Varying Definitions of Online Communication and

Varying Definitions of Online Communication and
Their Effects on Relationship Research
Elizabeth L. Angeli
State University
Author Note
Elizabeth L. Angeli, Department of Psychology, State
University.
Elizabeth Angeli is now at Department of English, Purdue
University.
This research was supported in part by a grant from the Sample
Grant
Program.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Elizabeth
Angeli, Department of English, Purdue University, West

Lafayette, IN 55555.
Contact: [email protected]
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Running head: VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE
COMMUNICATION 1
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VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
2
Abstract
This paper explores four published articles that report on results
from research conducted
on online (Internet) and offline (non-Internet) relationships and
their relationship to
computer-mediated communication (CMC). The articles,
however, vary in their
definitions and uses of CMC. Butler and Kraut (2002) suggest
that face-to-face (FtF)

interactions are more effective than CMC, defined and used as
“email,” in creating
feelings of closeness or intimacy. Other articles define CMC
differently and, therefore,
offer different results. This paper examines Cummings, Butler,
and Kraut’s (2002)
research in relation to three other research articles to suggest
that all forms of CMC
should be studied in order to fully understand how CMC
influences online and offline
relationships.
Keywords: computer-mediated communication, face-to-face
communication
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3
Varying Definitions of Online Communication and
Their Effects on Relationship Research
Numerous studies have been conducted on various facets of
Internet relationships,
focusing on the levels of intimacy, closeness, different
communication modalities, and
the frequency of use of computer-mediated communication
(CMC). However,
contradictory results are suggested within this research because
only certain aspects of
CMC are investigated, for example, email only. Cummings,
Butler, and Kraut (2002)
suggest that face-to-face (FtF) interactions are more effective
than CMC (read: email) in
creating feelings of closeness or intimacy, while other studies
suggest the opposite. To
understand how both online (Internet) and offline (non-Internet)

relationships are affected
by CMC, all forms of CMC should be studied. This paper
examines Cummings et al.’s
research against other CMC research to propose that additional
research be conducted to
better understand how online communication affects
relationships.
Literature Review
In Cummings et al.’s (2002) summary article reviewing three
empirical studies on
online social relationships, it was found that CMC, especially
email, was less effective
than FtF contact in creating and maintaining close social
relationships. Two of the three
reviewed studies focusing on communication in non-Internet
and Internet relationships
mediated by FtF, phone, or email modalities found that the
frequency of each modality’s
use was significantly linked to the strength of the particular
relationship (Cummings et
al., 2002). The strength of the relationship was predicted best
by FtF and phone
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4
communication, as participants rated email as an inferior means
of maintaining personal
relationships as compared to FtF and phone contacts (Cummings

et al., 2002).
Cummings et al. (2002) reviewed an additional study conducted
in 1999 by the
HomeNet project (see Appendix A for more information on the
HomeNet project). In
this project, Kraut, Mukhopadhyay, Szczypula, Kiesler, and
Scherlis (1999) compared
the value of using CMC and non-CMC to maintain relationships
with partners. They
found that participants corresponded less frequently with their
Internet partner (5.2 times
per month) than with their non-Internet partner (7.2 times per
month) (as cited in
Cummings et al., 2002). This difference does not seem
significant, as it is only two times
less per month. However, in additional self-report surveys,
participants responded
feeling more distant, or less intimate, towards their Internet
partner than their non-
Internet partner. This finding may be attributed to participants’
beliefs that email is an
inferior mode of personal relationship communication.
Intimacy is necessary in the creation and maintenance of
relationships, as it is

defined as the sharing of a person’s innermost being with
another person, i.e., self-
disclosure (Hu, Wood, Smith, & Westbrook, 2004).
Relationships are facilitated by the
reciprocal self-disclosing between partners, regardless of non-
CMC or CMC. Cummings
et al.’s (2002) reviewed results contradict other studies that
research the connection
between intimacy and relationships through CMC.
Hu et al. (2004) studied the relationship between the frequency
of Instant
Messenger (IM) use and the degree of perceived intimacy
among friends. The use of IM
instead of email as a CMC modality was studied because IM
supports a non-professional
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5
environment favoring intimate exchanges (Hu et al., 2004).
Their results suggest that a
positive relationship exists between the frequency of IM use and
intimacy, demonstrating
that participants feel closer to their Internet partner as time
progresses through this CMC
modality.
Similarly, Underwood and Findlay (2004) studied the effect of
Internet
relationships on primary, specifically non-Internet relationships
and the perceived
intimacy of both. In this study, self-disclosure, or intimacy,

