This document discusses different approaches to manager development and training. It begins by outlining the need to analyze training needs based on organizational objectives, job requirements, and individual performance. It then describes various on-the-job training approaches like planned progression, job rotation, and temporary promotions. It also discusses internal training methods like sensitivity training and conferences, as well as external options like university programs. The key approaches covered are analyzing training needs, on-the-job training methods, and internal and external training options.

1. Management Concepts and
Strategies
T52(4)

2. UNIT 3
CHAPTER 13
By
V.JAYA LAKSHMI
Asst. Prof. (Sel.Gr.)
MCA Department

3. • Before specific training and development
programs are chosen three kinds of needs must
be considered.
• The need of the organization includes such items
as the objective of the enterprise, the availability
of managers and turnover rates.
• Needs related to the operation and job itself can
be determined from job description and
performance standards.
• Needs of data about individual training can be
gathered from performance appraisal,
interviews with the job holder, tests, surveys,
career plans for individual

4. • Present Job
• Next Job
• Future Needs
• Approaches to Manager Development
On The Job Training:
• Approaches to the Manager Development
Internal and External Training

5. • Approaches to Manager Development
On The Job Training:
Planned progression
Job Rotation
Creation of “Assistant-to” position
Temporary promotion
Committees and junior boards
Coaching

6. • Approaches to the Manager Development
Internal and External Training
Sensitivity training-T-Group and
Encounter group
Conference Program
University management Program
Readings
Business simulation and Expert System
Evaluation and Transfer

8. Present Job
• Manager development and training must be
based on a need analysis derived from a
comparison of actual performance and behavior
with required performance (13.2)
• A district sales manager has decided that the
selling of 1000 units is a sales on only 800, 200
units short of the sales target.
• Analysis of the deviation from the standard
might include that the manager lacks the
knowledge and skills for making forecast and
that conflicts among subordinate managers

9. • On the basis of this analysis training needs and
methods for overcoming the deficiencies are
identified.
• Consequently the district sales manager enrolls
in courses in fore costing and conflict resolution.
Furthermore OD efforts are undertaken to
facilitate cooperation among organization units.

11. Next Job
• A similar practice is applied on the identification
of the training needs for the next job.
• Specifically present competency is compared
with the competency demanded by the next job.
• For instance, a person who has worked mainly
in production may be under consideration for a
job as a project manager.

12. • This position requires training in final areas
such as Engineering marketing, and even
finance.
• This system preparation for a new assignment
certainly is a more professional approach, than
simply thrusting a person into a new work
situation without training.

13. Future Needs
• Progressive organization will go one step further
in their training and development approach.
• They prepare for the more distant future.
• This requires that they forecost what new
competencies will be demanded by changing
technology and methods for e.g. Energy
strategies may occur again and this require that
managers be trained not only in the technical
aspects of energy conservation but also in energy
related long-term planning and creative problem
solving.

14. Approaches to Manager Development
On The Job Training:
• Planned progression
• Job Rotation
• Creation of “Assistant-to” position
• Temporary promotion
• Committees and junior boards
• Coaching

15. Planned progression
• This is a technique that gives managers a clear
idea of their path of development. Managers
know where they stand and where they are
going.
• This may be perceived by trainees as a smooth
path to the top but is really is a step-by-step
approach which requires that tasks be done well
at each level.

16. Job Rotation
• The purpose of job rotation is to broaden the
knowledge of managers trainees learn about the
different enterprise function by rotation into
different positions. They may rotate through
• Non-supervisory work
• Observation assignment
• Various managerial-training position
• Unspecified rotation to various managerial
position in different departments such as
production sales and finance.

17. • The idea of job rotation is good, but there are
some difficulties.
• As the name indicates in some job rotation
program participants do not actually be
managerial authority.
• Instead they observe or assist line managers but
they do not have the responsibility they would
have if they would have actually managing.

