the inclusion and exclusion criteria stated therein. Data was collected using semi structured questionnaires and data was analyzed using SPSS version 22.1 and was also assisted by excel in drawing charts and figures. During data collection, absolute ethical considerations were followed. 100% response rate was achieved, and the results showed that the majority of participants 20 (48%) were aged 18-24 years and 83% were females and majority of care takers were peasants 37(88%) and surprisingly 30(74%) had never completed primary level. 71% of respondents defined malnutrition as when the child is having a big head and a swollen stomach and a majority 26(62%) mentioned poor hygiene, un safe water, diseases and infection were the causes of malnutrition, good enough majority of them had knowledge on signs of malnutrition, care takers had a mixed attitude about malnutrition and some attributed it to bad lack in the family and majority of the mothers were breast feeding their children. In conclusion, participants had good knowledge and the care takers also had good attitude towards different feeding habits and it was recommended that outreach programs targeting care takers should be emphasized.
Keywords: malnutrition, feeding habits, care takers, infection
This systematic review and meta-analysis will determine the pooled prevalence of stunting and its major determinants among school-age children in Ethiopia. Individual studies on stunting in Ethiopia have reported prevalence ranging from 9.8% to 48.1%, but the national pooled estimate is unknown. The review will search several databases and other sources for relevant studies published until June 2020. Two reviewers will screen studies based on inclusion criteria and extract data, with disagreements resolved through discussion. Study quality will be assessed using a standardized tool. Pooled prevalence will be calculated using random effects models. Subgroup and meta-regression analyses will explore sources of heterogeneity. The determinants of stunting will also be identified. This review aims to inform
This study examined malnutrition among school-aged children in rural and urban areas of two districts in Ethiopia. The researchers collected anthropometric and dietary intake data from 886 children and analyzed differences in stunting and thinness between settings. The prevalence of stunting was higher in rural (42.7%) versus urban (29.2%) areas. In rural areas, factors associated with stunting included recent fever, consumption of animal foods, and family cattle ownership. In urban areas, only older age and the head of household's education were associated with stunting. Thinness was linked to household size and rice farming in rural communities and animal food intake and head of household literacy in urban communities. The study found varying factors impacting malnutrition
Malaria in under five children and help seeking behavior of mothers in calaba...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on malaria in children under five years old and the help-seeking behavior of mothers in Calabar, Nigeria. The study found that most mothers brought their children to health facilities due to fever, but many had waited over a week to seek care. While most mothers were aware of malaria, many initially treated their children at home with remedies like sponging or herbal enemas. The study concluded that a mother's help-seeking behavior impacts the outcome of a child's illness, and that addressing factors like cost, transportation, and the role of fathers could help reduce child mortality from malaria.
The study assessed knowledge, attitude, and practices regarding emergency contraception among 366 female students in Mekelle, Northern Ethiopia. The key findings were:
1) About 90.7% of respondents had heard of emergency contraception. Three-fourths (75.7%) had good knowledge and over half (64.9%) had a positive attitude.
2) Older age was significantly associated with greater awareness. Those over 18 were more likely to have good knowledge compared to younger students.
3) Age and ethnicity also influenced attitude - younger students and non-Tigre ethnic groups were less likely to have a positive attitude.
4) While knowledge and attitude were high, the study
Mohieldin et al. - Unknown - The impact of feeding practices on prevalence of...Moawia Alshiek
- An estimated 9.5 million children under 5 died in 2006, with two-thirds of deaths occurring in the first year of life. Undernutrition contributes to 35% of child deaths.
- Nearly 20 million children under 5 suffer from severe acute malnutrition, most living in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Proper nutrition in infancy and early childhood is essential for growth, health and development.
- Diarrheal diseases are a major cause of illness and mortality in children under 5. Up to 70% of diarrheal episodes may be foodborne. Food contaminated during processing can transmit diarrheal diseases and is a major factor in malnutrition.
This study assessed awareness levels about immunization programs among low socioeconomic families in rural West Bengal. A survey was conducted covering 590 children aged 1-5 years. The results showed that mothers had higher awareness than other family members. Factors like education level, caste, occupation, family size and distance from health centers influenced immunization rates. Full immunization was higher for males (56%) compared to females (23%). Children supported by integrated child development services had significantly higher full immunization (75%) than non-supported children (30%). The study concluded immunization awareness among rural families needs to be improved, especially for females and disadvantaged groups.
Background: Childhood stunting is the most widely prevalent among under-five children in Ethiopia. Despite the
individual-level factors of childhood stunting are well documented, community-level factors have not been given
much attention in the country. This study aimed to identify individual- and community-level factors associated with
stunting among under-five children in Ethiopia.
Methods: Cross-sectional data from the 2016 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey was used. A total of 8855
under-five children and 640 community clusters were included in the current analysis. A multilevel logistic
regression model was used at 5% level of significance to determine the individual- and community-level factors
associated with childhood stunting.
Comparative Studies of Knowledge and Perception of Parents on Home Management...inventionjournals
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Pahrmaceutical Science. IJPSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Compliance to annual ivermectin treatment in abia state,Alexander Decker
The study assessed compliance with annual ivermectin treatment for onchocerciasis in Abia State, Nigeria over 14 years. A survey of 558 individuals found that 55.4% had previously taken ivermectin, but only 22.7% of those were "high compliers" who had taken it 8 or more times. The overall percentage of high compliers was 12.6%. Reasons for low compliance included lack of information, no reason for refusal, absence from village, and no distribution. The reasons given did not significantly affect general compliance levels.
