This document summarizes research on complex training (CT), which involves alternating heavy and light resistance exercises to improve power output. It finds that CT is most effective when:
1) The heavy exercise intensity is moderate, such as 30-65% of 1RM, to stimulate the nervous system without causing fatigue.
2) The recovery between exercises is sufficient to allow post-activation potentiation from the heavy set but not so long that its effects diminish.
3) The exercises train similar muscle groups, though some evidence suggests contrasting movements also work for trained individuals.
Does static stretching reduce maximal muscle performance?Fernando Farias
Kay and Blazevich systemati-
cally examined research that showed
the effects of static stretching on mus-
cle strength and other performance
measures by separating the studies into
total stretch durations of ,30 seconds,
30 to 45 seconds, 1 to 2 minutes, or
.2 minutes. Some practical and tech-
nical considerations may be helpful in
considering their conclusion that static
stretching only impairs muscle function
with longer stretches.
The effect of various cold‑water immersion protocolsFernando Farias
This study investigated the effects of different cold-water immersion (CWI) protocols on inflammatory response and functional recovery following high-intensity exercise. Eight males completed a high-intensity sprint protocol followed by one of four CWI protocols or passive rest. Blood samples showed CWI of 30 minutes at 10 or 20°C increased some inflammatory markers compared to shorter or colder CWI. Muscle performance decreased immediately after exercise but recovered faster with CWI, though the mechanism is unclear. CWI appears to aid muscle performance recovery but not power, and longer CWI may worsen inflammation without improving recovery.
Cold water inmersion reduces anaerobic performanceFernando Farias
Many athletes compete in multiple events on the
same day such as heats and semifinals or round
robin competitions. Under these circumstances,
effective recovery is essential to ensure optimal
performance in a subsequent event or match. A
variety of recovery techniques exist including
cryotherapy (cold water immersion/ice baths,
ice massage, ice packs), whirlpool therapy, mas-
sage and contrast therapy.
The use of stretching in the training programs of recrea-
tional and competitive athletes has been historically common-
place. The role of stretching in enhancing athletic performance
has been debated (49). The purpose of this review was to
examine the literature regarding the effect of stretching on
performance, without regard to any of the other purported
effects of stretching, including improvements in joint range
of motion, muscle length, or recovery from or susceptibility
to injury.
Effects of Cold Water Immersion on Muscle OxygenationFernando Farias
Postexercise cold water immersion has been advocated to
athletes as a means of accelerating recovery and improving perform-
ance. Given the effects of cold water immersion on blood flflw,
evaluating in vivo changes in tissue oxygenation during cold water
immersion may help further our understanding of this recovery
modality. This study aimed to investigate the effects of cold water
immersion on muscle oxygenation and performance during repeated
bouts of fatiguing exercise in a group of healthy young adults.
Postexercise Cold Water Immersion Benefits Are Not Greater than the Placebo E...Fernando Farias
A CWI placebo is also as effective as
CWI itself in the recovery of muscle strength over 48 h.
This can likely be attributed to improved subjective ratings
of pain and readiness for exercise, suggesting that the hy-
pothesized physiological benefits surrounding CWI may
be at least partly placebo related.
Effect of cold water immersion on skeletal muscle contractile properties in s...Fernando Farias
This study shows that repeated cold-water immersions (4
4 mins at 4-C) cause considerable alterations to muscle behavior. These alter-
ations signififiantly affect the state of muscles and their response capacity, partic-
ularly in relation to muscle stiffness and muscle contraction velocity.
Methods of developing power to improve acceleration for the non track athleteFernando Farias
IN MOST TEAM-BASED SPORTS
ATHLETES MUST BE ABLE TO
GENERATE EXPLOSIVE MUSCULAR
FORCES TO ACCELERATE,
CHANGE DIRECTIONS, AND THEN
RE-ACCELERATE OVER RELA-
TIVELY SHORT DISTANCES.
THEREFORE, TO BE SUCCESSFUL,
ACCELERATION RATHER THAN
MAXIMAL VELOCITY IS LIKELY A
GREATER PREDICTOR OF SUC-
CESS IN THESE SPORTS. THIS
ARTICLE WILL EXPLORE SOME OF
THE TECHNIQUES COMMONLY
USED TO IMPROVE AN ATHLETE’S
ABILITY TO ACCELERATE BY
IMPROVING FORCE, VELOCITY,
AND THE COMBINATION OF THESE
2 ELEMENTS.
Does static stretching reduce maximal muscle performance?Fernando Farias
Kay and Blazevich systemati-
cally examined research that showed
the effects of static stretching on mus-
cle strength and other performance
measures by separating the studies into
total stretch durations of ,30 seconds,
30 to 45 seconds, 1 to 2 minutes, or
.2 minutes. Some practical and tech-
nical considerations may be helpful in
considering their conclusion that static
stretching only impairs muscle function
with longer stretches.
The effect of various cold‑water immersion protocolsFernando Farias
This study investigated the effects of different cold-water immersion (CWI) protocols on inflammatory response and functional recovery following high-intensity exercise. Eight males completed a high-intensity sprint protocol followed by one of four CWI protocols or passive rest. Blood samples showed CWI of 30 minutes at 10 or 20°C increased some inflammatory markers compared to shorter or colder CWI. Muscle performance decreased immediately after exercise but recovered faster with CWI, though the mechanism is unclear. CWI appears to aid muscle performance recovery but not power, and longer CWI may worsen inflammation without improving recovery.
Cold water inmersion reduces anaerobic performanceFernando Farias
Many athletes compete in multiple events on the
same day such as heats and semifinals or round
robin competitions. Under these circumstances,
effective recovery is essential to ensure optimal
performance in a subsequent event or match. A
variety of recovery techniques exist including
cryotherapy (cold water immersion/ice baths,
ice massage, ice packs), whirlpool therapy, mas-
sage and contrast therapy.
The use of stretching in the training programs of recrea-
tional and competitive athletes has been historically common-
place. The role of stretching in enhancing athletic performance
has been debated (49). The purpose of this review was to
examine the literature regarding the effect of stretching on
performance, without regard to any of the other purported
effects of stretching, including improvements in joint range
of motion, muscle length, or recovery from or susceptibility
to injury.
Effects of Cold Water Immersion on Muscle OxygenationFernando Farias
Postexercise cold water immersion has been advocated to
athletes as a means of accelerating recovery and improving perform-
ance. Given the effects of cold water immersion on blood flflw,
evaluating in vivo changes in tissue oxygenation during cold water
immersion may help further our understanding of this recovery
modality. This study aimed to investigate the effects of cold water
immersion on muscle oxygenation and performance during repeated
bouts of fatiguing exercise in a group of healthy young adults.
Postexercise Cold Water Immersion Benefits Are Not Greater than the Placebo E...Fernando Farias
A CWI placebo is also as effective as
CWI itself in the recovery of muscle strength over 48 h.
This can likely be attributed to improved subjective ratings
of pain and readiness for exercise, suggesting that the hy-
pothesized physiological benefits surrounding CWI may
be at least partly placebo related.
Effect of cold water immersion on skeletal muscle contractile properties in s...Fernando Farias
This study shows that repeated cold-water immersions (4
4 mins at 4-C) cause considerable alterations to muscle behavior. These alter-
ations signififiantly affect the state of muscles and their response capacity, partic-
ularly in relation to muscle stiffness and muscle contraction velocity.
Methods of developing power to improve acceleration for the non track athleteFernando Farias
IN MOST TEAM-BASED SPORTS
ATHLETES MUST BE ABLE TO
GENERATE EXPLOSIVE MUSCULAR
FORCES TO ACCELERATE,
CHANGE DIRECTIONS, AND THEN
RE-ACCELERATE OVER RELA-
TIVELY SHORT DISTANCES.
