Network Layer 4-3
Mobility: Scenario
home network: permanent
“home” of mobile
(e.g., 128.119.40/24)
Permanent address:
address in home
network, can always be
used to reach mobile
e.g., 128.119.40.186
wide area
network
correspondent

Network Layer 4-4
How do you contact a mobile friend:
 search all phone
books?
 call her parents?
 expect her to let you
know where he/she is?
I wonder where
Alice moved to?
Consider friend frequently changing
addresses, how do you find her?

Network Layer 4-5
Mobility: approaches
 Let routing handle it: routers advertise permanent
address of mobile-nodes-in-residence via usual
routing table exchange.
 routing tables indicate where each mobile located
 no changes to end-systems
 Let end-systems handle it:
 Ask help from some agents (parents)

Network Layer 4-6
Mobility: approaches
 Let routing handle it: routers advertise permanent
address of mobile-nodes-in-residence via usual
routing table exchange.
 routing tables indicate where each mobile located
 no changes to end-systems
 let end-systems handle it:
 Ask help from some agents (parents)
not
scalable
to millions of
mobiles

Network Layer 4-7
Mobility: Vocabulary
home network: permanent
“home” of mobile
(e.g., 128.119.40/24)
Permanent address:
address in home
network, can always be
used to reach mobile
e.g., 128.119.40.186
home agent: entity that will
perform mobility functions on
behalf of mobile, when mobile
is remote
wide area
network
correspondent

Network Layer 4-8
Mobility: more vocabulary
Care-of-address: address
in visited network.
(e.g., 79,129.13.2)
wide area
network
visited network: network
in which mobile currently
resides (e.g., 79.129.13/24)
Permanent address: remains
constant (e.g., 128.119.40.186)
foreign agent: entity in
visited network that
performs mobility
functions on behalf of
mobile.
correspondent: wants
to communicate with
mobile

Network Layer 4-9
Mobility: registration
End result:
 Foreign agent knows about mobile
 Home agent knows location of mobile
wide area
network
home network
visited network
1
mobile contacts
foreign agent on
entering visited
network
2
foreign agent contacts home
agent home: “this mobile is
resident in my network”

Network Layer 4-10
Mobility via Indirect Routing
wide area
network
home
network
visited
network
3
2
4
1
correspondent
addresses packets
using home address
of mobile
home agent intercepts
packets, forwards to
foreign agent
foreign agent
receives packets,
forwards to mobile
mobile replies
directly to
correspondent

Network Layer 4-11
Forwarding datagrams to remote mobile
Permanent address:
128.119.40.186
Care-of address:
79.129.13.2
dest: 128.119.40.186
packet sent by
correspondent
dest: 79.129.13.2 dest: 128.119.40.186
packet sent by home agent to foreign
agent: a packet within a packet
dest: 128.119.40.186
foreign-agent-to-mobile packet

Network Layer 4-12
Indirect Routing: comments
 Mobile uses two addresses:
 permanent address: used by correspondent (hence
mobile location is transparent to correspondent)
 care-of-address: used by home agent to forward
datagrams to mobile
 foreign agent functions may be done by mobile itself
 triangle routing: correspondent-home-network-
mobile
 inefficient when
correspondent, mobile
are in same network

Network Layer 4-13
Indirect Routing: moving between networks
 suppose mobile user moves to another
network
 registers with new foreign agent
 new foreign agent registers with home agent
 home agent update care-of-address for mobile
 packets continue to be forwarded to mobile (but
with new care-of-address)
 Mobility, changing foreign networks
transparent: on going connections can be
maintained!

Network Layer 4-14
Mobility via Direct Routing
wide area
network
home
network
visited
network
4
2
4
1
correspondent
requests, receives
foreign address of
mobile
correspondent forwards
to foreign agent
foreign agent
receives packets,
forwards to mobile
mobile replies
directly to
correspondent
3

Network Layer 4-15
Mobility via Direct Routing: comments
 overcome triangle routing problem
 non-transparent to correspondent:
correspondent must get care-of-address
from home agent
 What happens if mobile changes networks?