This study assessed the prevalence of trachoma and associated risk factors among children aged 1-9 years in villages in Ethiopia that had and had not implemented Community Led Total Sanitation and Hygiene (CLTSH). A comparative cross-sectional study was conducted on 644 children, with 322 from CLTSH villages and 322 from non-CLTSH villages. The overall prevalence of active trachoma was 27.8%, with no significant difference between the two village types. Variables associated with lower trachoma prevalence included living in an open defecation free village, lack of animal dung or rubbish nearby, and frequent hand and face washing. The study found no evidence that CLTSH implementation reduced trachoma
- The document describes the background, methodology, and baseline results of a health outcome study conducted in Cambodia to evaluate the impact of a school-based health program called Fit for School.
- The study uses a clustered controlled trial design to compare health indicators of students in 10 intervention schools implementing Fit for School versus 10 control schools.
- Baseline results show high burdens of malnutrition, soil-transmitted helminths, and dental caries among the 632 participating students. Follow-up surveys will assess whether these indicators improve more in intervention schools after 24 months.
Using m health to prevent and treat diarrheal diseasesschonelaig
Using mHealth to Prevent and Treat Diarrheal Diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa
Diarrhea is responsible for many childhood deaths in Sub-Saharan Africa due to lack of access to clean water and sanitation. [1] Existing solutions include breastfeeding, nutrition, oral rehydration, and antibiotics but are not fully implemented. [2] mHealth initiatives could help by sending reminder texts about handwashing and treatment. Tracking cases through mobile texts could also help prevention. [3] The best potential solution is simple text reminders about hygiene to address the major risk factor in a low-cost way.
This study estimated the incidence and risk factors of childhood pneumonia-like episodes in Biliran Island, Philippines through a community-based household survey. The incidence rates of pneumonia-like episodes, severe pneumonia-like episodes, and pneumonia-associated mortality were 105, 61, and 0.9 per 1,000 person-years respectively. History of asthma, low socioeconomic status, and long travel time to healthcare facilities were identified as significant risk factors for pneumonia-like episodes. Children with a long travel time to hospitals were less likely to seek hospital care for severe pneumonia-like episodes. Improving access to healthcare could help with early and effective management of childhood pneumonia.
This chapter introduces the background and scope of the study. It discusses the problems of undernutrition and intestinal parasitic infection among under-five children in developing countries like Somaliland. The objectives are to assess the risk factors of nutritional status, prevalence of intestinal parasites, and relationship between nutrition and parasites in under-five children at Erigavo General Hospital. The study aims to determine the nutritional status, parasite infection levels, and their association. It will provide useful information for researchers, students, hospitals, and the Ministry of Health in Somaliland. The geographical scope is Erigavo General Hospital and the time scope is April to June 2022.
This document proposes solutions to reduce malnutrition globally. It states that malnutrition affects billions and contributes to millions of child deaths daily from lack of essential nutrients. It recommends providing affordable vitamin/mineral supplements to vulnerable people and encouraging communities to improve food production/consumption. The proposed solutions aim to integrate health services, ensure quality care, alleviate cost barriers, and receive funding from eliminating user fees and establishing cash transfer systems. However, challenges include lack of political will due to funding issues, lack of awareness, and orthodox societies.
Knowledge, Attitude and Practices of School Children on Prevention and Contro...Premier Publishers
Superficial fungal infections are common among school-going children due to their involvement in practices that promote the spread at school or home. However, practices, knowledge and attitude of these children on prevention and control of fungal infection are poorly understood. This study assessed the practices, knowledge and attitude on the prevention and control of fungal infections among 163 children aged 5-12 years in western Kenya. A cross-sectional study design and systematic sampling method were adopted. Information on knowledge, attitude and practices on fungal prevention and control was collected using a structured questionnaire. Results showed that over 50% of the pupils had adequate knowledge on prevention and control of superficial fungal infections. On attitude, 58.9%of the children believed that those with fungal infection should not be allowed to play with others or go to school. Furthermore, 70.6% and 54.6% of the pupils agreed that sharing of toys and hairbrushes respectively leads in promoting the infections. These findings show that pupils demonstrate a good knowledge of superficial fungal with marked limited infection and control measures. Therefore, there is a need for stakeholders in health and education sectors to develop a policy framework involving learners in prevention and control of fungal infections.
Infant Mortality Rate by Sumayya Naseem 5th July, 2013Sumayya Naseem
This document discusses infant mortality rate (IMR) and provides information on its causes and ways to reduce it. It defines IMR and notes that most infant deaths occur in developing countries from preventable diseases like pneumonia, diarrhea, malnutrition, and malaria. It lists the IMR of various countries and the main diseases responsible. It then discusses factors contributing to IMR like acute respiratory infections, diarrhea, malnutrition, and malaria in more detail. It concludes by noting the importance of strengthening child health services, integrating infant health with other sectors, and the work of organizations to reduce IMR.
The document summarizes two studies conducted in Ethiopia using the Link NCA methodology to understand the causal pathways of undernutrition. The studies were conducted in 2014 in East Harargue zone and Sidama zone. In East Harargue, acute malnutrition (GAM) was found to be 12% among boys aged 6-17 months. Main risk factors identified included poor access to health services, water and sanitation, inadequate infant and young child feeding practices, and food insecurity. In Sidama zone, GAM was 5.6% among boys aged 18-29 months. Main risk factors there were also found to be preventable childhood illnesses, poor access to health services and water, inadequate feeding practices, and poverty.
