This document discusses the potential value of human waste as an energy resource. It estimates that if the waste of just those practicing open defecation was converted to biogas, it could be worth over $200 million annually and meet the electricity needs of almost 10 million households. Converting all global human waste could generate $1.6-$9.5 billion worth of biogas annually, offsetting the electricity use of 138 million households or providing the equivalent of 47.5 million kg of charcoal. However, challenges include overcoming cultural aversions and ensuring safety when deriving solid fuels from waste.

1. Valuing Human Waste as
an Energy Resource
A RESEARCH BRIEF ASSESSING THE GLOBAL WEALTH IN WASTE

2. United Nations University
Institute for Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH)
Valuing Human Waste as an Energy Resource
A Research Brief Assessing the Global Wealth in Waste

3. The United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment
and Health is a member of the United Nations University family of
organizations. It is the UN Think Tank on Water created by the UNU
Governing Council in 1996. The mission of the institute is to help
resolve pressing water challenges that are of concern to the United
Nations, its Member States, and their people, through knowledge-
based synthesis of existing bodies of scientific discovery; through
cutting-edge targeted research that identifies emerging policy issues;
through application of on-the-ground scalable solutions based on
credibleresearch;and,throughrelevantandtargetedpublicoutreach.
It is hosted by the Government of Canada and McMaster University.
UNU-INWEH is supported by the Government of Canada.
SUGGESTED CITATION:
Schuster-Wallace C.J., Wild C., and Metcalfe C. (2015).
Valuing Human Waste as an Energy Resource
A Research Brief Assessing the Global Wealth in Waste. United
Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health
(UNU-INWEH). Available from: http://inweh.unu.edu
Front Cover Photo: Corinne Schuster-Wallace, UNU-INWEH
©United Nations University, 2015
AVAILABLE FROM:
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Institute for Water, Environment and Health
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ISBN: 978-92-808-6078-8

4. 3VALUING HUMAN WASTE AS AN ENERGY RESOURCE
Valuing Human Waste as
an Energy Resource
Reducing by half the proportion of untreated wastewater has been established as a target in the UN’s recently
released Agenda 2030 for sustainable development (Goal 6.3). Staggering volumes of wastewater are discharged
into receiving waters each year, and as much as 90% of the wastewater is discharged untreated (Corcoran et al.,
2010). Meanwhile, almost 1 billion people defecate in the open, and approximately 2.4 billion people do not have
access to proper sanitation (UNICEF and WHO, 2015). Failing or inadequate septic, collection, and treatment
systems further exacerbate poor water quality conditions worldwide.
Three main problems plague sanitation and the operation and maintenance of wastewater treatment systems:
1. Large up-front capital costs associated with infrastructure;
2. Financing the operation, maintenance, rehabilitation, and expansion; and,
3. Providing incentives for use.
Given a global mindset that sees this waste as an expensive liability, it is all too common to neglect its potential
value as a resource. As the saying goes, necessity is the mother of invention, and water scarce regions are driving
the interest in wastewater reuse, particularly to expand marginal agricultural lands (Sato et al., 2013). However,
pilot projects reveal a missed opportunity to utilize faecal sludge, particularly for rural areas and small towns.
Human waste, as with all organic matter, contains nutrients, as well as thermal heat value, since it is combustible
when dry.
Nutrient values in human excreta vary with age and diet. Ek et al. (2006) suggest a normalised nutrient breakdown
in urine of 3600 g of nitrogen per m3
, 310 g of phosphorous per m3
, 900 g of potassium per m3
, and 300 g of
sulphur per m3
, based on a Swedish population. The nutrients in the urine from one person in a year are sufficient
to provide 50-100 kg N/ha for a crop area of up to 400 m2
(Richert et al., 2010). Faecal sludge contains fewer
nutrients than urine, estimated at 548 g of nitrogen, 183 g of phosphorus, and 460 g of potassium per person,
per year (Vinnerås and Jönsson, 2002). Taken together, “black water” or urine plus faeces has a general nutrient
value of 4550 g of nitrogen and 548 g of phosphorus per person, per year (Richert et al., 2010). The nutrient value
in human waste for food production has been well-documented, both in terms of the benefits to crop productivity

