Only a minority of articles in El Diario de Hoy portrayed the gang peace process in El Salvador as an advantage. While some acknowledged reductions in homicides, most framed the process as incompatible with Salvadoran values and benefiting gangs over citizens. Coverage increased with political events like elections, with anti-truce stances receiving more attention. This framing emphasized skepticism, lowered legitimacy of pro-truce actors, and impacted the failed diffusion of the peace process in El Salvador.

1. Public opinion polls show that most Salvadorans view the peace process
between gangs as a failure that only benefits the gangs and not the general
population (Cawley, M. 2013 para. 1-7).
Introduction.

2. COVERAGE OF GANG PEACE PROCESS IN
EL SALVADOR BY EL DIARIO DE HOY:
FRAMING
& DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS THEORY

3. Research Questions
• RQ1: What types of impact did the coverage of El Diario de Hoy have on the peace process
between gangs?
• RQ2: How did the 2014 presidential elections impact the amount and the type of coverage
given to the gang peace process by El Diario de Hoy?
• RQ3. What impact did the coverage of El Diario de Hoy have on the failed diffusion of the
gang peace process and its rate of adoption/rejection?
• RQ4. What frames did El Diario de Hoy use more frequently when covering the truce
between gangs, peace or war frames? What effect did this framing have on the diffusion of
the peace process?

4. Research Questions
This study addressed four main aspects of the coverage:
1. The impact of the newspaper’s coverage on the process.
2. The impact that the upcoming elections
3. The factors that sped up the rate of rejection of the process
4. The type of framing used and how it affected the diffusion of the process.

5. Methodology
• This study used quantitative content analysis to examine the coverage of
the gang truce by El Diario de Hoy.
• The stories analyzed spanned from March 2012, when the truce was first
made public, through the first week of February 2014, when the
presidential elections took place.
• The online version of the paper, elsalvador.com, was used to find all the
articles.

6. Methodology
• Keywords: Tregua entre pandillas (gang truce), Maras (gangs), and
“tregua” (truce), were typed into the site’s internal search engine.
• After deleting duplicates, the total number of truce-related articles came
up to 364.
• The articles were stored files per month and then placed in a file per year.
• The unit of analysis examined was the individual article from the news and
opinion sections of the paper.

7. Methodology
• A codebook was created to analyze the content of each article
• Because the articles were in Spanish, and the news involved such a large
number of local actors, two Salvadoran professionals were recruited for
the task of coding.
• They were trained on how to systematically code the content based on
peace journalism concepts, framing and diffusion of innovations theories.

8. Results: RQ 1
RQ1: What types of impact did the coverage of El Diario de Hoy have on the
peace process between gangs?
Explored the 4 types of impact as proposed by Gadi Wolfsfeld:
1. Defining the political atmosphere
2. Defining the nature of the debate
3. Impacting the antagonists’ strategy and behavior
4. Raising or lowering public standing and legitimacy of antagonists involved in the
process.

9. Results: RQ 1
1. Defining the political atmosphere around the truce
– Mood around the truce was mostly pessimistic and skeptical
– Only 51 optimistic articles out of 364 = 14% of the total amount of articles
Table 3
Frequency of optimistic and non-optimistic articles
______________________________
Mood Frequency Percent
______________________________
Non-Opt. 313 86
Optimistic 51 14
Total 364 100
_____________________________
Note. Non-Opt. = Non-Optimistic articles include pessimistic and neutral articles.

10. Results: RQ 1
2. Defining the nature of the debate around the peace process
– The nature of the debate over the gang truce became bi-lateral and political.
– The newspaper placed the debate about the process into an arena of left wing versus right-wing politics
– Associated the left with a pro-truce attitude and the right as anti-truce.
– Only 58 of the 364 articles were pro-truce =15.9 % of the total number of truce-related articles
Table 4
Frequency of Articles with a Pro-Truce Discourse
_____________________________________
Discourse Frequency Percent
_____________________________________
Non-Pro 306 84.1
Pro-Truce 58 15.9
Total 364 100
______________________________________
Note. Non-Pro = Articles that do not have a pro-truce discourse.

