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Understanding Operating Systems, Eighth Edition 9-1
© 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a
license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
Chapter 9
Network Organization Concepts
At a Glance
Instructor’s Manual Table of Contents
• Overview
• Learning Objectives
• Teaching Tips
• Quick Quizzes
• Class Discussion Topics
• Additional Projects
• Additional Resources
• Key Terms

Lecture Notes
Overview
When computer resources are connected together by data communication components, they
form a network to support the many functions of the organization. Networks provide an
essential infrastructure for the members of an information-based society to process,
manipulate, and distribute data and information to each other. This chapter introduces the
terminology and basic concepts of networks.
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, the student should be able to describe:
• Several network topologies and how they connect hosts
• Several types of networks: LAN, MAN, WAN, and wireless LAN
• How circuit switching and packet switching compare
• How conflicts are resolved to allow a network to share common transmission hardware
and software effectively
• Two transport protocol models and how the layers of each one correspond to each other
Teaching Tips
Definitions and Concepts
1. Begin the discussion by introducing the terms network, network operating system
(NOS), and distributed operating system.
2. Note that at a minimum, a distributed operating system must provide the following
components: process or object management, memory management, file management,
device management, and network management. Use Figure 9.1 to aid the discussion.
3. Discuss the advantages of a distributed operating system.
4. In a distributed system, each processor classifies the other processors and their resources
as remote and considers its own resources local. Note that processors are referred to as
sites, hosts, and nodes, depending on the context in which they are mentioned. Use
Figure 9.2 to aid the discussion.
Network Topologies
1. Introduce the term topology.

2. Note that in each topology, there are trade-offs among the need for fast communication
among all sites, the tolerance of failure at a site or communication link, the cost of long
communication lines, and the difficulty of connecting one site to a large number of
other sites. Point out that the physical topology of a network may not reflect its logical
topology.
3. For the network designer, there are many alternatives available, all of which will
probably solve the customer’s requirements. When deciding which configuration to use,
designers should keep in mind four criteria: basic cost, communications cost, reliability,
and user environment.
Star
1. Use Figure 9.3 to introduce the star topology.
2. Note that the star topology permits easy routing because the central station knows the
path to all other sites.
Ring
1. In the ring topology, all sites are connected in a closed loop, with the first site connected
to the last. Use Figure 9.4 to aid the discussion.
2. Introduce the term protocol.
3. Use Figures 9.5 and 9.6 to discuss variations of the ring topology.
4. Note that although ring topologies share the disadvantage that every node must be
functional for the network to perform properly, rings can be designed that allow failed
nodes to be bypassed - a critical consideration for network stability.
Bus
1. In the bus topology, all sites are connected to a single communication line running the
length of the network. Use Figure 9.7 to aid the discussion.
2. Note that because all sites share a common communication line, only one of them can
successfully send messages at any one time. Therefore, a control mechanism is needed
to prevent collisions.
Tree
1. Use Figure 9.8 to introduce the tree topology.
2. Point out that one advantage of bus and tree topologies is that even if a single node fails,
message traffic can still flow through the network.

Hybrid
1. The objective of a hybrid configuration is to select from the strong points of each
topology and combine them to meet that system’s communications requirements most
effectively. Use Figures 9.9 and 9.10 to aid the discussion.
Teaching
Tip
To learn more about network topologies, visit:
https://www.lifewire.com/computer-network-topology-817884
Network Types
1. Networks are generally divided into local area networks, metropolitan area networks,
and wide area networks. Note however, that as communications technology advances,
the characteristics that define each group are blurring. In recent years, the wireless local
area network has become ubiquitous.
Personal Area Network
1. Explain that a personal area network (PAN) includes information technology that
operates within a radius of approximately 10 meters of an individual and is centered
around that one person.
2. Also called body area networks (BANs), PANs include networks for wearable
technology (gloves, caps, monitors, and so on) that use the natural connectivity of the
human body to communicate.
Local Area Network
1. Introduce the terms bridge and gateway.
2. Note the factors that should be considered when selecting a transmission medium: cost,
data rate, reliability, number of devices that can be supported, distance between units,
and technical limitations.
Metropolitan Area Network
1. A MAN is a high-speed network often configured as a logical ring. Depending on the
protocol used, messages are either transmitted in one direction using only one ring or in
both directions using two counter-rotating rings. Use Figures 9.4 and 9.5 to aid the
discussion.
Wide Area Network
1. A wide area network (WAN) defines a configuration that interconnects communication
facilities in different parts of the world, or that is operated as part of a public utility.
Point out that WANs use the communications lines of common carriers, which are