5. 4
(for example, a 2-6 fold increase in relative yield, depending on the crop type) and cost benefit analysis (Richert
et al., 2010). Human waste is utilised for food production in various forms around the world, with guidelines for
ensuring its safe use (WHO, 2006).
The potential energy value of human waste has been given less attention to date and its benefits are less likely
to be appreciated. There are two potential sources of energy from human waste. “Biogas” is generated through
anaerobic (oxygen free) digestion resulting from bacteria breakdown of faecal matter and any other organic
material. Biogas is approximately 60% methane by volume and has an average thermal value of 25MJ per m3
(Cao
and Powlowski, 2012). Dried and charred faecal sludge has been found to have similar energy content to coal
and charcoal, with a heating value of approximately 25 MJ/kg, depending on the temperature at which charring
occurs (Ward et al., 2014). This is an extremely important observation. While biogas has been harnessed in many
large municipal wastewater treatment plants, and some countries have undertaken concerted (and successful)
efforts to develop household biogas systems using either animal or human faeces, there has been little uptake
of processed faecal sludge as an alternative to coal and charcoal. Given that the global production of fuelwood
reached 1.9 billion cubic metres in 2013 (World Bioenergy Association, 2015) and that deforestation is contributing
to soil and land degradation, as well as declining water quality, the use of dried sludge as an alternative energy
source is a significant social, environmental, and economic opportunity.
In this context, a “Waste to Wealth”1
national framework for Uganda was developed by UNU-INWEH with a
seed grant from federally-funded Grand Challenges Canada and in partnership with the Ugandan Ministry of
Water and Environment, its agencies, and other NGO and academic partners. Waste to Wealth makes a case for
using modern bioenergy technologies to convert human and other organic wastes into resources that provide
economic benefits, as well as protecting the environment and human health. It is founded in the application of
anaerobic digestion technologies linked to sanitation systems. With a focus on rural growth centers and small
towns in Uganda, as well as high population density institutions such as schools and prisons, the biogas and
residual material left from energy conversion will be used as a resource with economic value to provide the
return on investment necessary to improve sanitation. The ultimate goal of Waste to Wealth is self-financing
and sustaining decentralised (on site) faecal waste management in Uganda. By identifying the value in waste for
energy and/or fertiliser, Waste to Wealth provides an incentive to use toilets and a mechanism to finance the
capital costs as well as operation, maintenance, and expansion of sanitation infrastructure. In addition to the
economic opportunities, sanitation interventions have known benefits to individual, household, and community
health and wellbeing (Hutton, 2015).
1 Initial proof of concept funded through a Government of Canada supported Grand Challenges Canada grant.
For more information: www.inweh.unu.edu/waste-to-wealth

6. 5VALUING HUMAN WASTE AS AN ENERGY RESOURCE
The business case for the Waste to Wealth initiative in Uganda provides insight into the potential value of human
waste in a global context. Using average values for the amount of human waste produced, conversion of that
waste into biogas and slurry, and their energy equivalents (Table 1), the potential energy value in waste can be
calculated (Appendix Tables I and II):
EQUATION 1: BIOGAS PRODUCTION
Biogas produced (m3
yr-1) = human waste per person per year * population * % volatile solids fraction
EQUATION 2: ENERGY VALUE OF BIOGAS
Energy value (KWh) = biogas volume * thermal value of biogas (MJ) * energy efficiency factor * KWh conversion
EQUATION 3: NATURAL GAS ECONOMIC COMPARISON
Price of natural gas equivalent (USD / Million Metric British Thermal Unit) = Biogas energy equivalent (KWh) *
ratio thermal value biogas:natural gas * BTU conversion * unit global market value natural gas
What are we Wasting?
Potential Energy and its Value
UNU-INWEH, Corinne Schuster-Wallace