was measured in terms of
shared secrets through the discussion of personal problems.
Participants reported a
significantly higher level of self-disclosure in their Internet
relationship as compared to
their primary relationship. In contrast, the participants’ primary
relationships were
reported as highly self-disclosed in the past, but the current
level of disclosure was
perceived to be lower (Underwood & Findlay, 2004). This
result suggests participants
turned to the Internet in order to fulfill the need for intimacy in
their lives.
In further support of this finding, Tidwell and Walther (2002)
hypothesized CMC
participants employ deeper self-disclosures than FtF
participants in order to overcome the
limitations of CMC, e.g., the reliance on nonverbal cues. It was
found that CMC partners
engaged in more frequent intimate questions and disclosures
than FtF partners in order to
overcome the barriers of CMC. In their 2002 study, Tidwell
and Walther measured the
perception of a relationship’s intimacy by the partner of each

participant in both the CMC
and FtF conditions. The researchers found that the participants’
partners stated their
CMC partner was more effective in employing more intimate
exchanges than their FtF
6
partner, and both participants and their partners rated their
CMC relationship as more
intimate than their FtF relationship.
Discussion
In 2002, Cummings et al. stated that the evidence from their
research conflicted
with other data examining the effectiveness of online social
relationships. This statement
is supported by the aforementioned discussion of other research.
There may be a few
possible theoretical explanations for these discrepancies.
Limitations of These Studies
The discrepancies identified may result from a number of

limitations found in the
materials reviewed by Cummings et al. These limitations can
result from technological
constraints, demographic factors, or issues of modality. Each of
these limitations will be
examined in further detail below.
Technological limitations. First, one reviewed study by
Cummings et al. (2002)
examined only email correspondence for their CMC modality.
Therefore, the study is
limited to only one mode of communication among other
alternatives, e.g., IM as studied
by Hu et al. (2004). Because of its many personalized features,
IM provides more
personal CMC. For example, it is in real time without delay,
voice-chat and video
features are available for many IM programs, and text boxes can
be personalized with the
user’s picture, favorite colors and text, and a wide variety of
emoticons, e.g., :). These
options allow for both an increase in self-expression and the
ability to overcompensate
for the barriers of CMC through customizable features, as stated
in Tidwell and Walther

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limitations
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under
examination
.
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7
(2002). Self-disclosure and intimacy may result from IM’s
individualized features,
which are not as personalized in email correspondence.
Demographic limitations. In addition to the limitations of email,
Cummings et
al. (2002) reviewed studies that focused on international bank
employees and college
students (see Appendix B for demographic information). It is
possible the participants’
CMC through email was used primarily for business,
professional, and school matters
and not for relationship creation or maintenance. In this case,
personal self-disclosure
and intimacy levels are expected to be lower for non-
relationship interactions, as this
communication is primarily between boss and employee or
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Intimacy is not required, or even desired, for these professional
relationships.

Modality limitations. Instead of professional correspondence,
however,
Cummings et al.’s (2002) review of the HomeNet project
focused on already established
relationships and CMC’s effect on relationship maintenance.
The HomeNet researchers’
sole dependence on email communication as CMC may have
contributed to the lower
levels of intimacy and closeness among Internet relationships as
compared to non-
Internet relationships (as cited in Cummings et al., 2002). The
barriers of non-personal
communication in email could be a factor in this project, and
this could lead to less
intimacy among these Internet partners. If alternate modalities
of CMC were studied in
both already established and professional relationships, perhaps
these results would have
resembled those of the previously mentioned research.

8
Conclusions and Future Study
In order to gain a complete understanding of CMC’s true effect
on both online
and offline relationships, it is necessary to conduct a study that
examines all aspects of
CMC. This includes, but is not limited to, email, IM, voice-
chat, video-chat, online
journals and diaries, online social groups with message boards,
and chat rooms. The
effects on relationships of each modality may be different, and
this is demonstrated by
the discrepancies in intimacy between email and IM
correspondence. As each mode of
communication becomes more prevalent in individuals’ lives, it
is important to examine
the impact of all modes of CMC on online and offline
relationship formation,
maintenance, and even termination.
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9
References
Cummings, J. N., Butler, B., & Kraut, R. (2002). The quality of
online social
relationships. Communications of the ACM, 45(7), 103-108.
Hu, Y., Wood, J. F., Smith, V., & Westbrook, N. (2004).