18. • Even in the rotation to managerial positions the
participant in the training program may not
remain long enough in the position to prove their
future efficiencies as managers furthermore
when the rotation program is completed their
may be no suitable positions available for the
newly trained managers despite these
drawbacks if the inherent difficulties are
understood both by managers and trainees, job
rotation has positive aspects and should benefit
trainees.

19. Creation of “assistant-to” position
• “Assistant-to” positions are frequently created
to broaden the viewpoints of trainees by
allowing them to work closely with experienced
manager who can give special attention to the
developmental needs of trainees.
• Managers can among other things give selected
assignments to test the judgment of trainees.

20. Temporary promotion
• Individuals are frequently appointed as “acting
managers”
• for e.g. When the permanent manager is on
vacation is ill or is making an external business
trip or even when a position is vacant.
• Thus temporary promotions are a
developmental device as well as a convenience to
an enterprise.

21. Committees and Junior Boards
• Committees and Junior Boards also known as
“multiple management” are sometimes used as
developmental technique.
• These gives trainees the opportunity to interact
with experienced managers
• They learn about the relationships among
different department and the problems created
by the interaction of these original units.
• Trainees may be given the opportunity to submit
reports and proposals to the committee or the
board and to determine their analytical and
conceptual abilities.

22. • On the other hand trainees may e treated in a
way by senior executives, although trainees are
appointed to committees or junior boards they
may not be given opportunities to participate an
omission that might frustrate and discourage
them.
• The program would that he detrimental to their
development.

23. Coaching
• On the Job training is never ending process.
• A good e.g. is athletic coaching
• The responsibility of every line manager must he
done in a climate of confidence and trust
between superior and trainees.
• Patience and wisdom are required of superior,
who must be able to delegate authority and
recognition and praise for jobs well done.

24. • Effective coaches will develop the strengths and
potentials of the subordinates and help them
overcome their weaknesses.
• Coaching requires time, but if done well, it will
save time and money and will prevent costly
mistakes by subordinates; thus in the long run it
will benefit the entire superior, the subordinate
and the enterprise.

25. • Approaches to the Manager Development
Internal and External Training
Sensitivity training-T-Group and
Encounter group
Conference Program
University management Program
Readings
Business simulation and Expert System
Evaluation and Transfer

26. Sensitivity Training -
T Group and Encounter Group
• Sensitivity training also called T-group CT for
training, encounter group or leadership training
is a controversial approach to manager
development.
The objective are
1. Better insight into one’s own behavior and the
way one appears to others
2. Better understanding of group process
3. Development of skills in diagnosing and
Intervening in group processes.

27. • Although this process has many variations one
general character is that people interact and
then receive feedback on their behavior from the
trainer and other group members who express
their opinion freely and openly.
• The T-group process may lead to personal
anxieties and frustrations but if properly
administered it can result in collaborative and
supportive behavior.
• The benefits of this must be balanced against the
criticism.

28. • Despite the concern of researchers and
observers certain enterprises do use T-groups in
their development effort. The following
guidelines help in reducing potential harm and
increase effectiveness.
1 Participation in T-groups should be
voluntary.
2 Participants should be screened, and those
who could be harmed, for e.g., highly defensive
people should be excluded from this experience.
3 Trainers should be carefully evaluated and
their competence clearly established.

29. 4 Potential participants should be informed
about the goals and process before they commit
themselves to sensitivity training.
5 Before using sensitivity training,
organizations should clearly identify
development and training needs and objectives.
Given these needs and objectives, other methods
should also be considered.

30. Conference Program
• Conference programs may be used in internal or
external training.
• During conference programs, managers or
potential managers are exposed to the ideas of
speakers who are experts in their field.
• Within the company, people may be instructed
in the history of the firm and its purposes,
policies and relationships with customers,
consumers & other groups.