THEREFORE, TO BE SUCCESSFUL,
ACCELERATION RATHER THAN
MAXIMAL VELOCITY IS LIKELY A
GREATER PREDICTOR OF SUC-
CESS IN THESE SPORTS. THIS
ARTICLE WILL EXPLORE SOME OF
THE TECHNIQUES COMMONLY
USED TO IMPROVE AN ATHLETE’S
ABILITY TO ACCELERATE BY
IMPROVING FORCE, VELOCITY,
AND THE COMBINATION OF THESE
2 ELEMENTS.
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is an International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
Effects of seated and standing cold water immersion on recovery from repeated...Fernando Farias
There were
no significant group differences between control and either of the cold water immersion interventions. Seated cold water
immersion was associated with lower DOMS than standing cold water immersion (effect size = 1.86; P = 0.001). These
data suggest that increasing hydrostatic pressure by standing in cold water does not provide an additional recovery benefit
over seated cold water immersion, and that both seated and standing immersions have no benefit in promoting recovery
Post exercise cold water immersion attenuates acute anabolic signallingFernando Farias
these two studies offer new and
important insights into how cold water immersion during
recovery from strength exercise affects chronic training
adaptations and some of the molecular mechanisms that
underpin such adaptations. Cold water immersion delayed
or inhibited satellite cell activity and suppressed the
activation of p70S6K after acute strength exercise. These
effects may have been compounded over time to diminish
the expected increases in muscle mass and strength as a
result of training. The results of these studies challenge the
notion that cold water immersion improves recovery after
exercise. Individuals who use strength training to improve
athletic performance, recover from injury or maintain
their health should therefore reconsider whether to use
cold water immersion as an adjuvant to their training.
ISMST 2015 Abstract 2 - The influence of medical shockwaves on muscle activat...Kenneth Craig
This study investigated the effects of medical shockwave therapy on muscle activation patterns and performance in healthy athletes. Golfers and weightlifters underwent shockwave therapy targeting specific muscles. Post-treatment, golfers showed increased swing speed, ball distance, and faster muscle activation. Weightlifters showed faster muscle activation but lower energy output during squats, though they were able to lift more weight. The study suggests shockwave therapy may induce favorable biological responses in healthy muscles, reducing fatigue and potential for overuse injuries over time. Further research is warranted.
Cold water immersion versus whole body cryotherapyFernando Farias
Cold-water immersion was more effective in
accelerating recovery kinetics than whole-body cryotherapy for countermovement jump
performance at 72h post-exercise. Cold-water immersion also demonstrated lower soreness
and higher perceived recovery levels across 24-48h post-exercise.
Training the vertical jump to head the ball in soccer Fernando Farias
IN MODERN SOCCER, HEADING
THE BALL IS BOTH AN OFFENSIVE
TOOL USED TO SCORE GOALS
AND A DEFENSIVE MEASURE
AGAINST OPPOSING TEAMS. PRO-
FICIENCY IN HEADING THE BALL
REQUIRES PROPER TECHNIQUE IN
CONJUNCTION WITH AN EFFEC-
TIVE VERTICAL JUMP. THE AIM OF
THIS ARTICLE IS TO ADDRESS THE
FACTORS INVOLVED IN VERTICAL
JUMP PERFORMANCE AND HOW
THEY RELATE SPECIFICALLY TO
HEADING THE BALL
This study examined the effects of a 6-week isokinetic resistance training program on quadriceps and hamstrings peak torque and standing long jump performance in 12 untrained men. The training consisted of 3 sets of 10 repetitions at 100°/s, 3 days per week for 6 weeks. After training, quadriceps peak torque increased by an average of 10.5% but there was no significant change in hamstrings peak torque or standing long jump performance. The major finding was that gains in isokinetic strength did not translate to improvements in functional performance, likely due to the training lacking eccentric loading which is an important component of the standing long jump.
Effects of Velocity Loss During Resistance Training on Performance in Profess...Fernando Farias
To analyze the effects of two resistance training (RT) programs that used the same relative loading but different repetition volume, using the velocity loss during the set as the independent variable: 15% (VL15) vs. 30% (VL30). Methods: Sixteen professional soccer players with RT experience (age 23.8 ± 3.5 years, body mass 75.5 ± 8.6 kg) were randomly assigned to two groups: VL15 (n = 8) or VL30 (n = 8) that followed a 6-week (18 sessions) velocity-based squat training program. Repetition velocity was monitored in all sessions. Assessments performed before (Pre) and after training (Post) included: estimated one- repetition maximum (1RM) and change in average mean propulsive velocity (AMPV) against absolute loads common to Pre and Post tests; countermovement jump (CMJ); 30-m sprint (T30); and Yo-yo intermittent recovery test (YYIRT).
High intensity warm ups elicit superior performance Fernando Farias
The benefits of an active warm-up (WU) have been
attributed to increases in muscle temperature, nerve
conductivity, and the speeding of metabolic reactions.1 Non-
temperature-related benefifis include an increased blood-flflw
to working muscles, elevated baseline oxygen consumption,
and the induction of a post-activation potentiation (PAP)
effect.
Does strength training change your movement patterns?Fernando Farias
Most of us in this industry believe that good movement patterns make someone
a better athlete, as well making them less likely to get injured. Unsurprisingly,
therefore, a lot of programs have been put together to help you improve your
movement patterns.
THE STEADY-STATE MODEL OF
BIOENERGETICS FAILS TO ACCU-
RATELY DESCRIBE THE METABO-
LISM FOR HIGH-INTENSITY POWER.
THIS ARTICLE REEXAMINES THE
ROLE OF PHOSPHOCREATINE,
LACTATE PRODUCTION, AND THE
IMPORTANCE OF AEROBIC METAB-
OLISM DURING SHORT-TERM HIGH-
INTENSITY POWER PERFORMANCE.
METABOLIC AND MECHANICAL
TESTS OF HIGH-INTENSITY POWER
HAVE EVOLVED IN THE PAST 40
YEARS. THE AUTHORS COMPARED
THE MAXIMAL ACCUMULATED
OXYGEN-DEFICIT MODEL VERSUS
THE CRITICAL POWER MODEL AND
SUMMARIZED THE RECENTLY
DEVELOPED 3-MINUTE ALL-OUT
EXERCISE TEST (3 MT). THE 3 MT
OFFERS THE STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING PROFESSIONAL A
SIMPLE METHOD OF ESTIMATING
AN ATHLETE’S TOLERANCE TO
HIGH-INTENSITY POWER EXERCISE.
Short inter-set rest blunts resistance exercise-inducedFernando Farias
Manipulating the rest-recovery interval between sets of resistance exercise may influence
training-induced muscle remodelling. The aim of this study was to determine the acute muscle
anabolic response to resistance exercise performed with short or long inter-set rest intervals.
In a study with a parallel-group design, 16 males completed four sets of bilateral leg-press and
knee-extension exercise at 75% of one-repetition maximum to momentary muscular failure,
followed by ingestion of 25 g of whey protein. Resistance exercise sets were interspersed by
1 min (n = 8) or 5 min of passive rest (n = 8). Muscle biopsies were obtained at rest, 0, 4, 24
and 28 h postexercise during a primed continuous infusion of l-[ring-13C6]phenylalanine to
determine myofibrillar protein synthesis and intracellular signalling.
Impact of the Nordic hamstring and hip extension exercises on hamstring archi...Fernando Farias
The architectural and morphological adaptations of the hamstrings in response to training
33 with different exercises have not been explored. PURPOSE: To evaluate changes in biceps
34 femoris long head (BFLH) fascicle length and hamstring muscle size following 10-weeks of
35 Nordic hamstring exercise (NHE) or hip extension (HE) training. METHODS: Thirty
36 recreationally active male athletes (age, 22.0 ± 3.6 years, height, 180.4 ± 7 cm, weight, 80.8 ±
37 11.1 kg) were allocated to one of three groups: 1) HE training (n=10), NHE training (n=10),
38 or no training (CON) (n=10). BFLH fascicle length was assessed before, during (Week 5) and
39 after the intervention with 2D-ultrasound. Hamstring muscle size was determined before and
40 after training via magnetic resonance imaging.