The document summarizes two studies conducted in Ethiopia using the Link NCA methodology to understand the causal pathways of undernutrition. The studies were conducted in 2014 in East Harargue zone and Sidama zone. In East Harargue, acute malnutrition (GAM) was found to be 12% among boys aged 6-17 months. Main risk factors identified included poor access to health services, water and sanitation, inadequate infant and young child feeding practices, and food insecurity. In Sidama zone, GAM was 5.6% among boys aged 18-29 months. Main risk factors there were also found to be preventable childhood illnesses, poor access to health services and water, inadequate feeding practices, and poverty.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
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This systematic review and meta-analysis will determine the pooled prevalence of stunting and its major determinants among school-age children in Ethiopia. Individual studies on stunting in Ethiopia have reported prevalence ranging from 9.8% to 48.1%, but the national pooled estimate is unknown. The review will search several databases and other sources for relevant studies published until June 2020. Two reviewers will screen studies based on inclusion criteria and extract data, with disagreements resolved through discussion. Study quality will be assessed using a standardized tool. Pooled prevalence will be calculated using random effects models. Subgroup and meta-regression analyses will explore sources of heterogeneity. The determinants of stunting will also be identified. This review aims to inform
This study examined malnutrition among school-aged children in rural and urban areas of two districts in Ethiopia. The researchers collected anthropometric and dietary intake data from 886 children and analyzed differences in stunting and thinness between settings. The prevalence of stunting was higher in rural (42.7%) versus urban (29.2%) areas. In rural areas, factors associated with stunting included recent fever, consumption of animal foods, and family cattle ownership. In urban areas, only older age and the head of household's education were associated with stunting. Thinness was linked to household size and rice farming in rural communities and animal food intake and head of household literacy in urban communities. The study found varying factors impacting malnutrition
Malaria in under five children and help seeking behavior of mothers in calaba...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on malaria in children under five years old and the help-seeking behavior of mothers in Calabar, Nigeria. The study found that most mothers brought their children to health facilities due to fever, but many had waited over a week to seek care. While most mothers were aware of malaria, many initially treated their children at home with remedies like sponging or herbal enemas. The study concluded that a mother's help-seeking behavior impacts the outcome of a child's illness, and that addressing factors like cost, transportation, and the role of fathers could help reduce child mortality from malaria.
The study assessed knowledge, attitude, and practices regarding emergency contraception among 366 female students in Mekelle, Northern Ethiopia. The key findings were:
1) About 90.7% of respondents had heard of emergency contraception. Three-fourths (75.7%) had good knowledge and over half (64.9%) had a positive attitude.
2) Older age was significantly associated with greater awareness. Those over 18 were more likely to have good knowledge compared to younger students.
3) Age and ethnicity also influenced attitude - younger students and non-Tigre ethnic groups were less likely to have a positive attitude.
4) While knowledge and attitude were high, the study
Mohieldin et al. - Unknown - The impact of feeding practices on prevalence of...Moawia Alshiek
- An estimated 9.5 million children under 5 died in 2006, with two-thirds of deaths occurring in the first year of life. Undernutrition contributes to 35% of child deaths.
- Nearly 20 million children under 5 suffer from severe acute malnutrition, most living in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Proper nutrition in infancy and early childhood is essential for growth, health and development.
- Diarrheal diseases are a major cause of illness and mortality in children under 5. Up to 70% of diarrheal episodes may be foodborne. Food contaminated during processing can transmit diarrheal diseases and is a major factor in malnutrition.
This study assessed awareness levels about immunization programs among low socioeconomic families in rural West Bengal. A survey was conducted covering 590 children aged 1-5 years. The results showed that mothers had higher awareness than other family members. Factors like education level, caste, occupation, family size and distance from health centers influenced immunization rates. Full immunization was higher for males (56%) compared to females (23%). Children supported by integrated child development services had significantly higher full immunization (75%) than non-supported children (30%). The study concluded immunization awareness among rural families needs to be improved, especially for females and disadvantaged groups.
Background: Childhood stunting is the most widely prevalent among under-five children in Ethiopia. Despite the
individual-level factors of childhood stunting are well documented, community-level factors have not been given
much attention in the country. This study aimed to identify individual- and community-level factors associated with
stunting among under-five children in Ethiopia.
Methods: Cross-sectional data from the 2016 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey was used. A total of 8855
under-five children and 640 community clusters were included in the current analysis. A multilevel logistic
regression model was used at 5% level of significance to determine the individual- and community-level factors
associated with childhood stunting.
Comparative Studies of Knowledge and Perception of Parents on Home Management...inventionjournals
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Pahrmaceutical Science. IJPSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Compliance to annual ivermectin treatment in abia state,Alexander Decker
The study assessed compliance with annual ivermectin treatment for onchocerciasis in Abia State, Nigeria over 14 years. A survey of 558 individuals found that 55.4% had previously taken ivermectin, but only 22.7% of those were "high compliers" who had taken it 8 or more times. The overall percentage of high compliers was 12.6%. Reasons for low compliance included lack of information, no reason for refusal, absence from village, and no distribution. The reasons given did not significantly affect general compliance levels.
This study assessed the prevalence of trachoma and associated risk factors among children aged 1-9 years in villages in Ethiopia that had and had not implemented Community Led Total Sanitation and Hygiene (CLTSH). A comparative cross-sectional study was conducted on 644 children, with 322 from CLTSH villages and 322 from non-CLTSH villages. The overall prevalence of active trachoma was 27.8%, with no significant difference between the two village types. Variables associated with lower trachoma prevalence included living in an open defecation free village, lack of animal dung or rubbish nearby, and frequent hand and face washing. The study found no evidence that CLTSH implementation reduced trachoma
- The document describes the background, methodology, and baseline results of a health outcome study conducted in Cambodia to evaluate the impact of a school-based health program called Fit for School.
- The study uses a clustered controlled trial design to compare health indicators of students in 10 intervention schools implementing Fit for School versus 10 control schools.
- Baseline results show high burdens of malnutrition, soil-transmitted helminths, and dental caries among the 632 participating students. Follow-up surveys will assess whether these indicators improve more in intervention schools after 24 months.