government- regulated private companies, such as telephone companies that already
provide the general public with communication facilities.
Wireless Local Area Network
1. A wireless local area network (WLAN) is a local area network that uses wireless
technology to connect computers or workstations located within the range of the
network. Use Table 9.1 to aid the discussion.
2. For wireless nodes (workstations, laptops, and so on), a WLAN can provide easy access
to a larger network or the Internet, as shown in Figure 9.12. Emphasize that a WLAN
poses security vulnerabilities because of its open architecture and the inherent difficulty
of keeping out unauthorized intruders.
Teaching
Tip
To learn about wireless network security, visit:
http://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/WLAN-security-Best-practices-for-wireless-
network-security
Quick Quiz 1
1. A(n) ____ provides good control for distributed computing systems and allows their
resources to be accessed in a unified way.
Answer: distributed operating system
2. The term ____ is used to describe a specific set of rules used to control the flow of
messages through the network.
Answer: protocol
3. A(n) ____ is a data-link layer device used to interconnect multiple networks using the
same protocol.
Answer: bridge
4. A(n) ____ translates one network’s protocol into another, resolving hardware and
software incompatibilities.
Answer: gateway
Software Design Issues
1. Examine four software issues that must be addressed by network designers in this
section:
▪ How do sites use addresses to locate other sites?
▪ How are messages routed, and how are they sent?
▪ How do processes communicate with each other?

▪ How are conflicting demands for resources resolved?
Addressing Conventions
1. Discuss the difference between local and global names.
2. Introduce the Domain Name Service (DNS) protocol. Use the example on page 305 to
aid the discussion.
3. Point out that not all components need to be present in all Internet addresses.
Nevertheless, the DNS is able to resolve them by examining each one in reverse order.
Routing Strategies
1. A router is an internetworking device, primarily software driven, which directs traffic
between two different types of LANs or between two network segments with different
protocol addresses.
2. Discuss the role of routers.
3. Routing protocols must consider addressing, address resolution, message format, and
error reporting. Note that most routing protocols are based on an addressing format that
uses a network and a node number to identify each node.
4. Introduce the term address resolution.
5. Briefly discuss the most widely used routing protocols in the Internet:
▪ Routing Information Protocol (RIP): In this protocol, selection of a path to
transfer data from one network to another is based on the number of intermediate
nodes, or hops, between the source and the destination. The path with the smallest
number of hops is always chosen.
▪ Open Shortest Path First (OSPF): In this protocol, selection of a transmission
path is made only after the state of a network has been determined. This way, if an
intermediate hop is malfunctioning, it is eliminated immediately from consideration
until its services have been restored.
Connection Models
1. A communication network is not concerned with the content of data being transmitted
but with moving the data from one point to another. Note that because it would be
prohibitive to connect each node in a network to all other nodes, the nodes are
connected to a communication network designed to minimize transmission costs and to
provide full connectivity among all attached devices.
2. The following topics should be discussed:
▪ Circuit Switching: This is a communication model in which a dedicated
communication path is established between two hosts. The path is a connected