Network Layer 4-16
Mobile IP
 RFC 3220
 has many features we’ve seen:
 home agents, foreign agents, foreign-agent
registration, care-of-addresses, encapsulation
(packet-within-a-packet)
 three components to standard:
 agent discovery
 registration with home agent
 indirect routing of datagrams

Network Layer 4-17
Mobile IP: agent discovery
 agent advertisement: foreign/home agents advertise
service by broadcasting ICMP messages (typefield = 9)
RBHFMGV
bits
reserved
type = 16
type = 9 code = 0
= 9
checksum
= 9
router address
standard
ICMP fields
mobility agent
advertisement
extension
length sequence #
registration lifetime
0 or more care-of-
addresses
0 8 16 24
R bit: registration
required
H,F bits: home
and/or foreign agent

Network Layer 4-18
Mobile IP: registration example
visited network: 79.129.13/24
home agent
HA: 128.119.40.7
foreign agent
COA: 79.129.13.2
COA: 79.129.13.2
….
ICMP agent adv.
Mobile agent
MA: 128.119.40.186
registration req.
COA: 79.129.13.2
HA: 128.119.40.7
MA: 128.119.40.186
Lifetime: 9999
identification:714
….
registration req.
COA: 79.129.13.2
HA: 128.119.40.7
MA: 128.119.40.186
Lifetime: 9999
identification: 714
encapsulation format
….
registration reply
HA: 128.119.40.7
MA: 128.119.40.186
Lifetime: 4999
Identification: 714
encapsulation format
….
registration reply
HA: 128.119.40.7
MA: 128.119.40.186
Lifetime: 4999
Identification: 714
….
time

Network Layer 4-19
A Link-State Routing Algorithm
Dijkstra’s algorithm
 net topology, link costs
known to all nodes
 accomplished via “link
state broadcast”
 all nodes have same info
 computes least cost paths
from one node (‘source”) to
all other nodes
 gives routing table for
that node
Notation:
 c(i,j): link cost from node i
to j. cost infinite if not
direct neighbors
 D(v): current value of cost
of path from source to
dest V
 p(v): predecessor node
along path from source to
v, that is next v
 N: set of nodes whose
least cost path definitively
known

Network Layer 4-20
Dijkstra’s algorithm, more discussion
 Why the algorithm is correct ?
 Is this algorithm always correct ?
A
B
C
1
1
-3

Network Layer 4-21
Distance Vector Routing Algorithm
iterative:
 continues until no nodes
exchange info.
 self-terminating: no
“signal” to stop
asynchronous:
 nodes need not exchange
info/iterate in lock step!
distributed:
 each node communicates
only with directly-
attached neighbors
Key Idea
 Given my distance to a
neighboring node
 Given the distances from the
neighboring nodes to remote
nodes
 My distances to remote nodes

Network Layer 4-22
Distance Vector Routing Algorithm
Distance Table data structure
 each node has its own
 row for each possible destination
 column for each directly-
attached neighbor to node
 example: in node X, for dest. Y
via neighbor Z:
D (Y,Z)
X
distance from X to
Y, via Z as next hop
c(X,Z) + min {D (Y,w)}
Z
w
=
=
D ()
Y
Z
Y
1
7
Z
2
5
X
via

Network Layer 4-23
Distance table gives routing table
D ()
A
B
C
D
A
1
7
6
4
B
14
8
9
11
D
5
5
4
2
E
cost to destination via
A
B
C
D
A,1
D,5
D,4
D,2
Outgoing link
to use, cost
Distance table Routing table

Network Layer 4-24
Distance Vector Routing: overview
Iterative, asynchronous:
each local iteration caused
by:
 message from neighbor: its
least cost path change
from neighbor
Distributed:
 each node notifies
neighbors only when its
least cost path to any
destination changes
 neighbors then notify
their neighbors if
necessary
wait for (msg from neighbor)
recompute distance table
if least cost path to any dest
has changed, notify
neighbors
Each node:

Network Layer 4-25
Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
Message complexity
 LS: with n nodes, E links,
O(nE) msgs sent each
 DV: exchange between
neighbors only
 convergence time varies
Speed of Convergence
 LS: O(n2) algorithm requires
O(nE) msgs
 may have oscillations
 DV: convergence time varies
 may be routing loops
 count-to-infinity problem
Robustness: what happens
if router malfunctions?
LS:
 node can advertise
incorrect link cost
 each node computes only
its own table
DV:
 DV node can advertise
incorrect path cost
 each node’s table used by
others
• error propagate thru
network