11. Results: RQ 1
3. Defining how coverage affected the antagonists’ strategy and behavior
– El Diario de Hoy gave significantly more coverage to the opinions of anti-truce writers
– Out of the 16 opinion writers
• 12 anti-truce
• 4 pro-truce
– Paolo Lüers wrote 74.1 % of the opinion pieces supporting the truce.

12. Results: RQ 1
Table 5
Frequency of Editorials Written by Anti-Truce Authors
___________________________________
Author Frequency Percent
___________________________________
Alfaro 1 2.5
Ponce 18 45
Umaña 1 2.5
Altamirano 1 2.5
EDH 7 17.5
Fernandez 1 2.5
Rodriguez 3 7.5
López 1 2.5
Manzano 1 2.5
Eshman 2 5
Alvarez 2 5
Chang 2 5
Total 40 100
______________________________
Note. EDH = El Diario de Hoy Newspaper.

13. Results: RQ 1
Table 5.1
Frequency of Editorials Written by Pro-Truce Authors
______________________________
Author Frequency Percent
______________________________
Insulza 1 3.7
Vega 5 18.5
Lüers 20 74.1
Eshman 1 3.7
Total 27 100
______________________________
Note. Authors listed by last name; Frequency= Total of editorials written per
author; Percent= Percentage of editorials per author.

14. Results: RQ 1
3. Defining how coverage affected the antagonists’ strategy and behavior
– Anti-truce: Use media to generate skepticism and indignation toward the truce
– Highlighting and associating its failures to the government in terms of public security.
– Politicians on the right shifted the focus of the discussion by accusing the government of
negotiating with criminals.
– The most outspoken anti-truce writer was criminologist Carlos Ponce
• wrote 18 /40 anti-truce opinion articles
• 45% of the total anti-truce articles written
– Pro-truce: used the newspaper and other media to defend themselves against
accusations. They highlighted the reduction in homicides and the institutional backing of
the Catholic Church and the Organization of American States (OAS).

15. Results: RQ 1
4. Raising / lowering legitimacy of antagonists involved in the process
– Raised the public standing of anti-truce actors
– Lowered public standing and legitimacy of pro-truce actors
– Anti-truce articles were significantly more frequent than those that were pro-truce
• 67.6% Anti-truce
• 15.9% Pro-Truce
– By publishing 246 anti-truce articles and only 58 pro-truce pieces, El Diario de Hoy
contributed to legitimizing the anti-truce discourse
– Anti-truce actors strategically held an offensive role
– Pro-truce actors: mostly defending themselves from attacks, reacting to accusations and
defamation, played a defensive role.

16. Results: RQ 1
Table 6
Frequency of Articles with Pro-truce, Anti-Truce, and
Neutral Discourse
______________________________
Discourse Frequency Percent
______________________________
Pro Truce 58 15.9
Anti Truce 246 67.6
Neutral 60 16.5
Total 364 100
______________________________
Note. Frequency= Total articles; Percent= Percentage of
articles per type of discourse.

17. Results: RQ 2
RQ2: How did the 2014 presidential elections impact the amount and the type of coverage
given to the gang peace process by El Diario de Hoy?
– Articles showed what Wolfsfeld described as a political cycle:
• changes in politics lead to changes in media performance, which lead to more changes in
politics.
– The frequency and content of the articles covering the truce were dependent on the political context
at the time of publication

18. Results: RQ 2
Figure 1
Frequency of Truce-Related Articles Over Time
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Note. Frequency of truce-related articles from March 2012 to January 2014

19. Results: RQ 2
• In 2012, the month with the highest number of truce-related articles was May, with 21 articles
– Key political events took place during May:
• Separation of the Catholic Church from the process
• Forensic reports from the department of Medicina Legal, (forensics): reported a higher number of murders
than those claimed by the Ministry of Defense.
• Another key event was the involvement of the Organization of American States (OAS) in the process.

20. Results: RQ 2
• In 2013, July saw an increase in the frequency of truce-related articles, which reached 42
– Increase in political controversy over the rise in murder rates, the destitution of the Minister of Defense
– Destitution of the Minister of Defense
– Attorney General’s public opposition to the process, calling the process a “hypocritical truce.”
– Another key event was the involvement of the Organization of American States (OAS) in the process.
• September was the second month with most truce-related articles with 24
– which can be linked to its proximity to the start of the presidential campaign in following month of October.