sequence of links; the connection between the two points exists until one of them is
disconnected.
▪ Packet Switching: This is basically a store-and-forward technique in which a
message is divided into multiple equal-sized units called packets, which are then
sent through the network to their destination where they are reassembled into their
original long format. Use Figure 9.13 to aid the discussion. Note that there is no
guarantee that after a message has been divided into packets that they will all travel
along the same path to their destination or that they will arrive in their physical
sequential order. Note also, that packets from one message may be interspersed with
those from other messages as they travel toward their destinations.
Discuss the differences between circuit switching and packet switching. Use Table
9.2 to aid the discussion. Datagrams and virtual circuits should also be discussed.
Conflict Resolution
1. Introduce some medium access control techniques: round robin, reservation, and
contention. Then briefly examine three common medium access control protocols used
to implement access to resources: carrier sense multiple access (CSMA); token passing;
and distributed-queue, dual bus (DQDB).
▪ Access Control Techniques: In networks, round robin allows each node on the
network to use the communication medium. If the node has data to send, it is given
a certain amount of time to complete the transmission. If the node has no data to
send, or if it completes transmission before the time is up, then the next node begins
its turn. The reservation technique is well-suited for lengthy and continuous traffic
while the contention technique is better for short and intermittent traffic.
▪ CSMA: Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) is a contention-based protocol that is
easy to implement. Carrier sense means that a node on the network will listen to or
test the communication medium before transmitting any messages, thus preventing a
collision with another node that is currently transmitting. Introduce the terms
multiple access, carrier sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD), and CSMA with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA).
▪ Token Passing: In a token passing network, a special electronic message, called a
“token,” is generated when the network is turned on. The token is then passed along
from node to node. Only the node with the token is allowed to transmit, and after it
has done so, it must pass the token on to another node. These networks typically
have either a bus or ring topology and are popular because access is fast and
collisions are nonexistent. Introduce the term token bus network.
▪ DQDB: The distributed-queue, dual bus (DQDB) protocol is intended for use with a
dual-bus configuration, where each bus transports data in only one direction and has
been standardized by one of the IEEE committees as part of its MAN standards.
Transmission on each bus consists of a steady stream of fixed-size slots, Use Figure
9.14 to aid the discussion.

Transport Protocol Standards
1. This section compares the OSI reference model with the TCP/IP model.
OSI Reference Model
1. This model provides the basis for connecting open systems for distributed applications
processing. Note that the word “open” means that any two systems that conform to the
reference model and the related standards can be connected, regardless of the vendor.
2. Use Figure 9.15 to illustrate the seven-layer OSI model.
3. Briefly discuss the function of each of the layers:
▪ Layer 1-Physical Layer: Layer 1 is at the bottom of the model. This is where the
mechanical, electrical, and functional specifications for connecting a device to a
particular network are described.
▪ Layer 2-Data Link Layer: Bridging between two homogeneous networks occurs at
this layer. On one side, the data link layer establishes and controls the physical path
of communications before sending data to the physical layer below it. It takes the
data, which has been divided into packets by the layers above it, and physically
assembles the packet for transmission by completing its frame.
▪ Layer 3-Network Layer: Layer 3 provides services such as addressing and routing
that move data through the network to its destination. Basically, the software at this
level accepts blocks of data from Layer 4, the transport layer, resizes them into
shorter packets, and routes them to the proper destination.
▪ Layer 4-Transport Layer: Software for this layer contains facilities that handle
user addressing; it ensures that all the packets of data have been received and that
none have been lost.
▪ Layer 5-Session Layer: While the transport layer is responsible for creating and
maintaining a logical connection between end points, the session layer provides a
user interface that adds value to the transport layer in the form of dialogue
management and error recovery.
▪ Layer 6-Presentation Layer: Layer 6 is responsible for data manipulation
functions common to many applications, such as formatting, compression, and
encryption. Data conversion, syntax conversion, and protocol conversion are
common tasks performed in this layer.
▪ Layer 7-Application Layer: This layer provides the interface to users and is
responsible for formatting user data before passing it to the lower layers for
transmission to a remote host. It contains network management functions and tools
to support distributed applications.
Teaching
Tip
To learn more about the OSI model, visit:
http://computer.howstuffworks.com/osi.htm