7. 6
TABLE 1: VARIABLES AND ASSUMPTIONS USED IN CALCULATIONS
VALUE
REFERENCE
(WHERE APPLICABLE)
Human waste produced per person
per year (max based on approx.
1.6 kg per day; min based on
conservative 0.5 kg per day)
Max: 601 kg y-1
Min: 182.5 kg y-1
RICHERT ET AL. (2010)
Volatile Solids (%) 0.25-0.45
Methane content in biogas 50-70 % by volume
Waste volume reduction through
digestion
60%
Thermal value of biogas (1 m3
) 25 MJ CAO AND PAWLOWSKI (2012)
Thermal value of natural gas (1 m3
) 38 MJ WORLD NUCLEAR ASSOCIATION
Thermal value of hard black coal (1
kg)
25.5 MJ WORLD NUCLEAR ASSOCIATION
Thermal value of charcoal (1 kg) 23 MJ WARD ET AL. (2014)
Thermal value of faecal char
briquettes (1 kg)
25.6 ± 0.08 MJ (at 300 °C); 3.8 ± 0.48 MJ
(at 750 °C)
WARD ET AL. (2014)
Cost of natural gas
(global market value)
(US Dollars per Million Metric British
Thermal Unit)
US$ 2.76 INDEX MUNDI AUGUST 2015 PRICES
Conversion KWh:MJ 1 KWh = 3.6 MJ

8. 7VALUING HUMAN WASTE AS AN ENERGY RESOURCE
TABLE 1: VARIABLES AND ASSUMPTIONS USED IN CALCULATIONS
VALUE
REFERENCE
(WHERE APPLICABLE)
Conversion Efficiency:
Biogas:Electricity
32% BANKS ET AL. (2014)
Global population (2015) 7,301,319,000 WHO AND UNICEF (2015)
Number of people without improved
sanitation (32% of population)
2,336,422,080 WHO AND UNICEF (2015)
Number of people practicing open
defecation (13% of population)
949,171,470 WHO AND UNICEF (2015)
Average global energy consumption
per household per year
3,386 KWh / hh WORLD ENERGY COUNCIL
(2013 DATA)
Minimum energy consumption per
household per year (Nepal)
319 KWh / hh WORLD ENERGY COUNCIL
(2013 DATA)
Maximum energy consumption per
household per year (Kuwait)
40,648 KWh / hh WORLD ENERGY COUNCIL
(2013 DATA)
Charcoal consumption per household
per day (Uganda)
1kg

9. 8
This analysis indicates a significant financial value to be found in human “waste” (Figures 1 and 2; Tables A.1 and
A.2). If only those individuals in the population practicing open defecation were targeted, the minimum estimated
value of biogas generation is more than US$ 200 million per year — enough to meet the annual electricity demand
of almost 10 million local households. If all of the world’s human waste were to be collected and used for biogas
generation, the potential value ranges from US$ 1.6 billion to 9.5 billion; the latter value being enough to offset
electricity demands of over 138 million households, or roughly the number of households in Indonesia, Brazil,
and Ethiopia combined. In addition, the equivalent of almost 47.5 million kilograms of household charcoal could
potentially be derived from the slurry (households in Uganda use approximately 1 kg of charcoal daily).
Summary and Way Forward
FIGURE 1: VALUE IN OUR WASTE (LOW SCENARIO: OPEN DEFECATION POPULATION; 0.25 % VS)
Potential biogas yield
(billions of M-3
)
Market value equivalent
(US $100 millions)
Annual electricity demand
offset with biogas
(millions of households)
Annual charcoal demand
offset from use of dried,
charred slurry
(5 million households)
Human waste produced
per person per year (max
based on approx. 1.6 kg
per day; min based on
conservative 0.5 kg per
day)
15 BILLION M-3
US $200 MILLION 10 MILLION 45 MILLION