A tipologia da fibra muscular influencia substancialmente o tempo de recupera...FranciscoJulio12
1) The study investigated the effects of muscle fiber typology on fatigue and recovery following high-intensity exercise.
2) Thirty-two male athletes underwent proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy to estimate their muscle fiber typology as predominantly slow (ST) or fast (FT) based on calf muscle carnosine levels.
3) The ST and FT groups then performed repeated Wingate tests to induce fatigue. The FT group experienced greater power drop during exercise and had not fully recovered torque levels 5 hours later, while the ST group recovered within 20 minutes, indicating muscle fiber typology influences exercise-induced fatigue and recovery time.
A comparison of 2 circuit exercise training techniques igbenito777
This study compared the metabolic, heart rate, and perceived exertion responses to circuit resistance training (CRT) using either a multistation isoinertial exercise system (MultiGym) or a customized system using Thera-Band resistance bands (ElasticGym) in people with paraplegia. Sixteen men and one woman with chronic paraplegia completed familiarization and testing on both systems. There were no significant differences in average oxygen consumption or heart rate between the two systems. However, average ratings of perceived exertion were significantly higher when using the ElasticGym system. The results suggest that CRT using a customized ElasticGym elicits similar metabolic and heart rate responses but greater perceived exertion compared to
Acute cardiopulmonary and metabolic responses to high intensity interval trai...Fernando Farias
Results from the present study quantify the effects of altering either the intensity of the
work or the recovery interval when performing interval sessions consisting of 60s of work and
60s of recovery for multiple repetitions. The information provided may aid those interested in
designing interval training sessions by providing ranges of values that could be expected for
individuals who possess moderate levels of cardiopulmonary fitness. Using a work intensity of
80% or 100% VGO2peak and a recovery intensity of 0% or 50% VGO2peak, subjects were able to
exercise within the ACSM recommended range for exercise intensity. Based upon the data it
would appear that a protocol such as the 80/0 may be appropriate for those individuals who
are just beginning a program or have little experience with interval-type activity. By contrast, a
100/50 protocol could not be completed by all of the subjects and therefore may be too intense
for some individuals.
fatigue following a
soccer match is multifactorial and related to dehydration,
glycogen depletion, muscle damage and mental fatigue. A
multitude of recovery strategies are currently implemented
in professional soccer clubs to target these causes of fatigue.
Recovery strategies aimed at reducing acute inflammation
from muscle damage and enhancing its rate of removal are
particularly used in professional soccer settings.
EFFECTS OF STRENGTH TRAINING ON SQUAT AND SPRINT PERFORMANCE IN SOCCER PLAYERSFernando Farias
We have demonstrated that a simple in-season strength training program resulted in an improvement in maximal back squat performance, which was reflected in improve- ments in short sprint performance, as identified by a decrease in sprint time over 5, 10, and 20 m, in professional soccer players, in line with the hypotheses. Furthermore, the changes in relative 1RM squat strength demonstrate strong associations with the changes in 5 (r = 0.62), 10 (r = 0.78), and 20-m (r = 0.60) sprint performances.
1) A study investigated the effects of 22 weeks of periodized soccer training focused on technical-tactical ability in young players.
2) The training reduced markers of muscle damage (CK and LDH levels) over time and improved high-intensity performance and tactical metrics in games.
3) Players who saw greater reductions in muscle damage markers also had larger increases in high-intensity actions during games.
This study examined the effects of acute normobaric hypoxia on heart rate and mean arterial pressure in 8 healthy middle-aged males at rest, during exercise, and post-exercise. Participants underwent two trials - one with normoxia and exercise, and one with hypoxia at 12.5% oxygen and exercise. Heart rate and blood pressure were measured throughout. The results showed that hypoxia caused a greater increase in heart rate post-exercise compared to normoxia. Hypoxia also led to a larger decrease in blood pressure after exercise than normoxia. This suggests that normobaric hypoxia has differential hemodynamic effects compared to normoxia in middle-aged males at rest and after exercise.
This study aimed to compare quadriceps muscle activation and perceived exertion during the leg press and Smith machine squat exercises. The researchers measured muscle activation via EMG and perceived exertion ratings in athletes performing each exercise across a range of loads. They developed predictive equations to determine equivalent loads between exercises that produce the same muscle activation and perceived exertion. The muscle activation equation was less accurate due to individual variability, while the perceived exertion equation was more accurate as it reflects the overall exertion of each exercise rather than specific muscles. These equations provide a new tool to convert loads between exercises over a training period.
DAVID JANETT MA THESIS FINAL DRAFT PDFDavid Janett
This document is a literature review investigating the relationship between intra-abdominal pressure, spine stability, and force production during weightlifting. The review examines 28 studies on how breathing patterns and increased intra-abdominal pressure through breath holding can improve spine stability and potentially increase force production. Many studies found correlations between increased intra-abdominal pressure, greater muscle activation of trunk muscles, and improved spine stability. However, the relationship between intra-abdominal pressure, spine stability and actual force production requires more research due to flaws in previous study designs. More research is needed to draw stronger conclusions.
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is an International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
Effects of seated and standing cold water immersion on recovery from repeated...Fernando Farias
There were
no significant group differences between control and either of the cold water immersion interventions. Seated cold water
immersion was associated with lower DOMS than standing cold water immersion (effect size = 1.86; P = 0.001). These
data suggest that increasing hydrostatic pressure by standing in cold water does not provide an additional recovery benefit
over seated cold water immersion, and that both seated and standing immersions have no benefit in promoting recovery
Post exercise cold water immersion attenuates acute anabolic signallingFernando Farias
these two studies offer new and
important insights into how cold water immersion during
recovery from strength exercise affects chronic training
adaptations and some of the molecular mechanisms that
underpin such adaptations. Cold water immersion delayed
or inhibited satellite cell activity and suppressed the
activation of p70S6K after acute strength exercise. These
effects may have been compounded over time to diminish
the expected increases in muscle mass and strength as a
result of training. The results of these studies challenge the
notion that cold water immersion improves recovery after
exercise. Individuals who use strength training to improve
athletic performance, recover from injury or maintain
their health should therefore reconsider whether to use
cold water immersion as an adjuvant to their training.
ISMST 2015 Abstract 2 - The influence of medical shockwaves on muscle activat...Kenneth Craig
This study investigated the effects of medical shockwave therapy on muscle activation patterns and performance in healthy athletes. Golfers and weightlifters underwent shockwave therapy targeting specific muscles. Post-treatment, golfers showed increased swing speed, ball distance, and faster muscle activation. Weightlifters showed faster muscle activation but lower energy output during squats, though they were able to lift more weight. The study suggests shockwave therapy may induce favorable biological responses in healthy muscles, reducing fatigue and potential for overuse injuries over time. Further research is warranted.
Cold water immersion versus whole body cryotherapyFernando Farias
Cold-water immersion was more effective in
accelerating recovery kinetics than whole-body cryotherapy for countermovement jump
performance at 72h post-exercise. Cold-water immersion also demonstrated lower soreness
and higher perceived recovery levels across 24-48h post-exercise.