31. • External conference may very greatly, ranging
from programs on specific managerial
techniques to programs on broad topics, such as
the relationship between business and society.
• These programs can be valuable if they satisfy
training need and are thoughtfully planned.
• A careful selection of topics and speakers will
increase the effectiveness of this training device.
• Furthermore, conference can be made more
successful by including discussions; 2-way
communication allows participants to ask for
clarification of specific topics that are
particularly relevant to them.

32. University Management Programs
• Besides offering undergraduate and graduate
degrees in business Administration, many
universities now conduct courses, worships,
conference, institutes & formal programs for
training managers.
• These offerings may include evening courses,
short seminars, live-in programs, a full graduate
curriculum or even programs custom-designed
for the needs of individual companies.

33. • Some executive development centers even
provide career development assistance with
programs designed to fit typical training and
development needs of firs-line supervisors,
middle managers and top executives.
• These university programs expose managers to
theories, principle and new developments in
management.
• In addition, there is usually a valuable
interchange of experience among managers who,
in similar positions, face similar challenges.

34. Readings
• Another approach to development in planned
sending of relevant and current management
literature. This is essentially self-development.
• A manager may be aided by the training
department, which often develops a reading list
of valuable books.
• This learning experience can be enhanced
through discussion of articles and books with
other managers and the superior.

35. Business Simulation, Experiential Exercises &
Expert Systems:
• Business games and experimental exercise have
been used for some time, but the introduction of
microcomputers has made these approaches to
training and development even more popular.
• The computer, however is only one of several
tools many of the exercises do not require any
hardware at all.

36. • Recently, expert systems have received a great
deal of attention.
• They are a subset of Artificial Intelligence (AI),
which involves the use of computers to duplicate
the functioning of the brain.
• AI was initially used for problem solving in
games such as checkers and chess.
• Later it was applied in medicine. Researchers at
Stanford developed a knowledge-based system
to serve as an “Intelligent consultant” to help in
the diagnosis and treatment of specific diseases
similar systems are now being developed to
assist managers I making divisions.

37. • For e.g. Expert systems are used for e.g. Expert
systems are used for checking sales orders, for
oil drilling, for monitoring steam turbines at
Westinghouse for credit authorization at
American Express, for tax accounting divisions
at co-operations & Lybrand, for pricing systems
bids at IBM & for capital investments at taxis
instruments.

38. Special Training Program:
• Management development must take an open-
system approach that responds to the needs and
demands of the external Environment. Recently,
government & industry have become aware of
the need for training programs specifically
designed for members of minority groups & for
Individuals who are physically handicapped.
• Many firms have made special efforts to train
these people so that they may utilize their fully
potential while contributing to the aims of the
enterprise.

39. Evaluation And Transfer
• Determining the effectiveness of training
programs is difficult.
• It requires measurements against standards and
a systematic identification of training needs &
objectives.
• In general developmental objectives includes

40. 1 An increase in knowledge
2 Development of attitudes conductive to good
managing.
3 Acquisition of skills.
4 Improvement of management performance
5 Achievement of Enterprise objectives.
• If training is to be effective, it is extremely
important that the criteria used in the class
room situation resemble as closely as possible
the criteria relevant in the working
environment.

41. MANAGING CHANGE
The forces for change may come from the
environment external to the firm, from within
the organization, or from the individuals
themselves.
• Change that affect manager and organization
development
• Techniques for initiating change(13.3)
• Resistance to change

42. Change that affect manager and organization
development
Several trends, some of them already occurring,
will have implications for developing human
resources. Here are some illustrations:
1. The increasing use of computers, especially
microcomputers, requires that teachers as well
as students become computer-literate.
2. Education extends into the adult life. Lifelong
learning becomes a necessity, and educational
institutions and enterprises must recognize the
special educational needs of adults.

43. 3. The proportion of knowledge workers will
increase and the need for skill workers will
decrease, which may require more training in
knowledge, conceptual, and design skills.
4. The shift from manufacturing to service
industries requires retraining preparation for
new positions.
5. The choice of educational opportunities will
increase. For example, man companies already
are conducting their own training programs.