Friendships through IM:
Examining the relationship between instant messaging and
intimacy. Journal of
Computer-Mediated Communication, 10, 38-48.
Tidwell, L. C., & Walther, J. B. (2002). Computer-mediated
communication effects on
disclosure, impressions, and interpersonal evaluations: Getting
to know one
another a bit at a time. Human Communication Research, 28,
317-348.
Underwood, H., & Findlay, B. (2004). Internet relationships and
their impact on primary
relationships. Behaviour Change, 21(2), 127-140.
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10
Appendix A
The HomeNet Project
Started at Carnegie Mellon University in 1995, the HomeNet
research project has
involved a number of studies intended to look at home Internet
usage. Researchers began
this project because the Internet was originally designed as a
tool for scientific and
corporate use. Home usage of the Internet was an unexpected
phenomenon worthy of
extended study.
Each of HomeNet’s studies has explored a different facet of
home Internet usage,
such as chatting, playing games, or reading the news. Within the
past few years, the
explosion of social networking has also proven to be an area
deserving of additional
research. Refer to Table A1 for a more detailed description of
HomeNet studies.
Table A1

Description of HomeNet Studies by Year
Year
of
Study
Contents
of
Study
1995--‐ 1996
93 families in Pittsburgh involved in school
or community organizations
1997--‐ 1999
25 families with home businesses
1998--‐ 1999
151 Pittsburgh households
2000--‐ 2002
National survey
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11
Appendix B
Demographic Information for Cummings et al. (2002)’s Review
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period, text begins on the same
line and continues
• I believe only level 1 and level 2 headings is necessary for
your paper.
Discussion and conclusions
• The conclusion of your paper is the final paragraph where you
restate your
thesis and tie together supporting ideas you have referenced,
spelled out
and argued for in earlier paragraphs.
• Summarize the important aspects of your paper
• Identify significant flaws or gaps in existing knowledge
• Don't just restate the information. Instead put it into logical
order in the
body of your paper like a series of steps the reader can climb,
illustrating
the connections between each piece that reinforce your thesis.
• End with a suggestion to your reader that encourages further
study or

action.
References
• I suggest you to use online bibliography and citation tools:
https://elearningindustry.com/12-best-free-online-bibliography-
andcitation-tool
APA citation common
mistakes
In-text citations
• Narrative citation style
Graham and Harris (1997) have shown that an academic style of
writing is slowly learned,
and is not often intuitive.
• Parenthetical citation style
Often, the rules of academic English, and American academic
English in particular, are
presented as assumptions rather than with explicit guidance
(Graham & Harris, 1997).
• Never add the title of the cited article in your paper. The in-
text citation is enough.
• All sources used in in-text citations must also be included in
the reference page at the
end of the paper.

• If there’s no author found, use a shortened version of the title
instead. • If there’s no
date found, use “n.d.”
Multiple authors
• Sometimes, students don’t include all names, or they forget
the comma or
they put the year in the wrong place.
• TWO AUTHORS
• In the sentence, name both authors in the signal phrase, using
“and”
between the name; end with the year: Reports by Smith and Doe
(2017)
state….
• In the parentheses at the end of the sentence, use last names
separated by
“&“; end with a comma and the year: …the report stated (Smith
& Doe,
2017).
• MORE THAN TWO AUTHORS
• In these cases, use the first author’s last name, followed by “et
al.” (Smith
et al., 2017)
Quotations

• Cite the specific page number of direct quotes.
In general, the style guide recommends paraphrasing sources
rather
than using too many direct quotes, “because paraphrasing
allows you
to fit material to the context of your paper and writing style”
(APA,
2019, p. 270).
• Avoid too long quotations (more than 40 words)
Plagiarism
• Plagiarism: Plagiarism occurs when a person represents
someone
else’s words, ideas, phrases, sentences or data as one’s own
work.
When a student submits work that includes such material, the
source
of that information must be acknowledged through complete and
accurate references. All verbatim statements must be
acknowledged
by means of quotation marks.
• academic_integrity_policy_final_2-04.pdf (njcu.edu)
Example paper
• APA-7-Writing-in-APA-7th-Ed-Example-Paper.pdf
(antioch.edu)

Group work in breakout room or class
• When you enter the breakout room, write your email in the
chat
• Send your abstract to your assigned classmate’s email
• 2. Read the abstract and give feedback/comments to your
classmate
• 3. Can you determine the research question from reading the
abstract?
School of Business Undergraduate Core Curriculum Rubric
SLO # 1: Students will compose clear, concise forms of written
communication to effectively convey ideas and information
associated with business topics.
WRITTEN
COMMUNICATION
Excellent
(4)
Proficient
(3)
Developing
(2)
Unsatisfactory
(1)
SCORE
Organization