21. Results: RQ 2
• In 2013, July saw an increase in the frequency of truce-related articles, which reached 42
– Increase in political controversy over the rise in murder rates, the destitution of the Minister of Defense
– Destitution of the Minister of Defense
– Attorney General’s public opposition to the process, calling the process a “hypocritical truce.”
– Another key event was the involvement of the Organization of American States (OAS) in the process.
• September was the second month with most truce-related articles with 24
– which can be linked to its proximity to the start of the presidential campaign in following month of October.

22. Results: RQ 2
Table 7
Frequency of Truce-Related Articles per Month
___________________
Month/Year Total
___________________
03/2012 1
04/2012 19
05/2012 21
06/2012 5
07/2012 13
08/2012 20
09/2012 8
10/2012 9
11/2012 15
12/2012 9
01/2013 4
02/2013 7
03/2013 10
04/2013 7
05/2013 14
06/2013 23
07/2013 42
08/2013 14
09/2013 24
10/2013 21
11/2013 12
12/2013 19
01/2014 47
Total 364
_______________________
Note. Frequency of truce-related articles from March 2012 to January 2014

23. Results: RQ 2
• Wolfsdeld’s concept of political waves is clearly reflected in January 2014:
– 47 articles about the peace process, the largest number since the truce began in 2012
– January 2014 was the month before the presidential elections
– The presidential campaign was at its peak during its final month
– The truce had become a central issue in the discourse of the candidates
– Especially ARENA, whose opposition of the truce had become a salient topic.

24. Results: RQ 2
Table 7.1
Frequency of Political Mentions per Month
__________________________________________
Month/Year Candidate Party Election
03/2012 0 0 0
04/2012 0 1 1
05/2012 0 3 0
06/2012 0 0 0
07/2012 0 1 1
08/2012 0 0 0
09/2012 1 1 1
10/2012 0 2 0
11/2012 0 1 0
12/2012 0 5 1
01/2013 0 1 0
02/2013 1 1 1
03/2013 1 2 1
04/2013 0 1 0
05/2013 2 6 2
06/2013 8 6 11
07/2013 11 10 12
08/2013 3 3 3
09/2013 4 5 9
10/2013 2 5 2
11/2013 5 2 7
12/2013 4 4 4
01/2014 14 20 16
__________________________________________
Note. Frequency of articles with political mentions from March 2012 to January 2014: includes political candidates, parties, and elections.
*The frequency of mentions
of political candidates, parties,
and elections was also dependent
on the political context

25. Results: RQ 2
Figure 2
Frequency of Political Mentions Over Time
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Note. Frequency of political mentions from March 2012 to January 2014
*There was an increase
in political mentions
during the months of
greater political changes

26. Results: RQ 3
RQ3: What impact did the coverage of El Diario de Hoy have on the failed diffusion of the gang
peace process and its rate of adoption/rejection?
This question examined the coverage of the truce based on 4 of the characteristics that
determine the rate of adoption of the truce:
1. Relative advantage
2. Compatibility
3. Complexity
4. Observability

27. Results: RQ 3
Relative advantage
• Most of the truce-related articles in El Diario de Hoy did not portray the results of the
process as an advantage from what came before.
– Although the Iron Fist policies that came before the peace process resulted in an increase in violence
(Oettler, 2009, p. 252-253)

28. Results: RQ 3
Table 8
Frequency of Articles with Diffusion of Innovations Characteristics
__________________________________________
Characteristic Frequency Percent
__________________________________________
Advantage 56 27.72
Comp. Values 17 8.42
Obs. Benefit 126 62.38
Complexity 3 1.49
_________________________________________
Note. Comp. Values = Compatible Values; Obs. Benefit= Observable Benefits;
Frequency of diffusion of innovations characteristics: relative advantage,
compatible values, observable benefits, and complexity.
*Only 27.72% of the articles
reflected the results of
the truce as an advantage

29. Results: RQ 3
Compatibility
• Most articles portrayed the truce as incompatible with the country’s values
– Discourse of the right=negotiation of the government with criminals.