Using m health to prevent and treat diarrheal diseasesschonelaig
Using mHealth to Prevent and Treat Diarrheal Diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa
Diarrhea is responsible for many childhood deaths in Sub-Saharan Africa due to lack of access to clean water and sanitation. [1] Existing solutions include breastfeeding, nutrition, oral rehydration, and antibiotics but are not fully implemented. [2] mHealth initiatives could help by sending reminder texts about handwashing and treatment. Tracking cases through mobile texts could also help prevention. [3] The best potential solution is simple text reminders about hygiene to address the major risk factor in a low-cost way.
This study estimated the incidence and risk factors of childhood pneumonia-like episodes in Biliran Island, Philippines through a community-based household survey. The incidence rates of pneumonia-like episodes, severe pneumonia-like episodes, and pneumonia-associated mortality were 105, 61, and 0.9 per 1,000 person-years respectively. History of asthma, low socioeconomic status, and long travel time to healthcare facilities were identified as significant risk factors for pneumonia-like episodes. Children with a long travel time to hospitals were less likely to seek hospital care for severe pneumonia-like episodes. Improving access to healthcare could help with early and effective management of childhood pneumonia.
This chapter introduces the background and scope of the study. It discusses the problems of undernutrition and intestinal parasitic infection among under-five children in developing countries like Somaliland. The objectives are to assess the risk factors of nutritional status, prevalence of intestinal parasites, and relationship between nutrition and parasites in under-five children at Erigavo General Hospital. The study aims to determine the nutritional status, parasite infection levels, and their association. It will provide useful information for researchers, students, hospitals, and the Ministry of Health in Somaliland. The geographical scope is Erigavo General Hospital and the time scope is April to June 2022.
This document proposes solutions to reduce malnutrition globally. It states that malnutrition affects billions and contributes to millions of child deaths daily from lack of essential nutrients. It recommends providing affordable vitamin/mineral supplements to vulnerable people and encouraging communities to improve food production/consumption. The proposed solutions aim to integrate health services, ensure quality care, alleviate cost barriers, and receive funding from eliminating user fees and establishing cash transfer systems. However, challenges include lack of political will due to funding issues, lack of awareness, and orthodox societies.
Knowledge, Attitude and Practices of School Children on Prevention and Contro...Premier Publishers
Superficial fungal infections are common among school-going children due to their involvement in practices that promote the spread at school or home. However, practices, knowledge and attitude of these children on prevention and control of fungal infection are poorly understood. This study assessed the practices, knowledge and attitude on the prevention and control of fungal infections among 163 children aged 5-12 years in western Kenya. A cross-sectional study design and systematic sampling method were adopted. Information on knowledge, attitude and practices on fungal prevention and control was collected using a structured questionnaire. Results showed that over 50% of the pupils had adequate knowledge on prevention and control of superficial fungal infections. On attitude, 58.9%of the children believed that those with fungal infection should not be allowed to play with others or go to school. Furthermore, 70.6% and 54.6% of the pupils agreed that sharing of toys and hairbrushes respectively leads in promoting the infections. These findings show that pupils demonstrate a good knowledge of superficial fungal with marked limited infection and control measures. Therefore, there is a need for stakeholders in health and education sectors to develop a policy framework involving learners in prevention and control of fungal infections.
Infant Mortality Rate by Sumayya Naseem 5th July, 2013Sumayya Naseem
This document discusses infant mortality rate (IMR) and provides information on its causes and ways to reduce it. It defines IMR and notes that most infant deaths occur in developing countries from preventable diseases like pneumonia, diarrhea, malnutrition, and malaria. It lists the IMR of various countries and the main diseases responsible. It then discusses factors contributing to IMR like acute respiratory infections, diarrhea, malnutrition, and malaria in more detail. It concludes by noting the importance of strengthening child health services, integrating infant health with other sectors, and the work of organizations to reduce IMR.
The document summarizes two studies conducted in Ethiopia using the Link NCA methodology to understand the causal pathways of undernutrition. The studies were conducted in 2014 in East Harargue zone and Sidama zone. In East Harargue, acute malnutrition (GAM) was found to be 12% among boys aged 6-17 months. Main risk factors identified included poor access to health services, water and sanitation, inadequate infant and young child feeding practices, and food insecurity. In Sidama zone, GAM was 5.6% among boys aged 18-29 months. Main risk factors there were also found to be preventable childhood illnesses, poor access to health services and water, inadequate feeding practices, and poverty.
The document summarizes two studies conducted in Ethiopia using the Link NCA methodology to understand the causal pathways of undernutrition. The studies were conducted in 2014 in East Harargue zone and Sidama zone. In East Harargue, acute malnutrition (GAM) was found to be 12% among boys aged 6-17 months. Main risk factors identified included poor access to health services, water and sanitation, inadequate infant and young child feeding practices, and food insecurity. In Sidama zone, GAM was 5.6% among boys aged 18-29 months. Main risk factors there were also found to be preventable childhood illnesses, poor access to health services and water, inadequate feeding practices, and poverty.
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ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
2. Page 2 of 8
Tariku et al. BMC Res Notes (2016) 9:323
childhood xerophthalmia [3], according to which about
44.4 % (56.4 million) and 2 % of the preschool children
are affected by sub-clinical VAD and night blindness,
respectively.
The consequence of VAD is magnified by poverty and
the higher prevalence of infectious diseases [4] and it
is an underlying cause for nearly one-fourth of global
child mortality from measles, diarrhea, and malaria [5].