10. 9VALUING HUMAN WASTE AS AN ENERGY RESOURCE
While we believe that the Waste to Wealth strategy is an innovative, decentralised, modular way to address a lack
of sanitation in rural areas and small urban centres, the challenges are many. Clearly there is a financial incentive
in generating energy by-products from waste, but this may not be sufficient in all cultures to overcome the “ick”
factor of using our own waste. Concerns exist regarding the safety of fuels derived in this way, particularly for
the solid fuel. Testing is required, linked to marketing demonstrations to introduce these different fuels and show
that they do not impact food taste or quality. Wastewater that includes industrial effluent may not be suitable
for production of solid fuel byproduct for domestic use because of chemical contamination. Another challenge
in scaling this approach is the perceived risk for financial institutions, resulting in prohibitively high loan interest
rates. Legal and institutional frameworks and manufacturing, construction, and maintenance capacity are essential
if this approach is to be embedded in national strategies.
However, one thing is clear: Rather than treating our waste as a major liability, with proper controls in place, we
can use it to build innovative and sustained financing for development while protecting health and improving
our environment in the process.
FIGURE 2: VALUE IN OUR WASTE (HIGH SCENARIO: GLOBAL POPULATION; 0.45 % VS)
Potential biogas yield
(billions of M-3
)
Market value equivalent
(US $100 millions)
Annual electricity demand
offset with biogas
(millions of households)
Annual charcoal demand
offset from use of dried,
charred slurry
(5 million households)
Human waste produced
per person per year (max
based on approx. 1.6 kg
per day; min based on
conservative 0.5 kg per
day)
209 BILLION M-3
US $9.5 BILLION 450 MILLION 2 BILLION

11. 10
REFERENCES
Ek M., Bergström R., Bjurhem J.-E., Björlenius B. and Hellström D. 2006. Concentration of nutrients from urine and reject water
from anaerobically digested sludge. Water Science & Technology, 54(11-12):437–444. doi:10.2166/wst.2006.924.
Cao Y. and Pawłowski A. 2012. Sewage sludge-to-energy approaches based on anaerobic digestion and pyrolysis: Brief
overview and energy efficiency assessment. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(3):1657-1665.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.12.014.
Corcoran E., Nellemann C., Baker E., Bos R., Osborn D. and Savelli H. (eds). 2010. Sick Water? The central role of wastewater
management in sustainable development. A Rapid Response Assessment. United Nations Environment Programme,
UN-HABITAT, GRID-Arendal. www.grida.no.
Hutton G. 2015. Benefits and Costs of the Water Sanitation and Hygiene Targets for the Post-2015 Development Agenda.
Post-2015 Consensus. Copenhagen Consensus Centre Working Report (Draft).
Richert A., Gensch R., Jönsson H., Stenström T.-A. and Dagerskog L. 2010. Practical Guidance on the Use of Urine in Crop
Production. Stockholm Environment Institute, EcoSanRes Series, 2010-1.
Sato T., Qadir M., Yamamoto S., Endo T. and Zahoor A. 2013. Global, regional, and country level need for data on wastewater
generation, treatment, and use. Agricultural Water Management, 130:1-13.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2013.08.007.
UNICEF and WHO. 2015. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water; 2015 Update and MDG Assessment. UNICEF and WHO.
Available from: http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf.
Vinnerås B. and Jönsson H. 2002. The performance and potential of faecal separation and urine diversion to recycle plant
nutrients in household wastewater. Bioresource Technology, 84(3):275-282.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0960-8524(02)00054-8.
Ward B.J., Tesfayohanes Y.W. and Montoya L.D. 2014. Evaluation of Solid Fuel Char Briquettes from Human Waste. Environ.
Sci. Technol. 48(16):9852–9858. DOI: 10.1021/es500197h.
WHO and UNICEF. 2015. Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment. New York, USA,
World Health Organization.
World Bioenergy Association. 2015. WBA Global Bioenergy Statistics 2015. www.worldbioenergy.org.
World Energy Council. 2013. Average electricity consumption per electrified household. Available from:
https://www.wec-indicators.enerdata.eu/household-electricity-use.html.
WHO. 2006. Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater use in agriculture and aquaculture. Socio cultural,
environmental and economic Aspects. World Health Organisation.