30. Results: RQ 3
Table 8
Frequency of Articles with Diffusion of Innovations Characteristics
__________________________________________
Characteristic Frequency Percent
__________________________________________
Advantage 56 27.72
Comp. Values 17 8.42
Obs. Benefit 126 62.38
Complexity 3 1.49
_________________________________________
Note. Comp. Values = Compatible Values; Obs. Benefit= Observable Benefits;
Frequency of diffusion of innovations characteristics: relative advantage,
compatible values, observable benefits, and complexity.
*Some 8.42% of the articles
reflected compatibility of the
process with Salvadoran
values.

31. Results: RQ 3
Observable Benefits
• The observable benefits of the truce were mentioned, and acknowledged even in anti-truce
articles.
• Numbers were put into question when the forensics department of the government
published its own numbers, which showed that the deaths and disappearances were higher
than those claimed by the Ministry of Defense.
• The reduction in murder rates claimed by the Ministry had to compete with the observable
gang violence covered by El Diario de Hoy and other media.

32. Results: RQ 3
Table 8
Frequency of Articles with Diffusion of Innovations Characteristics
__________________________________________
Characteristic Frequency Percent
__________________________________________
Advantage 56 27.72
Comp. Values 17 8.42
Obs. Benefit 126 62.38
Complexity 3 1.49
_________________________________________
Note. Comp. Values = Compatible Values; Obs. Benefit= Observable Benefits;
Frequency of diffusion of innovations characteristics: relative advantage,
compatible values, observable benefits, and complexity.
*Approximately, 62.38% of
the articles mentioned a
reduction in murders as
the most observable
benefit of the process

33. Results: RQ 3
Complexity
• In terms of complexity, even those who proposed the peace process between gangs
described it as complex.
• This is not surprising, considering that a peace process has many layers of complexity.

34. Results: RQ 3
Table 8
Frequency of Articles with Diffusion of Innovations Characteristics
__________________________________________
Characteristic Frequency Percent
__________________________________________
Advantage 56 27.72
Comp. Values 17 8.42
Obs. Benefit 126 62.38
Complexity 3 1.49
_________________________________________
Note. Comp. Values = Compatible Values; Obs. Benefit= Observable Benefits;
Frequency of diffusion of innovations characteristics: relative advantage,
compatible values, observable benefits, and complexity.
*Only 1.49 percent of the
articles portrayed the truce as
less complex than other
alternatives.

35. Results: RQ 4
RQ4. What frames did El Diario de Hoy use more frequently when covering the truce between
gangs, peace or war frames? What effect did this framing have on the diffusion of the peace
process?
1.War-oriented= 65.11%
2.Neutral/ neither peace nor war= 18.96%
3. Peace= 15.93%

36. Results: RQ 4
Table 9
Frequency of Peace, War, & Neutral Frames
____________________________________
Frame Frequency Percent
____________________________________
Peace 58 15.93
War 237 65.11
Neutral 69 18.96
Total 364 100
____________________________________
Note. Frequency of articles with peace, war, and neutral frames
*The least frequently used
frame was peace with 15.93%

37. Results: RQ 4
• Most articles did not focus on the conflict formation or why gang violence was
escalating, or the underlying issues of all parties.
• Coverage focused on two parties:
– “Them,” the left-wing government and gangs
– “Us,” the right-wing opposition and the honest Salvadoran society
• Such articles focused on the visible effects of violence:
– killings, extortions, wounded, and material damage.
• Most articles lacked empathy and understanding with gang members and those that
supported the truce.
• The majority of articles reflected a dehumanization of “Them,”
– Members of gangs, and supporters of the truce.