This mortality risk worsens among children born in Sub-
Saharan African countries, which face 16.5 and 1.8 times
higher probability of dying before the age of 5 years com-
pared to children born in developed regions and South-
ern Asia, respectively [6]. VAD along with measles is the
major cause of preventable visual impairment in children
[7]. Though VAD is a multi-casual disorder, episodes of
severe disease [8–10], poor dietary intake of protein and
vitamin-A rich food [10], lack of vitamin-A supplementa-
tion, poor immunization status, poor maternal awareness
about vitamin-A and high parity [8, 9], poor maternal
education, socioeconomic status and sanitary practice,
male sex, and nutritional stunting [11, 12] were some of
the factors significantly associated with it.
The findings of the limited research done in Ethiopia
reveal that, VAD is one of the major public health prob-
lems [3, 13–15], because more than one-third (37. 6 %)
of the children under 5 years are suffering from sub-
clinical VAD, 4.3–7.3 % from night blindness, and 2.2 %
from Bitot’s Spots [14]. In Ethiopia and other African
countries, poverty, sub-optimal nutrition, insanitary liv-
ing conditions, and poor health care access exacerbate
the risk of developing multiple micronutrient deficien-
cies [16–18]. Accordingly, only half of the young children
grow with optimal breastfeeding. Twenty-six percent of
the young children consume vitamin-A rich foods, while
only 4 % receive food from at least four food groups [19].
It has been confirmed that improving the vitamin A
status of deficient children significantly reduces the risk
of mortality from measles by 50 %, from diarrhea by
40 %, and overall mortality by 25–35 % [20]. Therefore,
the elimination of VAD is considered a key element for
improving the survival, well-being, growth, and devel-
opment of children. Thus, research showing the burden
and determinants of VAD is of paramount importance.
However, such studies are scarce in Ethiopia, particularly
in the northwestern part of the country. Therefore, this
study aimed to assess the prevalence and determinants of
VAD among preschool children.
Methods
Study setting
The study was conducted in Dembia District, northwest
Ethiopia. The district has 45 kebeles (smallest administra-
tive units in Ethiopia), of which 40 are rural. It has a total
population of 315,903 with 260.1/km2
population density.
Preschoolers comprise 5.7 % (18,006) of the total popula-
tion [21]. There are 10 health centers and 40 health posts
in the district. Surrounded by the great Lake Tana, the
district is a well-known malaria endemic area. The resi-
dents are by and large surplus producing farmers cultivat-
ing mainly cereals, legumes, and spices [22]. According to
the 2015 District Health Office report, the overall immu-
nization coverage is 81.5 % while it is 77.1 % for measles.
Furthermore, the coverage for Rota Virus-1 and Rota
Virus-2 immunization is 83.1 and 77.1 %, respectively, and
incredibly, it is 98 % for vitamin-A supplementation.
Study design and participants
A community-based cross-sectional study was con-
ducted from January to February, 2015. All preschool
children who lived in the district for at least 6 months
were included in the study.
Sample size and sampling procedure
The minimum sample size was determined using the
single population proportion formula with the following
assumptions: 5.8 % expected prevalence of xerophthalmia
[15], 95 % confidence level, and 2.5 % margin of error (d).
Finally, a minimum sample size of 706 was obtained after
anticipating a 10 % non-response rate and the adjusting
design effect of two. A multi-stage sampling followed by a
systematic sampling technique was employed to reach the
study subjects. Initially, nine representative kebeles in the
district (one urban and eight rural) were selected using
the lottery method. The total number of eligible preschool
children living in the kebeles were obtained from the local
administration and used to calculate the sampling frac-
tion (k). After a proportional allocation to each kebele, the
systematic sampling technique was employed to reach the
study subjects. In households with more than one eligible
study subject, lottery was used to select only one child.
When mother–child pairs were not available at the time
of data collection, two repeated visits were made. Other-
wise, the adjacent house was considered, though rarely.
Data collection instruments and procedure
Data were collected through a face to face interview by
using a pretested and structured questionnaire. The
questionnaire consisted of socio-demographic and eco-
nomic characteristics, health, and dietary pattern related
information. To maintain consistency, the questionnaire
was first translated from English to Amharic, the native
language of the study area, and was retranslated to Eng-
lish by professional translators. Two experienced public
health experts and 12 trained data collectors (2 clinical
optometrists and 10 clinical nurses) were recruited for
supervision and data collection, respectively. The
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3. Page 3 of 8
Tariku et al. BMC Res Notes (2016) 9:323
investigators coordinated the overall activities of data
collection. The tool was piloted on 36 preschool children
outside the study area. During the pre-test, the accept-
ability and applicability of the procedures and tools were
evaluated. Household wealth index was computed using
a composite indicator for urban and rural residents by
considering properties like, livestock ownership, selected
household assets, size of agricultural land, and the quan-
tity of crop production. Principal component analysis
(PCA) was performed to categorize the household wealth
index into lowest, middle, and highest.
Height was measured using the seca vertical height
scale (German, Serial No. 0123) standing upright in the
middle of the board. The child’s head, shoulders, but-
tocks, knees, and heels touch the vertical board. Nutri-
tion related data were transferred to the ENA/SMART
software version 2012 and hight-for-Age Z-scores (HAZ)
was calculated using the WHO Multicenter Growth Ref-
erence Standard. Children were classified as undernour-
ished if their z score was less than −2SD; otherwise, they
were well-nourished (≥−2 z score). Accordingly, children
were considered as stunted if their z-score of HAZ was
below −2SD, respectively.
Assessment of dietary diversity and quasi‑food frequency
Determination of the dietary diversity score (DDS) of a
child was started by asking the mother to list all foods con-
sumed by the child in the previous 24 h preceding the sur-
vey. In case of mixed dish, mothers were asked to list the
ingredients of the food items. Then reported food items
were classified into seven food groups, as starchy staples
(grains, roots, and tubers); legumes, nuts and seeds; vita-
min-A rich fruits and vegetables; other fruits and vegeta-
bles; egg; dairy products (milk, yoghurt, and cheese); and
flesh foods (meat, fish, poultry, and organ meats) [23].