44. 6. There may be greater cooperation and
interdependence between the private and the
public sectors-at least in some countries, such as
Canada.
7. Internationalization will continue, and
managers in different countries must learn to
communicate and to adapt to each other.
Companies need to train with a global
perspective.

45. • There are various ways to respond to these
forces. One approach is simply to react to a
crisis. Unfortunately, this is usually not the most
effective response. Another approach is to
deliberately plan the change. This may require
new objectives or policies, organizational
rearrangements, or a change in leadership style
and organization culture.

46. Techniques for initiating change(13.3)
• Organizations may be in a state of equilibrium,
with forces pushing for change on one hand and
forces resisting change by attempting to
maintain the status quo on the other.
• Kurt Lewin expressed this phenomenon in his
field force theory, which suggests that an
equilibrium is maintained by driving forces and
restraining forces, as shown in Figure13.3 in
initiating change, the tendency is to increase the
driving forces.

48. • This may indeed produce some movement, but it
usually also increases resistance by
strengthening the restraining forces.
• Another approach is to reduce or eliminate the
restraining forces and then move to a new level
of equilibrium. In organizations, therefore, a
change in policy is less resisted when those
affected by it participate in the change.

49. • The change process involves three steps:
1. Unfreezing,
2. Moving or changing, and
3. Refreezing.
• The first stage, unfreezing, creates motivation
for change. If people feel uncomfortable with the
present situation, they may see the need for
change. However, in some cases an ethical
question may arise regarding the legitimacy of
deliberately creating discomfort that may
initiate change.

50. • The second stage is the change itself. This
change may occur through assimilation of new
information, exposure to new concepts, or
development of a different perspective.
• Third stage, refreezing, stabilizes the change.
Change, to be effective, has to be congruent with
a person’s self-concept and values. If the change
is incongruent with the person will revert back
to the old behavior Thus, reinforcement of the
new behavior is essential.

51. Resistance to change
• There are many reasons why people resist
change. Here are some examples:
1. What is not know causes fear and induces
resistance. And organizational restructuring can
leave a person uncertain about its effect on his
or her job. People want to feel secure and have
some control over the change.
2. Not knowing the reason for the change also
causes resistance. In fact, it is often unclear to
those affected why the change is necessary at all.
3. Change may also result in reduction of
benefits or a loss of power.

52. • Reduction of resistance can be achieved in many
ways.
• Involvement of organizational members in
planning the change can reduce uncertainty.
• Communication about proposed changes also
helps clarify reasons or effects of the changes.
• Some approaches focus on the people involved in
the change; others involve changes in
organization structure or technology.

53. • The socio technical systems approach suggests
that effective organization requires
consideration of both social and technical
dimensions in an enterprise. There are many
other approaches to improving organizational
effectiveness; some are dicussed later in this
chapter.

54. ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT
• Conflict is a part of original life and may occur
within the individual, between individuals and
the group, and between groups while conflict is
generally perceived as dysfunctional. It can also
be beneficial because it may cause an issue to be
presented in different perspective one top
executive of major company maintained that if
there was no conflict on an issue, it could not
have been sufficiently analyzed, and the final
decision on the issue was usually postponed until
all aspects were critically evaluated.

55. Sources of conflict
• There are many pertinent sources of conflict.
For e.g. A production manager may take the
position that stream lining the product line and
concentrating on a few product can make the
organization more productive while a sales
manager may desire a broad product line that
will satisfy diverse customer demand.

56. • An Engineer may want to design best product
regardless of cost and market demand
consideration. Conflicts can arise from other
sources as well there may be conflicts between
line and stuff position. A superior’s autocratic
leadership style may cause conflicts. Differing
educational backgrounds are potential sources
of conflict perhaps most other mentioned is low
of communication.