Training the vertical jump to head the ball in soccer Fernando Farias
IN MODERN SOCCER, HEADING
THE BALL IS BOTH AN OFFENSIVE
TOOL USED TO SCORE GOALS
AND A DEFENSIVE MEASURE
AGAINST OPPOSING TEAMS. PRO-
FICIENCY IN HEADING THE BALL
REQUIRES PROPER TECHNIQUE IN
CONJUNCTION WITH AN EFFEC-
TIVE VERTICAL JUMP. THE AIM OF
THIS ARTICLE IS TO ADDRESS THE
FACTORS INVOLVED IN VERTICAL
JUMP PERFORMANCE AND HOW
THEY RELATE SPECIFICALLY TO
HEADING THE BALL
This study examined the effects of a 6-week isokinetic resistance training program on quadriceps and hamstrings peak torque and standing long jump performance in 12 untrained men. The training consisted of 3 sets of 10 repetitions at 100°/s, 3 days per week for 6 weeks. After training, quadriceps peak torque increased by an average of 10.5% but there was no significant change in hamstrings peak torque or standing long jump performance. The major finding was that gains in isokinetic strength did not translate to improvements in functional performance, likely due to the training lacking eccentric loading which is an important component of the standing long jump.
Effects of Velocity Loss During Resistance Training on Performance in Profess...Fernando Farias
To analyze the effects of two resistance training (RT) programs that used the same relative loading but different repetition volume, using the velocity loss during the set as the independent variable: 15% (VL15) vs. 30% (VL30). Methods: Sixteen professional soccer players with RT experience (age 23.8 ± 3.5 years, body mass 75.5 ± 8.6 kg) were randomly assigned to two groups: VL15 (n = 8) or VL30 (n = 8) that followed a 6-week (18 sessions) velocity-based squat training program. Repetition velocity was monitored in all sessions. Assessments performed before (Pre) and after training (Post) included: estimated one- repetition maximum (1RM) and change in average mean propulsive velocity (AMPV) against absolute loads common to Pre and Post tests; countermovement jump (CMJ); 30-m sprint (T30); and Yo-yo intermittent recovery test (YYIRT).
High intensity warm ups elicit superior performance Fernando Farias
The benefits of an active warm-up (WU) have been
attributed to increases in muscle temperature, nerve
conductivity, and the speeding of metabolic reactions.1 Non-
temperature-related benefifis include an increased blood-flflw
to working muscles, elevated baseline oxygen consumption,
and the induction of a post-activation potentiation (PAP)
effect.
Does strength training change your movement patterns?Fernando Farias
Most of us in this industry believe that good movement patterns make someone
a better athlete, as well making them less likely to get injured. Unsurprisingly,
therefore, a lot of programs have been put together to help you improve your
movement patterns.
THE STEADY-STATE MODEL OF
BIOENERGETICS FAILS TO ACCU-
RATELY DESCRIBE THE METABO-
LISM FOR HIGH-INTENSITY POWER.
THIS ARTICLE REEXAMINES THE
ROLE OF PHOSPHOCREATINE,
LACTATE PRODUCTION, AND THE
IMPORTANCE OF AEROBIC METAB-
OLISM DURING SHORT-TERM HIGH-
INTENSITY POWER PERFORMANCE.
METABOLIC AND MECHANICAL
TESTS OF HIGH-INTENSITY POWER
HAVE EVOLVED IN THE PAST 40
YEARS. THE AUTHORS COMPARED
THE MAXIMAL ACCUMULATED
OXYGEN-DEFICIT MODEL VERSUS
THE CRITICAL POWER MODEL AND
SUMMARIZED THE RECENTLY
DEVELOPED 3-MINUTE ALL-OUT
EXERCISE TEST (3 MT). THE 3 MT
OFFERS THE STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING PROFESSIONAL A
SIMPLE METHOD OF ESTIMATING
AN ATHLETE’S TOLERANCE TO
HIGH-INTENSITY POWER EXERCISE.
Short inter-set rest blunts resistance exercise-inducedFernando Farias
Manipulating the rest-recovery interval between sets of resistance exercise may influence
training-induced muscle remodelling. The aim of this study was to determine the acute muscle
anabolic response to resistance exercise performed with short or long inter-set rest intervals.
In a study with a parallel-group design, 16 males completed four sets of bilateral leg-press and
knee-extension exercise at 75% of one-repetition maximum to momentary muscular failure,
followed by ingestion of 25 g of whey protein. Resistance exercise sets were interspersed by
1 min (n = 8) or 5 min of passive rest (n = 8). Muscle biopsies were obtained at rest, 0, 4, 24
and 28 h postexercise during a primed continuous infusion of l-[ring-13C6]phenylalanine to
determine myofibrillar protein synthesis and intracellular signalling.
Impact of the Nordic hamstring and hip extension exercises on hamstring archi...Fernando Farias
The architectural and morphological adaptations of the hamstrings in response to training
33 with different exercises have not been explored. PURPOSE: To evaluate changes in biceps
34 femoris long head (BFLH) fascicle length and hamstring muscle size following 10-weeks of
35 Nordic hamstring exercise (NHE) or hip extension (HE) training. METHODS: Thirty
36 recreationally active male athletes (age, 22.0 ± 3.6 years, height, 180.4 ± 7 cm, weight, 80.8 ±
37 11.1 kg) were allocated to one of three groups: 1) HE training (n=10), NHE training (n=10),
38 or no training (CON) (n=10). BFLH fascicle length was assessed before, during (Week 5) and
39 after the intervention with 2D-ultrasound. Hamstring muscle size was determined before and
40 after training via magnetic resonance imaging.
A tipologia da fibra muscular influencia substancialmente o tempo de recupera...FranciscoJulio12
1) The study investigated the effects of muscle fiber typology on fatigue and recovery following high-intensity exercise.
2) Thirty-two male athletes underwent proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy to estimate their muscle fiber typology as predominantly slow (ST) or fast (FT) based on calf muscle carnosine levels.
3) The ST and FT groups then performed repeated Wingate tests to induce fatigue. The FT group experienced greater power drop during exercise and had not fully recovered torque levels 5 hours later, while the ST group recovered within 20 minutes, indicating muscle fiber typology influences exercise-induced fatigue and recovery time.
A comparison of 2 circuit exercise training techniques igbenito777
This study compared the metabolic, heart rate, and perceived exertion responses to circuit resistance training (CRT) using either a multistation isoinertial exercise system (MultiGym) or a customized system using Thera-Band resistance bands (ElasticGym) in people with paraplegia. Sixteen men and one woman with chronic paraplegia completed familiarization and testing on both systems. There were no significant differences in average oxygen consumption or heart rate between the two systems. However, average ratings of perceived exertion were significantly higher when using the ElasticGym system. The results suggest that CRT using a customized ElasticGym elicits similar metabolic and heart rate responses but greater perceived exertion compared to
Acute cardiopulmonary and metabolic responses to high intensity interval trai...Fernando Farias
Results from the present study quantify the effects of altering either the intensity of the
work or the recovery interval when performing interval sessions consisting of 60s of work and
60s of recovery for multiple repetitions. The information provided may aid those interested in
designing interval training sessions by providing ranges of values that could be expected for
individuals who possess moderate levels of cardiopulmonary fitness. Using a work intensity of
80% or 100% VGO2peak and a recovery intensity of 0% or 50% VGO2peak, subjects were able to
exercise within the ACSM recommended range for exercise intensity. Based upon the data it
would appear that a protocol such as the 80/0 may be appropriate for those individuals who
are just beginning a program or have little experience with interval-type activity. By contrast, a
100/50 protocol could not be completed by all of the subjects and therefore may be too intense
for some individuals.
fatigue following a
soccer match is multifactorial and related to dehydration,
glycogen depletion, muscle damage and mental fatigue. A
multitude of recovery strategies are currently implemented
in professional soccer clubs to target these causes of fatigue.
Recovery strategies aimed at reducing acute inflammation
from muscle damage and enhancing its rate of removal are
particularly used in professional soccer settings.