Considering four food groups as the minimum acceptable
dietary diversity [24], a child with a DDS of less than four
was classified as having poor dietary diversity; otherwise,
they were considered to have good dietary diversity.
The seven-day quasi food frequency, modified food
group frequency [2], was measured as the number of
days the child consumed any of the vitamin-A rich foods
in the last 7 days preceding the survey. Primarily, vita-
min-A rich foods available in the study area were classi-
fied into plant-based (dark green leafy vegetables, other
vitamin-A rich vegetables, and yellow orange fruits) and
animal-based food groups (organ meat, eggs, and milk)
[25]. Mothers were asked to report for how many days
their children consumed any of the vitamin-A rich foods
in the last 7 days. A score ranging from 1 to 7 was given
depending on the number of days the child ate any of the
above listed vitamin-A rich foods; otherwise, the score
‘0’ was given if the child didn’t eat any vitamin-A rich
food. Hence, the above food groups constituted the six
food groups which accounted for the maximum score of
seven for each; the total score for the summary measure
of quasi-food frequency was 42.
Clinical assessment of vitamin‑A deficiency
A detailed ophthalmic examination was carried out by
clinical optometrists with a strict adherence to standard
methods and procedures [26]. An ophthalmoscope, a
pentorch, and magnifiers were used to identify the clini-
cal signs of vitamin-A deficiency, such as Bitot’s spot,
conjunctival xerosis, corneal xerosis, corneal ulceration,
and corneal scar. But, history of night blindness was con-
firmed by asking mothers using the local word for night
blindness (dafint). Information on whether a child faced
any difficulty while playing or in identifying objects in
dim light, especially at sun set, was gathered.
Data analysis
Data were entered into EPI INFO version 3.5.3 and ana-
lyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS) version 20. Descriptive statistics, including fre-
quencies and proportions were used to summarize the
study variables. A binary logistic regression model was
used to investigate factors associated with VAD. Vari-
ables with a p values of <0.2 in the bivariable analysis
were entered in the multivariable analysis to control the
possible effect of confounders. The adjusted odds ratio
(AOR) with a 95 % confidence interval was estimated to
assess the strength of association, and a p value of <0.05
was used to declare the statistical significance in the mul-
tivariable analysis. Furthermore the fitness of the model
was checked using the Hosmer and lemeshow goodness
of fit-test, and it was found as 0.68.
Results
Socio‑demographic characteristics
Six hundred eighty-one children were included in
the study. The mean age (±SD) of the children was
41.58 months (±11.27), and slightly more than half
(53.6 %) of them were male. Almost all (93.1 %) of the
participants were living in the rural kebeles of Dembia
District. In this community, nearly one-third (30 %) of the
households (HHDs) had at least seven family members.
The majority (95.4 %) of the mothers were housewives,
uneducated (77.1 %), and gave their first birth before the
age of 20 (63.1 %). Most (84.4 %) of the parents obtained
food for household consumption from their own farm
(own production) (Table 1).
Health and nutrition related characteristics
The majority (85.8 %) of the mothers had at least one
antenatal care (ANC) visit for the index child, but around
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4. Page 4 of 8
Tariku et al. BMC Res Notes (2016) 9:323
one third (29.9 %) gave birth at heath facilities. A sub-
stantial number (92.4 %) of the children took vitamin-A
supplementation in the last 6 months. Most (82.5 %) of
the children had a dietary diversity score of below 4. Only
a few children ate meat (0.6 %), eggs (0.3 %), and vita-
min-A rich fruits and vegetables (0.6 %) in the previous
24-h (Fig. 1). Furthermore, about 36 % of them ate any
of vitamin-A rich food in the last 7 days preceding the
survey. Nearly three-fourths (70.3 %) of the mothers ini-
tiated breast feeding in a timely fashion, within an hour
of delivery, and a significant proportion of the mothers
(65.9 %) initiated complementary feeding at the 6 month
(Table 2).
Prevalence of vitamin‑A deficiency
The overall prevalence of xerophthalmia was 8.6 % [95 %
CI 6.6,11 %]. In the following diagram each specific type
was summarized (Fig. 2).
Table 1 Socio-demographic characteristics of study par-
ticipants in Dembia District, northwest Ethiopia, 2015
Variables Frequency Percent
Child age in month
24–36 288 42.3
37–48 233 34.2
49–59 160 23.5
Child sex
Male 365 53.6
Female 316 46.4
Residence
Urban 47 6.9
Rural 634 93.1
Marital status
Single 25 3.7
Married 613 90
Othersa
43 6.3
Religion
Orthodox 674 99
Othersb
7 1
Ethnicity
Amhara 673 98.8
Othersf
8 1.2
Household size
≤4 226 33.2
5–6 251 36.8
≥7 204 30.0
Number of children ever born
≤2 195 28.6
3–5 355 52.1
≥6 131 19.2
Birth order
1st 128 18.8
2nd–4th 362 53.2
≥5th 191 28
Maternal education
Uneducated 525 77.1
Primary 58 8.5
Secondary and above 98 14.4
Maternal employment
Housewife 650 95.4
Othersc
31 4.6
Maternal age
15–34 495 72.7
35–48 186 27.3
Mothers age at first birth
≤19 430 63.1
20–39 251 36.9
Paternal education
Uneducated 410 60.2
Educated 271 39.8
a
Divorced, widowed and separated
b
Muslim and protestant
c
Merchant, government employ and student
d
Government employ and daily laborer
e
Purchasing and family assistant
f
Oromo and Tigre
Table 1 continued
Variables Frequency Percent
Paternal employment
Farmer 620 91
Merchant 32 4.7
Othersd
29 4.3
Wealth status
Poor 226 33.2
Middle 228 33.5
High 227 33.3
Supported by PSNP
Yes 41 6.0
No 640 94.0
Model household graduate
Graduated 285 41.9
Not graduated 396 58.1
Main source of family food
Own production 575 84.4
Othere
106 15.6
Vegetable production
Yes 108 15.9
No 573 84.1
Fruit production
Yes 33 4.8
No 648 95.2
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5. Page 5 of 8
Tariku et al. BMC Res Notes (2016) 9:323
Factors associated with vitamin‑A deficiency
In both the bivariable and multivariable analyses, sex and
age of the child and the ANC follow up were significantly
associated with VAD. Accordingly, being a male child
increases the odds of developing VAD 1.81 times [AOR
1.81,95 % CI 1.01,3.24]. Likewise, increased odds of VAD
were noted among children aged 49-59 months [AOR
3.00, 95 % CI 1.49,6.02] and whose mothers had no ANC
visit [AOR 2.65, 95 % CI 1.39,5.07] (Table 3).