38. Results: RQ 4
• The second framing category analyzed was propaganda versus truth.
1. Propaganda-oriented=68.13%
2. Neutral= 19.78%
3. Truth-oriented =12.08 %
• Most of the articles reported almost exclusively, the lies and cover-ups of gang-
members and pro-truce actors

39. Results: RQ 4
Table 10
Frequency of Articles with Truth and Propaganda Frames
___________________________________
Frame Frequency Percent
____________________________________
Truth 44 12.08
Propa. 248 68.13
Neutral 72 19.78
Total 364 100
____________________________________
Note. Propa. = Propaganda; Frequency of articles with truth and propaganda frames

40. Results: RQ 4
• The third category analyzed was people-oriented versus elite-oriented content.
– Most of the people mentioned in the truce were elite opinion leaders on both sides. “Non-elite”
people who believed in the truce were hardly ever covered
1. Elite-oriented= 81.04%
2. People-oriented= 10.44%
3. Neutral/neither= 8.52 percent

41. Results: RQ 4
Table 11
Frequency of People-Oriented and Elite-Oriented Articles
___________________________________
Frame Frequency Percent
____________________________________
People 38 10.4
Elite 295 81
Neutral 31 8.6
Total 364 100
____________________________________
Note. Frequency of people-oriented and elite-oriented articles.
*Elite-oriented articles were
the most frequent with
81.04%

42. Results: RQ 4
• Frequency of articles that used solution or victory-oriented frames.
1. 58.52 percent used victory-oriented frames
2. 26.10 with neither/neutral
3. 15.38 percent of solution-oriented frames
• Most articles focused on:
– Law and order and keeping the gang members under control
– The treaty and what was being negotiated
– Highlighted the concessions given to the gangs
– Coverage and attention was given to the process when a conflict happened.

43. Results: RQ 4
Table 12
Frequency of Solution-Oriented and Victory-Oriented Articles
___________________________________
Frame Frequency Percent
____________________________________
Solution 56 15.38
Victory 213 58.52
Neutral 95 26.10
Total 364 100
____________________________________
Note. Frequency of solution-oriented and victory-oriented articles
*58.52% used victory-
oriented frames

44. Discussion
Like the Oslo accords between Israel and Palestine:*
– The process itself was doomed from the start for other reasons
– Negative and sensationalist coverage contributed their rejection and eventual failure
– Positive developments were given very little coverage.
– Rejection of the peace process between gangs was fueled and accelerated in part by the
negative coverage it received.
*(Wolfsfeld, 2011, p. 40-41)

45. Discussion
Gadi Wolfsfeld argued that in order to understand the media coverage of
peace, you must first understand the politics around it.
– Took place some months before the 2014 presidential election campaign
– Time in which the tolls of violent deaths were at their highest in recent history
– As the elections approached, the frequency of truce-related articles increased.
*(Wolfsfeld, 2011, p. 40-41)

46. Discussion
A peace process without elite consensus is more likely to fail.*
• conservative elites made their opposition publically known through news media.
• They used the truce as an attack against the leftist government.
• Media of El Salvador continue to be controlled by right-wing alliances and private interests.
– Placed the truce in an unfavorable position.
• Since mass media continue to be the best way to launch an innovation, (Rogers, 2002, p.990)
generating favorable awareness of the truce was an uphill battle from the start.
*(Wolfsfeld, 2004, p. 28)

47. Discussion
The impacts of the coverage of El Diario de Hoy were mostly adverse:
1. it contributed to creating a pessimistic atmosphere around the process.
2. coverage also influenced the nature of the debate, placing the issue in the political
arena and reproducing the dichotomous, pro/anti-truce positions on the topic.
3. Additionally, it influenced the strategies and the behavior of pro-truce and anti-truce
actors.
– Strategies of anti-truce actors = use media to generate skepticism and indignation toward the truce
– Strategies of pro-truce actors used the newspaper and other media to defend themselves
4. Coverage of the truce by El Diario de Hoy raised the legitimacy of the opponents of the
truce while lowering the credibility of pro-truce actors, who were in turn forced into
playing a defensive role on the issue.

48. Discussion
The coverage of the peace process between gangs did not reflect the
qualities required to be rapidly adopted by the Salvadoran society.
1. Most articles did not portray the results of the process as an advantage.
2. Portrayed the truce as incompatible with the country’s values. This portrayal was in tune with
the discourse of the right, which Reduced the process to a mere negotiation of the
government with criminals.
3. Observable advantages, the reduction in murder rates claimed by the Ministry had to
compete with the observable gang violence covered by El Diario de Hoy and other media.