EFFECTS OF STRENGTH TRAINING ON SQUAT AND SPRINT PERFORMANCE IN SOCCER PLAYERSFernando Farias
We have demonstrated that a simple in-season strength training program resulted in an improvement in maximal back squat performance, which was reflected in improve- ments in short sprint performance, as identified by a decrease in sprint time over 5, 10, and 20 m, in professional soccer players, in line with the hypotheses. Furthermore, the changes in relative 1RM squat strength demonstrate strong associations with the changes in 5 (r = 0.62), 10 (r = 0.78), and 20-m (r = 0.60) sprint performances.
1) A study investigated the effects of 22 weeks of periodized soccer training focused on technical-tactical ability in young players.
2) The training reduced markers of muscle damage (CK and LDH levels) over time and improved high-intensity performance and tactical metrics in games.
3) Players who saw greater reductions in muscle damage markers also had larger increases in high-intensity actions during games.
This study examined the effects of acute normobaric hypoxia on heart rate and mean arterial pressure in 8 healthy middle-aged males at rest, during exercise, and post-exercise. Participants underwent two trials - one with normoxia and exercise, and one with hypoxia at 12.5% oxygen and exercise. Heart rate and blood pressure were measured throughout. The results showed that hypoxia caused a greater increase in heart rate post-exercise compared to normoxia. Hypoxia also led to a larger decrease in blood pressure after exercise than normoxia. This suggests that normobaric hypoxia has differential hemodynamic effects compared to normoxia in middle-aged males at rest and after exercise.
This study aimed to compare quadriceps muscle activation and perceived exertion during the leg press and Smith machine squat exercises. The researchers measured muscle activation via EMG and perceived exertion ratings in athletes performing each exercise across a range of loads. They developed predictive equations to determine equivalent loads between exercises that produce the same muscle activation and perceived exertion. The muscle activation equation was less accurate due to individual variability, while the perceived exertion equation was more accurate as it reflects the overall exertion of each exercise rather than specific muscles. These equations provide a new tool to convert loads between exercises over a training period.
DAVID JANETT MA THESIS FINAL DRAFT PDFDavid Janett
This document is a literature review investigating the relationship between intra-abdominal pressure, spine stability, and force production during weightlifting. The review examines 28 studies on how breathing patterns and increased intra-abdominal pressure through breath holding can improve spine stability and potentially increase force production. Many studies found correlations between increased intra-abdominal pressure, greater muscle activation of trunk muscles, and improved spine stability. However, the relationship between intra-abdominal pressure, spine stability and actual force production requires more research due to flaws in previous study designs. More research is needed to draw stronger conclusions.
Russian Stimulation, Burst Mode Alternating Current (BMAC) and Aussie Stimula...ACN
Neurodyn Aussie Sport is electric current application equipment for applying electrical current via electrodes in direct contact with the patient. It is a transcutaneous neuromuscular stimulator which uses microcomputer technology, that is, it is controlled by a computer, and is operated by touch screen. All the information related to the parameters selected by the physiotherapist will be shown in the alphanumeric liquid crystal display.
Neurodyn Aussie Sport stimulator produces AUSSIE CURRENT (also called Australian Current), a “new generation” of electrical current for stimulation with some advantages on the traditional methods of stimulation (Russian, Interferential, TENS e FES). This technique is non-invasive, non-addictive, and without undesirable side effects.
http://ibramedusa.com/physical-rehabilitation/neurodyn-aussie-sport/
1107897 Christie Strength Training For EnduranceIain Christie
Strength training can improve some aspects of endurance performance such as lactate threshold, running economy, muscle strength and maximal oxygen consumption. However, there is conflicting evidence on whether concurrent strength and endurance training provides benefits over separate training. While some studies found improvements in endurance performance, others found concurrent training hindered gains that could be achieved through isolated training. Further research is still needed to determine the optimal combination of strength and endurance training.
The effects of muscle action, repetition duration, and loadingHumberto Gomes
1) The study examined the effects of 3 different 10-week resistance training programs (eccentric-only, repetition duration-accentuated eccentric, and traditional) on muscular performance and body composition in 59 trained males and females.
2) Testing before and after training included measures of muscular endurance, strength, and body composition. The training programs were matched for effort but varied the muscle actions, repetition durations, and loading strategies.
3) The results found no significant differences between groups for changes in muscular performance or body composition, except the traditional group saw greater improvements in arm muscular endurance compared to the eccentric-only groups. Effect sizes for muscular performance changes were moderate to large for all groups.
This document discusses a study investigating the relationship between single arm push-ups and punching impact. It provides background on how single arm push-ups can strengthen the core and upper body muscles important for punching. The literature review discusses how strength, plyometrics, and core training can influence punching ability. The purpose of the study is stated as investigating the relationship between the number of single arm push-ups performed and punching impact.
Muscle activation during various hamstring exercisesFernando Farias
The main findings of this investigation demonstrate that
there are significant differences in activation within muscles
when comparing all exercises. Although one might expect
similar activation for a given muscle for activities of similar
kinematics, such as the prone leg curl and glute-ham raise,
this is not the case with the data herein
Cargas baixas e altas-adaptações-ao-trein0-de-força-schoenfeld2017.pdfFrancisco de Sousa
High-load (over 60% of 1RM) and low-load (under 60% of 1RM) resistance training protocols were compared in terms of strength and hypertrophy adaptations. A meta-analysis of 21 studies found that gains in maximum strength were significantly greater with high-load training, while increases in muscle size were similar between high-load and low-load training. The findings indicate that maximum strength benefits most from heavy loads, but muscle hypertrophy can be achieved equally across a range of loading intensities.
Complete literature review (Joel Huskisson 641817)Joel Huskisson
Resistance training causes several muscle adaptations that can improve athletic performance. Muscle hypertrophy occurs through increases in both muscle fiber size (hypertrophy) and number (hyperplasia), though fiber hypertrophy has stronger evidence. Fiber hypertrophy varies by fiber type, with type II fibers showing greater increases. Fiber angle also increases in most studies, contributing to strength gains. Evidence for increases in fiber length and whole muscle size is mixed and dependent on training variables like load, velocity and volume. Neural adaptations provide initial strength improvements for untrained individuals.
The effect of instability training on knee joint proprioception and core stre...Fernando Farias
A general 10-week IT program utilizing Swiss balls and body mass as a resistance proved effective for improving knee proprioception as well as trunk flexion and extension strength in previously inactive individuals. The present study demonstrates that the use of body weight as a resis- tance under unstable conditions can provide significant improvements in knee proprioception (for as long as 9 months after training) and trunk strength for the untrained population that should contribute to general health and functionality.
Mechanics of the human hamstring muscles during sprintingFernando Farias
As peak musculotendon
force and strain for BF
LH
, ST, and SM occurred around the same time during terminal swing, it is suggested that this period in the
stride cycle may be when the biarticular hamstrings are at greatest injury risk. On this basis, hamstring injury prevention or rehabilitation
programs should preferentially target strengthening exercises that involve eccentric contractions performed with high loads at longer
musculotendon lengths.
This study investigated how localized muscle fatigue of the ankle plantarflexors affects spatial electromyography (EMG) patterns in the medial gastrocnemius muscle during walking and running. The researchers recorded high-density EMG from the medial gastrocnemius before and after subjects performed a calf raise task to induce fatigue. They found that after fatigue, peak EMG activity decreased but mean power frequency increased during locomotion. Additionally, the location of peak EMG shifted proximally compared to the pre-fatigue location, suggesting altered motor unit recruitment to distribute muscle loads. Despite these EMG changes, lower limb biomechanics were similar before and after fatigue.
The document is a review article about the perception of effort in exercise science. It discusses how perception of effort, also known as perceived exertion, is an important cognitive feeling associated with voluntary physical and mental exertion. While perception of effort is commonly used in exercise science research, the review argues that its definition often includes other unrelated sensations. The review provides a narrowed definition of perception of effort as solely the feeling of work during exercise. It also discusses models that aim to explain the neurophysiology of perception of effort and provides perspectives for future research.