Discussion
In this study, in spite of intensive nutritional interven-
tions, the prevalence of Xerophthalmia still remains
unacceptably high, five times higher than the WHO
cut-off point for public health significance (1.56 %) [27].
This might be related to the lower rate of maternal lit-
eracy in the study area (22.9 %). Maternal literacy is a
strong predictor of good childhood nutritional outcome,
mainly through creating a fertile ground for adoption of
scientifically supported child feeding practices [28, 29].
Moreover, poor dietary intake of vitamin-A rich food
is an important predictor of VAD [9, 30, 31]. Thus, the
higher burden of xerophthalmia in the area could also be
attributed to poor dietary intake of vitamin-A rich food.
Nearly two-thirds (64.3 %) of the children didn’t eat any
of the vitamin-A rich foods in the last 7 days preceding
the survey, indicating a higher vulnerability of the chil-
dren to VAD [26, 27].
This prevalence was also the highest of any study
reporting from developing countries, such as Nigeria
(1.1 %) [32] and rural India (2.3 %) [12]. This huge dis-
crepancy could be partially explained by the socio-eco-
nomic and cultural differences of the study areas.
Children aged 49–59 months were more likely to suffer
from VAD as compared to children who were between 24
and 36 months of age. Similar findings were reported in
Sudan [33] and India [34]. This is probably due to the fact
that this age category is the turning point for increased
energy and micronutrient requirements compared to
younger children, to support their rapid growth and devel-
opment [35, 36]. Though their physiological state calls for
extra nutritional requirement, only few children consumed
vitamin-A rich complementary food in the current study
area and in the country at large [28]. This extra micronu-
trient requirement coupled with poor dietary intake might
worsen the risk of developing VAD in older children.
The current study also found that male children were
at higher risk of developing vitamin-A deficiency. This
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
100.00%
Starch
staples
Legumes Dairy
product
Othrer
fruits and
vegetable
Meat Egg Vit-A rich
fruit and
veg
proporon
of
children
Food groups
Fig. 1 Proportion of preschool children who consumed food groups
in the previous 24-h preceding the survey, Dembia District, northwest
Ethiopia, 2015
Table 2 Health and nutrition related characteristics
of study participants in Dembia District, northwest Ethio-
pia, 2015
Variables Frequency Percent
ANC visit
Yes 584 85.8
No 97 14.2
Place of delivery
Home 480 70.5
Health facility 201 29.5
Initiation of breastfeeding
Early initiation 479 70.3
Late initiation 202 29.7
Prelacteal feeding
Yes 344 50.5
No 337 49.5
Complementary food initiation
Timely 449 65.9
Early 33 4.8
Late 199 29.2
Dietary diversity
4 562 82.5
≥4 119 17.5
Quasi food frequency
Zero 438 64.3
1–3 137 20.1
≥4 106 15.6
Vitamin-A supplementation
Yes 629 92.4
No 52 7.6
Immunization status
Partially immunized 121 17.8
Fully immunized 560 82.2
Any morbidity in the last 2 week
Yes 108 15.9
No 573 84.1
Stunting
Yes 313 46
No 368 54
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6. Page 6 of 8
Tariku et al. BMC Res Notes (2016) 9:323
finding was supported by reports from Israel [11] and
India [34]. However a different finding was reported by
another study in Ethiopia [37]. This might be related to
the slightly higher nutritional requirement of male chil-
dren for vitamin-A [38]. The other possible explana-
tion could be related to diarrheal diseases, as most male
children (89.8 %) experienced fever and diarrhea in this
study. According to some reports, fever is mostly associ-
ated with the commonest childhood illness of infectious
origin, such as diarrhea, malaria, and respiratory tract
infection. Febrile illness during childhood could result
in decreased food intake and malabsorption of nutrients,
such as vitamin-A. It is also confirmed that, the above
highly common childhood infectious diseases are signifi-
cant determinants of VAD [10, 31, 39]. However, the rela-
tionship between child sex and risk of VAD needs further
investigation.