Network Layer 4-26
Chapter 4 roadmap
4.1 Introduction and Network Service Models
4.2 Routing Principles
4.3 Hierarchical Routing
4.4 The Internet (IP) Protocol
4.5 Routing in the Internet
4.6 What’s Inside a Router
4.7 IPv6
4.8 Multicast Routing
4.9 Mobility

Network Layer 4-27
Hierarchical Routing
 aggregate routers into
regions, “autonomous
systems” (AS)
 routers in same AS run
same routing protocol
 “intra-AS” routing
protocol
 routers in different AS
can run different intra-
AS routing protocol
 special routers in AS
 run intra-AS routing
protocol with all other
routers in AS
 also responsible for
routing to destinations
outside AS
 run inter-AS routing
protocol with other
gateway routers
gateway routers
a
b
b
a
a
C
A
B
d
A.a
A.c
C.b
B.a
c
b
c
a
b
b
b
a
a
a
C
A
B
d
A.a
A.a
A.a
A.c
A.c
A.c
C.b
C.b
C.b
B.a
B.a
B.a
c
c
b
b
c
c
c

Network Layer 4-28
Intra-AS and Inter-AS routing
Gateways:
•perform inter-AS
routing amongst
themselves
•perform intra-AS
routers with other
routers in their
AS
inter-AS, intra-AS
routing in
gateway A.c
network layer
link layer
physical layer
a
b
b
a
a
C
A
B
d
A.a
A.c
C.b
B.a
c
b
c

Network Layer 4-29
Intra-AS and Inter-AS routing
Host
h2
a
b
b
a
a
C
A
B
d c
A.a
A.c
C.b
B.a
c
b
Host
h1
Intra-AS routing
within AS A
Inter-AS
routing
between
A and B
Intra-AS routing
within AS B
 We’ll examine specific inter-AS and intra-AS
Internet routing protocols shortly

Network Layer 4-30
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
Goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address
from network server when it joins network
 Allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while
connected an “on”
 Support for mobile users who want to join network

Network Layer 4-31
DHCP client-server scenario
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.3
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
223.1.2.2
223.1.2.1
223.1.3.2
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.27
A
B
E
DHCP
server
arriving DHCP
client needs
address in this
network
 host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg
 DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg
 host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
 DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg

Network Layer 4-32
DHCP client-server scenario
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5 arriving
client
time
DHCP discover
src : 0.0.0.0, 68
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
yiaddr: 0.0.0.0
transaction ID: 654
DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 654
Lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
Lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
Lifetime: 3600 secs

Network Layer 4-33
Internet AS Hierarchy
Intra-AS border (exterior gateway) routers
Inter-AS interior (gateway) routers

Network Layer 4-34
Intra-AS Routing
 Also known as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP)
 Most common Intra-AS routing protocols:
 RIP: Routing Information Protocol
 OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
 Border : Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(Cisco proprietary)

Network Layer 4-35
RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
 Distance vector algorithm
 Included in BSD-UNIX Distribution in 1982
 Distance metric: # of hops (max = 15 hops)
 Can you guess why?
 Distance vectors: exchanged among neighbors every
30 sec via Response Message (also called
advertisement)
 Each advertisement: list of up to 25 destination nets
within AS

Network Layer 4-36
RIP: Example
Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest.
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
w x y
z
A
C
D B
Routing table in D

Network Layer 4-37
RIP: Example
Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest.
w A 2
y B 2
z B A 7 5
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Routing table in D
w x y
z
A
C
D B
Dest Next hops
w - -
x - -
z C 4
…. … ...
Advertisement
from A to D

Network Layer 4-38
RIP: Link Failure and Recovery
If no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
 routes via neighbor invalidated
 new advertisements sent to neighbors
 neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if
tables changed)
 link failure info quickly propagates to entire net
 poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops
(infinite distance = 16 hops)

Network Layer 4-39
RIP Table processing
 RIP routing tables managed by application-level
process called route-d (daemon)
 advertisements sent in UDP packets, periodically
repeated
physical
link
network forwarding
(IP) table
Transprt
(UDP)
routed
physical
link
network
(IP)
Transprt
(UDP)
routed
forwarding
table