12. 11VALUING HUMAN WASTE AS AN ENERGY RESOURCE
APPENDIX I: DATA TABLES
TABLE A.1: ENERGY VALUE IN HUMAN WASTE (LOW SCENARIO)
* Rounded to the nearest ‘000
QUALITY OF
WASTE
POPULATION
OPEN DEFECATION
UNIMPROVED
SANITATION
WORLD
Estimated volume
biogas generated
per year (m3
)
0.25 % VS 15,157,082,000 37,309,740,000 116,592,938,000
0.35 % VS 21,219,915,000 52,233,636,000 163,230,113,000
0.45 %VS 27,282,747,000 67,157,532,000 209,867,288,000
Estimated volume of
slurry generated
per year (m3
)
0.25 % VS 17,322,379,000 42,639,703,000 133,249,072,000
0.35 % VS 24,251,331,000 59,695,584,000 186,548,700,000
0.45 %VS 31,180,283,000 76,751,465,000 239,848,329,000
Monetary value of
biogas (natural gas
equivalent)
0.25 % VS 208,667,000 513,641,000 1,605,127,000
0.35 % VS 292,133,000 719,097,000 2,247,178,000
0.45 %VS 375,600,000 924,553,000 2,889,229,000
Energy value of biogas
(# households annual
electricity use offset)
0.25 % VS 9,948,000 24,486,000 76,520,000
0.35 % VS 13,927,000 34,281,000 107,127,000
0.45 %VS 17,906,000 44,075,000 137,735,000
Charcoal offset
(slurry char equivalent)
(households yr-1
)
0.25 % VS 47,459,000 116,821,000 365,066,000
0.35 % VS 66,442,000 163,550,000 511,092,000
0.45 % VS 85,425,000 210,278,000 657,119,000

13. 12
TABLE A.2: ENERGY VALUE IN HUMAN WASTE (HIGH SCENARIO)
* Rounded to the nearest ‘000
QUALITY OF
WASTE
POPULATION
OPEN DEFECATION
UNIMPROVED
SANITATION
WORLD
Estimated volume
biogas generated
per year (m3
)
0.25 % VS 49,914,555,000 122,866,596,000 383,958,113,000
0.35 % VS 69,880,377,000 172,013,235,000 537,541,358,000
0.45 %VS 89,846,198,000 221,159,873,000 691,124,603,000
Estimated volume of
slurry generated
per year (m3
)
0.25 % VS 57,045,205,000 140,418,967,000 438,809,272,000
0.35 % VS 79,863,287,000 196,586,554,000 614,332,981,000
0.45 %VS 102,681,370,000 252,754,141,000 789,856,689,000
Monetary value of
biogas (natural gas
equivalent)
0.25 % VS 687,170,000 1,691,496,000 5,285,925,000
0.35 % VS 962,038,000 2,368,094,000 7,400,295,000
0.45 %VS 1,236,906,000 3,044,693,000 9,514,665,000
Energy value of biogas
(# households annual
electricity use offset)
0.25 % VS 32,759,000 80,637,000 251,991,000
0.35 % VS 45,862,000 112,892,000 352,787,000
0.45 %VS 58,966,000 145,147,000 453,583,000
Charcoal offset
(slurry char equivalent)
(households yr-1
)
0.25 % VS 156,288,000 384,709,000 1,202,217,000
0.35 % VS 218,804,000 538,593,000 1,683,104,000
0.45 % VS 281,319,000 692,477,000 2,163,991,000

14. 13VALUING HUMAN WASTE AS AN ENERGY RESOURCE
UNU-INWEH, Corinne Schuster-Wallace

15. United Nations University
Institute for Water, Environment and Health
204 - 175 Longwood Road South
Hamilton, ON., Canada. L8P 0A1
1-905-667-5511
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ISBN: 978-92-808-6078-8