1. The document discusses the role of group III and IV muscle afferents, which are thin fiber nerve endings located within skeletal muscle, in influencing the human body during endurance exercise.
2. It finds that these muscle afferents increase their firing rate with the onset of exercise, projecting information to various sites in the central nervous system. This neural feedback is vital for cardiovascular and ventilatory responses that support endurance exercise by regulating muscle perfusion and oxygen delivery.
3. The document also reports that group III and IV muscle afferents facilitate "central fatigue" during exercise by exerting inhibitory influences on central motor drive that reduce voluntary muscle activation over time.
Biomechanical Analysis of The Complete Core ConditionerBrandon Hossack
This study analyzed the Complete Core Conditioner machine to see if it provided an increase in core exercise intensity over traditional floor exercises. 9 subjects performed 3 core exercises (prone leg raise, supine crunch, supine leg crunch) on both the machine and floor while motion capture recorded range of motion and velocity. The results showed that the machine provided a statistically significant increase in range of motion but no change in velocity compared to floor exercises. Therefore, the machine effectively increased exercise intensity through a higher range of motion. However, more research is needed to validate long term benefits.
This letter discusses a recent study that examined the effects of ischemic preconditioning (IPC) on pulmonary oxygen uptake and muscle deoxygenation kinetics during exercise. The study found that IPC increased exercise time to exhaustion and changed muscle deoxygenation kinetics, but did not change pulmonary oxygen uptake kinetics. However, the letter notes limitations in the study's analysis of pulmonary oxygen uptake kinetics due to using a single exercise transition, and questions how normalization of muscle deoxygenation data could impact results. The letter also discusses inconsistencies in how IPC affects muscle deoxygenation across studies. In summary, the letter provides commentary on a study regarding IPC and exercise, noting limitations and raising questions about data analysis and comparisons
Efeito do Alongamento Estático Agudo no Máximo Desempenho MuscularFernando Farias
This systematic review examined 106 studies on the effect of acute static stretching on maximal muscle performance. The main findings were:
1) Stretch durations of 30 seconds or less had no detrimental effect on performance, with a pooled estimate of a 1.1% reduction.
2) Stretch durations of 30-45 seconds also showed no significant performance effects, with a pooled estimate of a 1.9% reduction.
3) There was strong evidence that stretch durations of 60 seconds or more were likely to significantly reduce performance, in a sigmoidal dose-response relationship between stretch duration and performance decrements.
4) Performance task, contraction mode, or muscle group did not influence the dose-response relationship between
2 Brain activation and exhaustion - Kilty et al 2011-annotated.pdfJorgeSilva638591
1) The study investigated how communication between the mid/anterior insular cortex and motor cortex changes during a fatiguing cycling exercise using electroencephalography (EEG).
2) Results showed that lagged phase synchronization, a measure of intracortical communication, significantly increased between the mid/anterior insular cortex and motor cortex at the end of the fatiguing cycling exercise compared to the beginning.
3) Lagged phase synchronization returned to baseline levels during a recovery cycling period after subjects stopped exercising, indicating the increased communication was specific to the fatigued state.
This study analyzed muscle activation in the legs during different variations of the leg press exercise performed at submaximum effort levels. Fourteen women performed three types of leg presses - 45° leg press, high leg press, and low leg press - at 40% and 80% of their maximum weight capacity. Electromyography was used to measure activation of the rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, biceps femoris, gastrocnemius, and gluteus maximus muscles. The results showed that mechanical changes from the different exercises affected muscle activation levels in a load-dependent manner. At moderate effort levels, the rectus femoris and gastrocnemius muscles showed greater activation during the 45° leg press and low
This study analyzed muscle activation in the legs during different variations of the leg press exercise at submaximum effort levels. Fourteen women performed three variations of the leg press - 45° leg press, high leg press, and low leg press - at 40% and 80% of their maximum weight. Electromyography was used to measure muscle activation in the rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, biceps femoris, gastrocnemius, and gluteus maximus muscles. The results showed that mechanical changes and load levels affected muscle activation patterns. At moderate effort, the rectus femoris and gastrocnemius were more active in the 45° and low leg presses compared to the high leg press. At high
Similar to THEAPPLICATIONOFCOMPLEXTRAININGFORTHEDEVELOPMENTOFEXPLOSIVEPOWER (20)
1. 1
THE APPLICATION OF COMPLEX TRAINING FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF
EXPLOSIVE POWER
Brad McGregor (MSptSc
Abstract
The ever-increasing emphasis that is placed on athleticism and sporting success
has led scientists to investigate numerous training methods that can have a
positive effect on performance. One such method that has received significant
attention is complex training (CT).
This method of alternating heavy and light resistances has the end goal of
improving power output. In their recent review of complex training Docherty et al.
(6) credit Verhoshansky with early work in this field as far back as 1973. Although
this was one of the first publications on the topic, one suspects that the Soviets
(and possibly other eastern bloc countries) may have been using complex
loading as a training tool for some time.
Researchers that have found CT to be beneficial credit a post-activation
potentiation (PAP) as the major physiological factor. Docherty et al. (6) explain
that the explosive capability of a muscle is enhanced after it has undergone
maximal (or near maximal) contractions.
Although some studies have not found any benefit from performing this type of
training, the majority of research has supported it’s application as a tool to
enhance expression of muscular power and explosiveness. However as with
most relatively new training techniques, there is a need for more long-term
studies. More work also needs to be done to determine the optimal combination
of training variables for different sports and those with varying training ages.
2. 2
Definitions of CT
There is still some debate on exactly what constitutes CT. Fleck and Konter (11)
quoted Verhoshansky’s simplistic definition as a series of exercises formed in
succession with a goal of improving one physical characteristic. He went on to
say that these exercises where designed to improve “explosiveness.” Examples
of Verhoshansky’s complexes include:
Back squats with depth jumps
Kettle bell jumps with standing long jumps
Push off and knee lift with 30m sprints.
Ebben and Watts (10) completed a review of literature on CT in 1998 and
expanded on Verhoshansky’s explanation. They defined CT as alternating
“biomechanically comparable high-load weight training and plyometric exercises
in the same workout” (p 18). The example of CT cited in this study was bench
press and medicine ball power drop. Interestingly, the same authors state that at
the time only one study had examined CT although it was widely practiced.
In 2002 Duthie et al. (7) described CT as “various sets of groups/complexes of
exercises performed in a manner in which several sets of a heavy resistance
exercise are followed by sets of a lighter resistance exercise” (p 530). These
authors also mention the term “contrast loading” and define this as “the use of
exercises of contrasting loads, that is, alternating heavy and light exercises set
for set” (p 530). Of all the articles referenced in the current review, this was the
only paper to mention contrast loading suggesting that more research needs to
be done comparing these two training methods. It is possible that some authors
may have indeed been investigating contrast training while referring to it as CT.
Docherty et al. (6) define CT similarly to Ebben and Watts (10) as “the execution
of a resistance-training exercise using a heavy load (1-5RM) followed relatively
quickly by the execution of a biomechanically similar plyometric exercise” (p 52).
According to Duthie et al. (7) this definition is referring to contrast training!
3. 3
In recent times it appears as though the invent of contrast training is the source
of some confusion amoung scientists investigating the CT phenomenon. As
further research is conducted this issue will no doubt be clarified.
Physiology
Verhoshansky is acknowledged throughout the literature as being one of the first
authors to publish on CT. In 1986 a paper written by Fleck and Konter (11)
outline Verhoshansky’s explanation of the CT phenomenon:
“Professor Verhoshansky used the example of the perception of lifting a half-full
can of water when you think it’s full. The excitability of the central nervous system
responds in such a way that the water literally flies in the air because of the force
applied. It is because if the body thinks it has to do more heavy work, so it
remembers what is necessary to lift the full can and reacts accordingly” (p 66).