57. Managing conflict
• Conflicts can be managed in many ways some
focusing on interpersonal relationship and
others on structural change. Avoidance of the
situation that causes the conflict is an e.g. Of an
interpersonal approach another way of coping
with conflict is through smoothing. Emphasizing
the areas of agreement and common goals and
de-emphasizing disagreements. A third way is
forcing, pushing one’s own view on others. A
traditional way of coping with conflict is
compromise agreeing in part with other person’s
view or demand.

58. • Attempts can also be made to change the
behavior of individual. At time it may also be
possible to re assign an individual to another
original units In many situations conflicts are
resolved by a person higher up in the
organization who has sufficient authority to
decide an issue. The problem is that the user
may attempt to get even with the winner, at a
later time, thus perpetuating the conflict. In the
problem solving approach to original conflict
differences are openly confronted and the issues
are analyzed as objectively as possible. Another
way coping with conflict is to make structural
changes.

59. • This means modifying and integrating the
objective of groups. With different view points
moreover the organization structure may have
to be changed and authority responsibility
relationships clarified. New ways of coordination
activities may have to be formed task and work
location can also be rearranged in one work
room for e.g. Machines were placed in a way
that prevented conflicting parties from
interacting with one another often one must not
only decide on the necessary changes but also
select the appropriate process.

60. Organizational Development
• Definition
• Organizational Development is a systematic,
integrated and planned approach to improve
enterprise effectiveness it is designed to solve
problem that decrease operating efficiency at all
levels. Such problem may include lack of co-
operation, excessive decentralization and poor
communication.

61. • The technique of on may involve laboratory
training (for e.g. People communication in a
group situation) managerial grid training, and
survey feedback. Some on practitioners also use
team building. Process consultation, Job
enrichment, stress management, career and life
planning and MBO as part of their approach.

62. • THE OD PROCESS
• On this situation or contingency approach to
improving enterprise effectiveness (Fig 13.4) and
e.g. Can illustrate the application of the model.
Consider a firm that experiences certain
problems.
• Conflicts among original units low morale,
customer complaints and increasing costs.
• The chief executive contacts an on expert to
discuss the situation.

63. • The two agree on the necessity of an original
diagnosis the consultant then collects
information from several original units using
questionnaires, interviews and observation.
• The data are analyzed and prepared for
feedback.The executive confers with the other
managers and sets up a meeting with them.
• At the meeting after some introductory
comments the consultant presents the findings
under the “relation between departments”,
“enterprise goals” and customer relation”.

64. • The group then ranks the problem. In the order
of their importance with a guidance of the
consultant the group, discusses the difficulties
identify the underlying causes and explores
possible solution.
• The role of the consultant is that of a coach
facilitating the process. Short lectures and
exercise on decision making, team building and
problem solving an integrated into process.
• At times subgroups are established to deal with
specific issues. The emphasis is on openness and
objectivity of the meeting ends with an
agreement on a change strategy.

65. • The specific interaction may include a change in
the organization structure.
• A more effective procedure for handling
customer complaints and a establishment of a
team changed with responsibility of
implementing a cost reduction program.
• Further more the group agrees to meet again in
3 months to measure and estimate the
effectiveness of the organization development
effort.

66. • Although three phases complete the OD cycle.
• The effort dose not end instead on becomes a
continuous process- planned. Systematic and
focused on change- that aim at making the
enterprise more effective.

68. GRID ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT AND
OTHER METHODS
• There are 6 Phases of grid OD
• Phase 1 Robert Blake and Jane Monton state
that the concern for people and concern for
production are not mutually exclusives they are
complementary. The aim is to develop a high
concern for both.

69. • Phase 2 This is a continuation phase1 but focus
is on the TEAM instead of individual. In this
phase, group members are an set to standards,
develop ways of achieving objectives and
identify barriers to achievement of the full
potential of an enterprise.