The third important factor associated with VAD was
ANC follow up. Children whose mothers had no ANC
follow up were more likely to suffer from VAD. ANC is an
ideal entry point for providing nutritional care and coun-
seling [40] and to promote the benefit of institutional
delivery [41, 42]. Proper nutritional counseling and sup-
port helps to enhance nutritional knowledge and appro-
priate dietary habit of pregnant mothers [43]. ANC also
steps-up the likelihood of receiving the child and mater-
nal postnatal vitamin-A supplementation [44]. This in
Fig. 2 Prevalence of vitamin-A deficiency among preschool children
in Dembia District, northwest Ethiopia, 2015
Table 3 Factors associated with vitamin-A deficiency
among preschool children in Dembia District, northwest
Ethiopia, 2015
Variables Vitamin-A deficiency COR
(95 % CI)
AOR
(95 % CI)
Yes# (%) No# (%)
Child sex
Male 40 (11 %) 325 (89 %) 1.92
(1.09,3.39)
1.81 (1.01,3.24)
Female 19 (6 %) 297 (94 %) 1 1
Wealth status
Poor 17 (7.5 %) 209 (92.5 %) 0.66
(0.35,1.25)
Middle 17 (7.5 %) 211 (92.5 %) 0.65
(0.34,1.24)
High 25 (11 %) 202 (89 %) 1
Child age in month
24–36 16 (5.6 %) 272 (94.4 %) 1 1
37–48 20 (8.6 %) 213 (91.4 %) 1.59
(0.81,3.16)
1.57 (0.78,3.17)
49–59 23 (14.4 %) 137 (85.6 %) 2.85
(1.46,5.58)
3.00 (1.49,6.02)
Place of delivery
Home 46 (9.6 %) 434 (90.4 %) 1
Health
facility
13 (6.5 %) 188 (93.5 %) 0.65
(0.34,1.24)
Model household
Yes 20 (7 %) 265 (93 %) 0.69
(0.39,1.21)
No 39 (9.8 %) 257 (90.2 %) 1
Quasi food frequency
Zero 44 (10 %) 394 (90 %) 1.58
(0.69,3.61)
1–3 8 (5.8 %) 129 (94.2 %) 0.88 (0.31,2.5)
≥4 7 (6.6 %) 99 (93.4 %) 1
Antenatal care
Yes 42 (7.2 %) 542 (92.8 %) 1 1
No 17 (17.5 %) 80 (82.5 %) 2.74
(1.49,5.05)
2.65 (1.39,5.07)
Vegetable production
Yes 13 (12 %) 95 (88 %) 1.57
(0.82,3.02)
No 46 (8 %) 527 (92 %) 1
Main source of family food
Own pro-
duction
54 (9.4 %) 521 (90.6 %) 1
Other 5 (4.7 %) 101 (95.3 %) 0.48 (0.19,
1.22)
Number of children ever born
≤2 21 (10.8 %) 174 (89.2 %) 2.57
(0.97,6.41)
3–5 32 (9.0 %) 323 (91 %) 2.06
(0.84,5.06)
≥6 6 (4.6 %) 125 (95.4 %) 1
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7. Page 7 of 8
Tariku et al. BMC Res Notes (2016) 9:323
turn could help to improve maternal vitamin-A reserve
for later lactation. Additionally, ANC with a profound
effect of institutional delivery helps to promote exclusive
and early initiation of breastfeeding [45, 46], commonly
advocated public health measures to avert childhood
VAD [13, 28].
This study tried to show the burden of vitamin-A defi-
ciency in preschool children, which has not been well
investigated before in the study area. The investiga-
tors also made a lot of effort to maintain the quality of
the data, mainly through a pretest, frequent field super-
visions, and training of data collectors. However, the
study was not free from limitations. First, since dietary
assessments were made through recall (with the longest
recall period of 7 days in case of the seven-day quasi-fre-
quency), there might have been a risk of recall bias. Sec-
ondly, the study didn’t consider the measurement of the
serum retinol level and estimation of the portion size of
food intake. Thirdly, the study was not free from the pit-
falls of a cross-sectional study design.
Conclusions
Vitamin-A deficiency has severe public health signifi-
cance in the study area. Strengthening the utilization of
antenatal care and giving special emphasis to preschool
children helps to mitigate vitamin-A deficiency.
Abbreviations
WHO: World Health Organization; AOR: adjusted odds ratio; CI: confidence
interval; COR: crude odds ratio; ANC: antenatal care (ANC); VAD: vitamin-A
deficiency; DDS: dietary diversity score; HHDs: households; WHZ: weight-for-
hight Z-scores; HAZ: hight-for-age Z-scores.
Authors’contributions
AT conceived and designed the study, performed statistical analysis,
coordinated the data collection activities, and drafted the manuscript. AF
participated in designing the study, coordinated the data collection activities,
and participated in drafting the manuscript. ATF participated in designing the
study and drafted the manuscript. SM participated in statistical analysis and
writing of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Author details
1
Department of Human Nutrition, Institute of Public Health, College
of Medicine and Health Sciences, The University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia.
2
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Institute of Public Health,
College of Medicine and Health Sciences, The University of Gondar, Gondar,
Ethiopia. 3
Department of Optometry, School of Medicine, College of Medicine
and Health Sciences, The University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia.
Acknowledgements
Authors would like to thank mothers for their willingness to participate in the
study. The authors appreciation will also go to the university of Gondar for
provision of financial support as well as to Dembia District Health Office for
their positive co-operation and providing materials.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Availability of data and materials
Data will be made available up on request from the primary author.
Consent to publish
Not applicable.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Ethical clearance was obtained from the Institutional Review Boards of the
University of Gondar. An official permission letter was secured from Dembia
District Health Office. All mothers or caretakers of children were informed
about the purpose of the study, and interviews were held only with those
who agreed to give a written consent to participate. Uneducated mothers
affirmed their consent by their thumb print. The right of a participant to
withdraw from the study at any time, without any precondition was disclosed
unequivocally. Moreover, the confidentiality of information obtained was
guaranteed by all data collectors and investigators by using code numbers
rather than personal identifiers and by keeping the questionnaire locked. Chil-
dren with any clinical signs of xerophthalmia were treated immediately with
200, 000 IU vitamin A on days 1, 2 and 7 after ocular examination.
Received: 16 April 2016 Accepted: 21 June 2016
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