TCP/IP Model
1. The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) reference model is
probably the oldest transport protocol standard. It is the basis for Internet
communications and is the most widely used network layer protocol today. Note that it
was developed for the U.S. Department of Defense’s ARPANET and provides
reasonably efficient and error-free transmission among different systems.
2. The TCP/IP model organizes a communication system with three main components:
processes, hosts, and networks. Processes execute on hosts, which can often support
multiple simultaneous processes that are defined as primary units that need to
communicate. These processes communicate across the networks to which hosts are
connected. Use Figure 9.16 to aid the discussion.
▪ Layer 1-Network Access Layer: Protocols at this layer provide access to a
communication network.
▪ Layer 2-Internet Layer: The Internet layer is equivalent to the portion of the
network layer of the OSI model that is not already included in the previous layer,
specifically the mechanism that performs routing functions.
▪ Layer 3-Host-Host Layer: This layer supports mechanisms to transfer data
between two processes on different host computers.
▪ Layer 4-Process/Application Layer: This layer includes protocols for computer-
to-computer resource sharing.
Quick Quiz 2
1. The ____ is the most widely used protocol for ring topology.
Answer: token ring
2. The ____ makes technical recommendations about data communication interfaces.
Answer: International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
3. The term ____ refers to the name by which a unit is known within its own system.
Answer: local name
4. The term ____ refers to the name by which a unit is known outside its own system.
Answer: global name
Class Discussion Topics
1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the different network topologies.
2. Which network topology do you think your school employs, and why? Give reasons to
support your answer.

3. Which communication model do you think is most commonly used on the Internet?
Additional Projects
1. What is the most popular transmission media used in today’s high-speed LANs? Submit
a report that details its key characteristics.
2. Submit a report that discusses the steps involved in setting up a local area network in
Windows 10.
Additional Resources
1. Wi-Fi: http://www.gsmarena.com/glossary.php3?term=wi-fi
2. Network topologies: https://www.lifewire.com/computer-network-topology-817884
3. The OSI Model's Seven Layers Defined and Functions Explained:
https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/kb/103884
4. Circuit Switching vs. Packet Switching: https://www.lifewire.com/circuit-switching-vs-
packet-switching-3426726
5. Setting up a Local Area Network:
http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/l-lan/index.html
Key Terms
➢ bridge: a data-link layer device used to interconnect multiple networks using the
same protocol.
➢ bus topology: network architecture to connect elements together along a single
line.
➢ circuit switching: a communication model in which a dedicated communication
path is established between two hosts and on which all messages travel.
➢ distributed operating system: an operating system that provides control for a
distributed computing system, allowing its resources to be accessed in a unified
way.
➢ Domain Name Service (DNS): a general-purpose, distributed, replicated data
query service. Its principal function is the resolution of Internet addresses based
on fully qualified domain names.
➢ gateway: a communications device or program that passes data between
networks having similar functions but different protocols.

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➢ International Organization for Standardization (ISO): a voluntary, nontreaty
organization responsible for creating international standards in many areas,
including computers and communications.
➢ local area network (LAN): a data network intended to serve an area covering
only a few square kilometers or less.
➢ metropolitan area network (MAN): a data network intended to serve an area
approximating that of a large city.
➢ network: a collection of loosely coupled processors interconnected by
communications links using cables, wireless technology, or a combination of both.
➢ network operating system (NOS): the software that manages network resources
for a node on a network, and may provide security and access control.
➢ open shortest path first (OSPF): a protocol designed for use in Internet Protocol
(IP) networks, concerned with tracking the operational state of every network
interface.
➢ open systems interconnection (OSI) reference model: a seven-layer conceptual
structure describing computer network architectures and the ways in which data
passes through them.
➢ packet switching: a communication model in which messages are individually
routed between hosts, with no previously established communication path.
➢ protocol: a set of rules to control the flow of messages through a network.
➢ ring topology: a network topology in which each node is connected to two
adjacent nodes.
➢ routing information protocol (RIP): a routing protocol used by IP, based on a
distance-vector algorithm.
➢ star topology: a network topology in which multiple network nodes are
connected through a single, central node.
➢ token bus: a type of local area network with nodes connected to a common cable
using a CSMA/CA protocol.
➢ token ring: a type of local area network with stations wired into a ring network.
topology: in a network, the geometric arrangement of connections (cables,
wireless, or both) that link the nodes.
➢ Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) reference model:
the suite of transport-layer and application-layer protocols that operate over the
Internet Protocol.
➢ tree topology: a network architecture in which elements are connected in a
hierarchical structure.
➢ wide area network (WAN): a network usually constructed with long-distance,
point-to-point lines, covering a large geographic area.
➢ wireless local area network (WLAN): a local area network with wireless nodes.

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