This “fooling” of the nervous system has been expanded upon in recent times to
offer 2 proposed mechanisms for post activation potentiation (PAP). Docherty et
al. (6) explain the first of these theories as enhanced “motor-neuron pool
excitability” (p 53). Specifically, a greater neural effect is the result of any/all of
the following:
Better motor-unit recruitment
Enhanced motor-unit synchronisation
Greater central input to the motor neuron
Decrease in presynaptic inhibition.
The same authors also propose that PAP may be produced by local muscle
changes such as phosphorylation of the myosin light chain. This process is
explained by heavy exercise increasing the amount of Ca2+
in the sarcoplasmic
reticulum, and the sensitivity of the myofilaments to Ca2+
. Essentially more Ca2+
at a cellular level enables more ATP to be produced, which in turn enhances
power production. The authors of this study do not comment on whether they
believe these local mechanisms are trainable or simply transient alterations.
4. 4
Ebben and Watts (10) completed a review of complex training in 1998 and
offered several explanations for PAP, listing the following possible factors
Neuromuscular
Hormonal
Metabolic
Myogenic
Psychomotor.
However only neuromuscular mechanisms are discussed in any detail, which
may mean that the other factors were either not well understood at the time
and/or were not supported in the literature. These authors also mention that the
fatigue associated with heavy weight training may increase motor-unit
recruitment during subsequent plyometric exercise. At this point it is important to
note that more recent literature (6) tends to emphasise neural stimulation rather
than fatigue when referring to PAP.
Ebben and Watts (10) also cite a study by Fees in 1997 that attributes PAP to the
reciprocal inhibition around a joint caused by agonist stimulation. That is, a heavy
bench press minimises any restrictive contraction of the rhomboids (antagonist)
for the subsequent plyometric exercise. However it is known that this inhibition
occurs within the first month of training for inexperienced lifters anyway. Whether
this effect can be maximised in experienced trainers through CT has not yet been
determined.
McBride et al. (18) and Gourgoulis et al. (12) also support the neural activation
theories proposed by Docherty et al. (6). The former expand by proposing that
CT training may increase neurotransmitter release in afferent nerves. They also
reviewed several articles indicating that fast-twitch (FT) dominant muscles
produce greater potentiation.
5. 5
Dan Baker has published prolifically on the topic of CT and he mentions some
alternate mechanisms to explain PAP. His 2003 paper (1) mentioned the series
elastic component of the musculo-tendinous unit as a possible contributor. He
commented that a resistance of 65% of 1repetition maximum (1RM) would
favourably increase stiffness but heavier resistances (85-90% 1RM) would not be
optimal. However one would wonder if 65% of 1RM would be sufficient to
achieve enough neural stimulation that is the main producer of PAP as outlined
in articles reviewed thus far (6,10,18,12). Training age and experience with CT
would no doubt be factors that would influence the optimal intensity to achieve
optimal PAP.
Baker (1) also suggests that the golgi-tendon organ (GTO) and Renshaw cell
activation may be reduced as a result of a heavy stimulus applied to a muscle.
Inhibition of these structures would prove advantageous considering their role in
monitoring and limiting maximal motor-unit activation as a protective mechanism.
However as has been mentioned, the reduction of feedback from these inhibitory
structures can be seen in the first month of training in novices. Whether this
inhibition is enhanced to a greater degree through CT has yet to be confirmed.
To summarise, the primary mechanisms for PAP appear to occur at a neural
level and relate to a reduction of inhibition and enhanced motor unit excitability.
Most authors acknowledge that local muscle factors may contribute to PAP but
the literature is not extensive in comparison to neural factors.
Upper body and lower body studies
Quite a number of studies have been done investigating the effect of the squat
exercise on subsequent vertical jump performance (7,11,12,14,15,17-19,21,22).
Obviously the investigation of this “pair” of exercises is to do with their
biomechanical similarity, a prerequisite that was outlined by Verhoshansky in
1973 (11).
6. 6
Several studies reviewed concluded that CT enhanced subsequent expression of
lower-body power (7,12,17,21,22). Duthie at al. (7) used 11 women to compare
complex and contrast training methods through squats and jump squats. They
found that contrast training did increase power output (although this was non-
significant) but only for those with high strength levels. Gourgoulis et al. (12)
published similar findings through their investigation of vertical jump ability.
Subjects with greater maximal strength improved vertical jump by 4.01% after
performing 5 x 2 half squats from 20-80% of 1RM. Those with lower strength
levels only improved by 0.42%. However the authors in this study didn’t specify
the training age of participants, merely stating that they were “physically active.”
McBride et al. (17) conducted an 8-week training program on 26 subjects who
performed jump squat training at either 30% or 80% of 1RM. They found that the
30% group improved peak power and peak velocity at all intensities (30, 55 and
80% of 1RM). This group also improved 1RM and 20m-sprint time indicating a
transfer to a sport-specific activity. Interestingly the group that trained at 80% of
1RM improved peak power and peak velocity at higher intensities (55 and 80% of
1RM) and increased 1RM, however 20m sprint times were significantly slower.
This then suggests that to transfer gym-based power to a sport specific activity
(such as a 20m sprint) lighter resistances should be used. However it should be
pointed out that this study did not employ CT or contrast training, making
comparison with other studies cited in this review difficult.
Similarly Tricoli et al. (21) investigated the effect of olympic style weightlifting
exercises compared to plyometric training. They found that the olympic lifts were
more effective at improving squat jump, 10m sprint and vertical jump. The
subjects in this study were all physical education students who underwent 3
months of lower body specific training prior to the study and all were experienced
weight trainers.
7. 7
Although neither of these studies (17 and 21) used CT, their results indicate that
a stimulus greater than plyometrics but less than 80% of 1RM is required to
achieve a positive transfer to field-based activities such as sprinting.
Smilios et al. (22) found a short-term increase in countermovement jump
occurred when intensities of 30% and 60% of 1RM was applied in the form of
either a heavy squat or jump squat. Their subjects all had a training age of 2-3
years and participated in sports requiring explosiveness such as basketball,
volleyball and soccer. The fact that the improvements were quite similar for vastly
differing stimuli (heavy squat v’s jump squat and 30% v’s 60% of 1RM) suggests
that for experienced trainers, a wide range of variables will provide a subsequent
enhancement of power. Other investigators (7,12) also discovered that the most
significant power gains occurred in those with higher strength levels.
Upper-body CT has not received as much attention as lower-body but some
interesting findings exist nonetheless. In 2003 Baker (1) found that a set of bench
press performed at 65% of 1RM improved bench press throw by 4.5%. In 2005
Baker and Newton (4) investigated the effect of an agonist-antagonist complex
series. That is, subjects were tested on bench press throws but the experimental
group performed bench pulls (antagonist) between tests. The experimental group
improved by 4.7% in post-testing. In both of Baker’s studies (1,4) subjects were
professional rugby league players who were experienced in strength and power
training methods.
However not all studies have found a positive effect with upper-body CT.
Hrysomallis et al. (13) found that 5 reps of 5RM bench press did not improve
power produced from an explosive push up on a force platform. Subjects had an
average training age of 3.1 years. Ebben et al. (9) used EMG and kinetic analysis
to conclude that a set of 3-5RM bench press did not increase ground reaction
force or EMG when performing subsequent medicine ball throws. This study
used basketball players experienced in weights and plyometric training.
8. 8
Brandenburg (5) found that a set of bench press at varying intensities (100%,
75% or 50% of 5RM) did not have a positive effect on bench press throws. This
study only used 8 subjects, some of which had limited exposure to power training
(no subjects had performed bench press throws previously). The author also only
used average power as a measure over 3 throws (not peak power), and indicates
that this may have influenced the results.
It should be noted that all of these studies used high intensity interventions
(5RM) with subjects not experienced with strength/power training (with the
exception of Ebben et al.). Therefore one must consider that fatigue may have
still been evident when the post-testing was conducted. The variable of recovery
will be discussed in greater detail in the next section.