49. Discussion
4. Complexity: Even those who proposed the peace process described it as complex.
– The lack of clarity in communication from its proponents made the topic even more complicated.
– Iron fist policies preceding the process failed in results, but were successfully adopted by the
population. This can be partly due to the simplicity of its communication.
– In short, the official message was to offer the population safety by punishing gang members and
keeping them out of sight from the rest of society.
– Such a plan did not have the difficult task of convincing the population, because news media had
already paved the way with enough coverage that proved that gangs were the enemy.
– Gangs were the enemy and this plan promised to put an end to the enemy by all means possible.
– This message was supported by the elite and made public through intense social communications
and advertising campaigns.

50. Discussion
The use of war frames by El Diario de Hoy in its coverage of the peace process between gangs
was another factor that contributed to its failed diffusion.
• The dehumanization of gang members and defamation of those that supported the peace
process added fuel to the controversy.
• The pages of El Diario de Hoy portrayed the issue as a battle between good and evil, of “Us,
the good ones” versus “Them, evildoers.”
• This positioning was confirmed through the reporting of all the visible effects of violence:
killings, extortions and other damages perpetrated by gangs.
• Elite opinion leaders perpetrated anti-truce sentiment and very little coverage was given to
non-elite, people peacemakers.

51. Discussion
Frames of war used by El Diario de Hoy exalted the status of gang members as ruthless killers.
El Diario de Hoy reported murder rates as if they were numbers of the stock exchange or a sports
match.
Articles reported the gruesome details of the torture and killings that victims were put through
by gang members.
War frames perpetrated fear by projecting the world as a dangerous place, increasing the
hopelessness of Salvadoran people.
Reporting through war frames helped to speed up the failure of a peace process.

52. Discussion
Conclusions
• Set a precedent for future initiatives of what to avoid in terms of communication.
• The findings of this study contributed to understanding the impact that news coverage can
have on peace processes
• The mistakes of this failed diffusion are good lessons that can enrich future communication
strategies.

53. Discussion
Lessons:
1. Innovation cannot be forced into acceptance. Before launching an innovative policy or plan
the team in charge should systematically and objectively test its viability. Using diffusion of
innovations theory could be helpful in this process
2. Acceptance or rejection of an innovation is completely dependent on the political
atmosphere and the moment that that society is going through.
1. Aspects such as political cycles must be taken into consideration.
2. If the context does not seem favorable for such an initiative, it would be helpful to reconsider the launching date or if
certain modifications are needed before executing.

54. Discussion
3. Big Mistake: Launching the initiative without considering a communication plan.
– In order to create favorable awareness, the process needed a team of communications specialists.
– Helped the process to navigate through the various crises that arose.
– This team would have worked create a coherent discourse and a strong positioning for the process.

55. Discussion
• Assign a respected, non-political, spokesperson that would respond to allegations,
defamation, and accusations.
– This spokesperson would promote clarity and transparency in the process through communication.
– The closest thing to a spokesperson that the truce had was inviting journalist, Paolo Lüers.
– But his efforts were not enough.
– Brought in too late when the process was already generating unfavorable public opinions.
• Social movements, governments, and non-governmental organizations
seeking to propose an innovative initiative must give communication the
importance that it requires. A strong communication plan is a vital part of
the successful adoption of an innovation.

56. Discussion
Limitations & Recommendations
• Limited to the coverage of one Salvadoran newspaper on the peace process between gangs.
• Future studies: other newspapers framed this same peace process:
– La Prensa Gráfica, Diario Co Latino and online newspaper El Faro.
• Limited to written content; it did not take into consideration images used by El Diario de Hoy
in its coverage of truce-related news.
• Analysis of the types of images used by this newspaper would enrich our understanding on
the topic.
• Multimedia used on El Diario de Hoy’s digital platform (elsalvador.com) would be another
good object of study.
– The kind of materials found on this site and that could be used for analysis span from photographic slideshows to
videos.

57. Discussion
Limitations & Recommendations
• Analysis of media coverage of the gang peace process could transcend written news.
• Content of television news programs for the same period of time
– Contribute to enrich the understanding of the failed diffusion of this peace process.
– Such a study should take into consideration news programs, interview, and opinion shows that
covered the gang peace process.