Organization is excellent and exceeds expectations; clear and
well stated introduction; main points are identified and argued,
with a structure that flows logically from point to point; clear
summary and conclusion.
Organization is proficient and meets expectations; introduction
and main points are identified, even if some transitions are
somewhat sudden; summary and conclusion are clear.
Attempts to create an organized structure; abrupt jumps; some
of the main points and conclusion are unclear.
Unable to demonstrate clear organization with no main points;
unclear transition and weak conclusion.
Mechanics
Grammar and spelling are correct; conforms to prescribed style
and format; uses language, terminology, graphics, or other
means of communication that is sophisticated, accurate and
clear for the business environment.
Grammar or spelling errors minimal; prescribed style and
format is followed; uses language and/or terminology that
satisfies all aspects of the message requirements but does not
show mastery of business language / terminology.
Several instances of improper grammar, spelling and
punctuation; uses language / terminology that is adequate but
sometimes vague and / or inappropriate for the business
environment.
Writing is unclear; improper use of grammar, spelling and
punctuation; unable to incorporate business terminology and is
inadequate for the business environment.
Quality of
Writing
Articulates ideas clearly; presented neatly and professionally;
demonstrates mastery use of professional style for the business
environment.
Articulates ideas; presented neatly; uses a professional style to
satisfy requirements of the message for the business

environment
Ideas are somewhat unclear; attempts to address the message
but occasionally detracts from it; sometimes vague and
seemingly inappropriate for the business environment.
Ideas are not clear; unable to identify and / or address the
message; does not meet basic standards for the business
environment.
Sources
and
Evidence
Demonstrates skillful use and identification of various high-
quality, credible, relevant sources; (primary, secondary applied
and scholarly research); aligns findings directly to message;
where appropriate-attributes sources completely.
Demonstrates consistent use and reference of credible relevant
sources; (primary, secondary applied and scholarly); links
findings to message; where appropriate - attributes sources.
Demonstrates an attempt to use credible sources; (primary,
secondary applied and scholarly); alignment between findings
and general message somewhat unclear; where appropriate -
inconsistencies with attributing sources.
Demonstrates very little attempt to use sources; (primary,
secondary applied and scholarly); insufficient findings to
support message; where appropriate - lacks attributes to
sources.
TOTAL MINIMUM SCORE of (12) required with a minimum
score of (3) in each category
Paper Overview:
Students are expected to submit a draft and a final paper which

consists of a literature review. In this paper, you will
comprehensively review, synthesize, and apply academic
knowledge, and critical thinking. To help you identify a topic
for your paper, I will provide a list of potential topics that the
students may be interested. Alternatively, students may propose
their self-identified topic (this topic should be approved by me).
Final papers must be in APA format and should include at least
ten sources, of which at least four should be articles from
scholarly journals. Selecting the appropriate sources for your
research topic will be critical to your paper’s success. You may
have to go through a lot of material before you find the relevant
sources for your topic. Be patient. Invest the time in the NJCU
remote library databases (https://www.njcu.edu/library/library-
resources/information-literacy-njcu/quick-guides/access-library-
databases-home), Google Scholar, and email me with questions.
You should include at least ten sources, of which at least four
should be articles from scholarly journals. Please follow the
format explained in the “Writing A Paper” PDF. This PDF is a
CRITICAL component relating to the structure of your paper.
Submitting your draft is not optional. I will provide feedback
and help you move forward or improve your paper.
Paper Topics:
I created a list (not exhaustive) of both broad and narrow topics:
Broad:
· earnings quality / earnings management
· corporate scandals/ accounting fraud
· board of directors/audit committee
· corporate governance
· internal controls
· accounting/auditing profession
Narrow:
· Political pressure in accounting standard setting process
· international accounting standards and financial reporting
quality
· internal controls and earnings quality

· auditor independence and audit quality
· collusion in auditing
· accounting firms' culture and ethics
· CEO personality and earnings management
· CEO narcissism and financial reporting quality
· CEO overconfidence and corporate governance
· Artificial intelligence in accounting
· Female on board and earnings quality
· ESG/CSR and female on board
· ESG/CSR and investors' attention
· attracting students (millennials) in accounting firms
· being a successful professional in the Big 4
· impact of covid-19 in accounting firms
If you're interested in one of the broad topics, please narrow
down this topic in your final paper: in your introduction, state a
specific question you want to focus on.
Helpful videos:
APA Style 7th Edition: In-Text Citations, Quotations, and
Plagiarism
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8914hv18xnU
How to Write a Paper Using APA Format
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xG3Wz98h2 Ho

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