70. • Phase 3 This concerns the INTER-GROUP
DEVELOPMENT. It is in this phase that
organization really begins the aim is to reduce
conflicts among groups that work together.
• Phase 4 This involves ORGANIZATIONAL
GOAL SETTING. In this phase, top managers
identify the aim of the enterprise and design an
ideal strategic corporate model.

71. • Phase 5 This is the implementation of the
STRATEGIC MODEL. This phase extend over
several years. Manages from all levels of the
organization hierarchy have responsibilities in
carrying out their activities necessary to achieve
the goals set in the previous stage.
• Phase 6 This is a SYSTEMATIC CRITIQUE.
During this phase, managers evaluate
achievements as well as their mistakes made in
the previous stage.

72. Other Methods include:
• Survey feedback method
• Process consultatio
• Team building

73. SUMMARY OF MAJOR PRINCIPLES, OR
GUIDES, OF STAFFING
• There are no universally accepted staffing
principles. Nevertheless, those listed below are
useful as guidelines for understanding the
staffing functions. These principles are grouped
under the purpose and process of staffing.
• The Purpose of Staffing
• The purpose of staffing is summarized by the
following principles.

74. • Principles of the objective of staffing: The
objective of managerial staffing is to ensure that
organization roles are filled by those qualified
employees who are able and willing to occupy
them.
• Principles of Staffing: The clearer the definition
of an organization role and their human
requirements, and the better the technique of
manager appraisal and training employed, the
higher the managerial quality.

75. • The first principle stresses the important of the
desire and ability to undertake the
responsibilities of management.
• There is considerable evidence of failure to
achieve results when these qualities are lacking.
• The second principles rest as upon an important
body of knowledge concerning management
practices.
• On the other hand, enterprises applying the
system approach to staffing and human resource
management will utilize the potential of
individuals in the enterprise more effectively
and efficiently.

76. The Process of Staffing
• The following principle indicates the means for
effective staffing.
• Principle of job definition
• The more precisely the results expected of
managers are identified, the more the dimension
of their positions can be defined.
• This principle is similar to the principles of
functional definition discussed in part 3 of
organizing.

77. • Since organizational roles are occupied by the
people with different needs, these roles must
have many dimensions-such as pay, status,
power, discretion and possibility of
accomplishment-that induce managers to
perform.

78. Principle of managerial appraisal
• The more clearly verifiable objectives and
required managerial activities are identified, the
more precise can be the appraisal of managers
against these criteria.
• The principle suggests that performance should
be measured both against verifiable objectives-
as in an appraisal approach based on
management by objectives and against
standards of performance of managers.
• The appraisal of managers as managers
considers how well the key managerial activities
within the managerial functions are carried out.

79. Principles of open competition
• The more an enterprise is committed to the
assurance of quality management, the more it
will encourage open competition among all
candidates for management positions.
• Violation of this principle has led many firms to
appoint managers with inadequate abilities.
Although social pressures strongly favor
promotion from within the firm, these forces
should be resisted whenever better candidate
can be brought in from the outside.

80. Principle of Management Training and
Development
• The more management training and
development are integrated with the
management process and enterprise objectives,
the more effective the development programs
and activities will be.
• This principle suggests that, in the systems
approach, training and development efforts are
related to the managerial functions, the aims of
the enterprise, and the professional needs of
managers.

81. Principle of training objectives
• The more precisely the training objectives are
stated, the more likely are the chances of
achieving them. The analysis of training needs is
the basis of training objectives that give
direction to development and facilitate the
measurement of the effectiveness of training
efforts.

82. Principle of continuing development
• The more an enterprise is committed to
managerial excellence, the more it requires that
managers practice continuing self-development.
• This principle suggests that in a fast-changing
and competitive environment, managers can’t
stop learning. Instead, they have to update their
managerial knowledge continuously, reevaluate
their approaches to managing, and improve
their managerial skills and performance to
achieve enterprise results.