Network Layer 4-40
RIP Table example (continued)
Router: giroflee.eurocom.fr
 Three attached class C networks (LANs)
 Router only knows routes to attached LANs
 Default router used to “go up”
 Route multicast address: 224.0.0.0
 Loopback interface (for debugging)
Destination Gateway Flags Ref Use Interface
-------------------- -------------------- ----- ----- ------ ---------
127.0.0.1 127.0.0.1 UH 0 26492 lo0
192.168.2. 192.168.2.5 U 2 13 fa0
193.55.114. 193.55.114.6 U 3 58503 le0
192.168.3. 192.168.3.5 U 2 25 qaa0
224.0.0.0 193.55.114.6 U 3 0 le0
default 193.55.114.129 UG 0 143454

Network Layer 4-41
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
 “open”: publicly available
 Uses Link State algorithm
 LS packet dissemination
 Topology map at each node
 Route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm
 OSPF advertisement carries one entry per neighbor
router
 Advertisements disseminated to entire AS (via
flooding)
 Carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather than TCP
or UDP

Network Layer 4-42
OSPF “advanced” features (not in RIP)
 Security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to
prevent malicious intrusion)
 Multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path in
RIP)
 For each link, multiple cost metrics for different
TOS (e.g., satellite link cost set “low” for best effort;
high for real time)
 Integrated uni- and multicast support:
 Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology data
base as OSPF
 Hierarchical OSPF in large domains.

Network Layer 4-43
Hierarchical OSPF

Network Layer 4-44
Hierarchical OSPF
 Two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
 Link-state advertisements only in area
 each nodes has detailed area topology; only know
direction (shortest path) to nets in other areas.
 Area border routers: “summarize” distances to nets
in own area, advertise to other Area Border routers.
 Backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
 Boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.

Network Layer 4-45
Inter-AS routing in the Internet: BGP
Figure 4.5.2-new2: BGP use for inter-domain routing
AS2
(OSPF
intra-AS
routing)
AS1
(RIP intra-AS
routing) BGP
AS3
(OSPF intra-AS
routing)
BGP
R1 R2
R3
R4
R5

Network Layer 4-46
Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto
standard
 Path Vector protocol:
 similar to Distance Vector protocol
 each Border Gateway broadcast to neighbors
(peers) entire path (i.e., sequence of AS’s) to
destination
 BGP routes to networks (ASs), not individual
hosts
 E.g., Gateway X may send its path to dest. Z:
Path (X,Z) = X,Y1,Y2,Y3,…,Z

Network Layer 4-47
BGP operation
Q: What does a BGP router (gateway) do?
 Receiving and filtering route advertisements from
directly attached neighbor(s).
 Route selection.
 To route to destination X, which path )of
several advertised) will be taken?
 Sending route advertisements to neighbors.

Network Layer 4-48
Why different Intra-/Inter-AS routing ?
Policy:
 Inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic
routed, who routes through its net.
 Intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions needed
Scale:
 hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update
traffic
Performance:
 Intra-AS: can focus on performance
 Inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance

Network Layer 4-49
Why different Intra-/Inter-AS routing ?
Shaw
Bell
Telus

Network Layer 4-50
Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
Suppose: gateway X send its path to peer gateway W
 W may or may not select path offered by X
 cost, policy (don’t route via competitors AS), loop
prevention reasons.
 If W selects path advertised by X, then:
Path (W,Z) = w, Path (X,Z)
 Note: X can control incoming traffic by controlling it
route advertisements to peers:
 e.g., don’t want to route traffic to Z -> don’t
advertise any routes to Z

Network Layer 4-51
BGP: controlling who routes to you
Figure 4.5-BGPnew: a simple BGP scenario
A
B
C
W
X
Y
legend:
customer
network:
provider
network
 A,B,C are provider networks
 X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
 X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
 X does not want to route from B via X to C
 .. so X will not advertise to B a route to C

Network Layer 4-52
BGP: controlling who routes to you
Figure 4.5-BGPnew: a simple BGP scenario
A
B
C
W
X
Y
legend:
customer
network:
provider
network
 A advertises to B the path AW
 B advertises to X the path BAW
 Should B advertise to C the path BAW?
 No way! B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAW since neither
W nor C are B’s customers
 B wants to force C to route to w via A
 B wants to route only to/from its customers!

Network Layer 4-53
BGP messages
 BGP messages exchanged using TCP.
 BGP messages:
 OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and
authenticates sender
 UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
 KEEPALIVE keeps connection alive in absence of
UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
 NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg;
also used to close connection

UNIT II (3) - NETWORK LAYER, DATA LINK LAYER

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