Analysis of both upper and lower body CT studies reveal that lower-body CT
appears to be more effective at improving power expression, although more
research has been done in this area. It also appears that subjects need to
posses a sound strength base and training age to demonstrate an increase in
power production.
Suggested training variables
Throughout the work done on CT, the manipulation of training variables appears
to have a significant impact on the magnitude of PAP and resultant increase in
power production. Of particular importance appear to be the variables of training
intensity and recovery.
9. 9
Exercise mode is not a very controversial discussion point, as most authors
have advocated the use of biomechanically similar activities for CT. The most
common examples being bench press-bench throw and squat-squat jump. The
theory being that PAP is more pronounced if the heavy exercise stimulates the
same (or similar) neural pathways to the power exercise. However Baker (4)
experimented with the use of a heavy antagonistic exercise (bench pulls) and
found a significant increase in bench throw power (4.7%).
This then suggests that the contrasting activities do not need to be as
biomechanically similar as has been previously suggested. Of course more work
of this nature needs to be done even though the same author found that a
“typical” contrast using bench press – bench throws yielded a similar power
increase of 4.5%. Perhaps with trained individuals, the variables of intensity and
recovery are more important than the mode of exercise?
Intensity of the “heavy” exercise is more varied in the literature ranging from
30% of 1RM (22) to 90% of 1RM (18). The use of 5RM is common
(5,14,13,15,19), however a landmark study by Gullich and Schmidtbleicher [cited
in Docherty et al. (6)] found that 3-5 maximum voluntary isometric contractions
(MVIC) was “sufficient to increase explosive force in the upper and lower
extremities and could be used to enhance performance and training” (p 53).
However there has not been much subsequent support in the literature for the
use of MVIC’s.
As was mentioned previously, those athletes with higher initial strength levels
appear to gain more benefit from CT. Perhaps initial strength levels relate to the
ideal intensity that can be applied to gain maximal PAP? Baker has conducted
his work with elite level Rugby League players and has advocated the use of
intensities around 50-65% of 1RM. Smilios (22) found that for lower-level
(regional) athletes, at least 60% of 1RM should be applied for PAP.
10. 10
Those studies involving athletes that did not find a positive response from CT
used higher intensities of 3-5RM (7,9,14). This then suggests that lighter
intensities may produce a more positive response in athletic populations.
Recovery is another variable that has a significant impact on the success of CT.
PAP does operate in a certain “window” so if a further stimulus is applied too
soon, fatigue will be evident. However too much recovery will result in the
individual missing the window of opportunity, as the potentiation effect will have
subsided. Certainly more long-term studies are necessary to determine if trained
individuals can sustain this PAP effect for longer.
When comparing the literature, a wide range of rest intervals have been trialled
from 10 seconds up to 5 minutes. With his elite power-trained athletes, Baker
(1,4) found that 3 minutes rest between strength and power exercises revealed
that potentiation was still present. Smilios (22) also found a positive effect with 3
minutes recovery between strength sets (only 1 minute rest between contrast
sets). Several other authors applied 3 minute rest intervals (13, 15) but found no
positive effect using a CT protocol. However both of these studies were
conducted on non-elite subjects with small sample sizes (12 and 8 respectively).
In fact Jones and Lees (15) admit that greater power output was demonstrated
by their experimental group, even though the difference was not significant.
A number of studies have used 5-minute rest intervals (7,9,12,19) with varying
results. Duthie et al. (7) and Gourgoulis et al. (12) found that those with higher
strength levels showed greater PAP. However Scott and Docherty (19) and
Ebben at al. (9) did not show any evidence of PAP with 5 minutes recovery. It
should be noted that the former study (19) did not use athletes as subjects.
Brandenburg (5) used 4-minute recovery intervals and found no evidence of
PAP, however his subjects were only recreationally trained and did not allow use
of the stretch shortening cycle during testing.
11. 11
Jensen and Ebben (14) investigated a number of recovery intervals from 10
seconds to 4 minutes. They found no positive response to CT but do speculate
as to whether results would have been different with a recovery period greater
than 4 minutes. It was noted that a 10 second recovery period had a negative
effect on subsequent power output.
There is no doubt that the degree of potentiation is related to individual factors
such as strength levels and training history with CT protocols. Therefore a trial
and error approach may be required to determine the optimal rest interval for
different athletes across different sports. Looking at the literature, 3-5 minutes of
recovery does appear reasonable for most athletic populations.
Volume of the intervention is another important variable that may influence the
degree of PAP. Those studies that examined higher-volume (more than 1 set)
strength exercises all demonstrated improved power output (7,12,22). However 2
of these studies (7,12) commented that a more pronounced effect occurred with
stronger athletes. Fleck and Konter (11) also commented that Verhoshansky
utilised 2 sets of a strength exercise to get a positive response, and it may be
assumed that he was working with elite athletes who possessed greater strength
levels.
Many studies (1,4,5,9,13,14,15,18,19) have examined a lower-volume (1 set) of
strength exercises, and reported mixed results. A number of studies did not find
any improvement in subsequent power production after 1 set of a heavy strength
exercise (5,9,13,14,15,19), which may suggest that athletes may need more than
1 set to achieve the neural stimulation associated with PAP. However 3 studies
(1,4,18) found that 1 set was sufficient to achieve a positive response, and all of
these examined gridiron or rugby league athletes.
12. 12
Therefore the jury still appears to be out as to whether a single-set or multiple
sets are necessary to achieve PAP. Due to the inverse relationship that exists
between volume and intensity, one may assume that CT protocols using a single-
set of strength exercises would do so at a greater percentage of 1RM.
Periodisation of CT
If the coach has decided to implement CT for the physical preparation of his/her
athletes, the next decision is when to use this form of training. Most of the studies
that did not find a positive result with CT (5,9,14,15), commented that this form of
training had no adverse effect on subsequent power output and could be used as
a means of maximising available training time. Therefore it appears that, at
worst, CT could effectively be used during phases of the season where training
efficiency is important, such as the competitive phase.
Ebben et al. (8) and Simenz et al. (20) conducted surveys of major league
baseball and national basketball association strength and conditioning coaches.
Understandably coaches were not willing to discuss the specifics of their training
programs, but many did indicate that they used CT (7/21 coaches for baseball
and 12/20 for basketball). Similarly, 8/21 baseball and 9/20 basketball coaches,
reported that they used plyometric training year-round. From these statistics we
cannot say that all of these coaches used CT throughout the year, but they do
indicate that CT is implemented at different stages of the training year.
Traditional methods of periodisation suggest that power training should be
emphasised when attaining a peak, which typically occur at the start of the
competitive season and for finals. Therefore CT is most likely to be utilised during
the specific-preparation phase and as part of the lead-up to end of season
games in team sports. However individual sports that do not compete on such a
consistent basis may incorporate CT more regularly as a part of their build-up for
major events.
13. 13
Conclusion
The evolution of training methods in recent times has resulted in increasing
scientific investigation into methods such as CT. Proponents of this training
method have stated that the main physiological response is an increase in PAP
which enables increased power production for the plyometric activity. Although
studies conducted thus far have not reached a consensus, it does appear that
CT can play an important role in athletic training for increasing power production
and/or maximising training efficiency.
More studies are required to determine the optimal variables for CT but in the
meantime, coaches are encouraged to experiment with the key training variables
of volume, intensity and recovery to develop a model that is suited to their sport
and athletes. Strong consideration must also be given to the initial strength levels
of the athlete/s and experience with power training methods. These two factors
appear to be prerequisites for significant increases in power production.
Suprisingly there has been minimal investigation on the effect of CT using
biomechanically unrelated exercises. It would be interesting to see if lower body
strength exercises would result in PAP in the upper body and vice versa. Baker
has already demonstrated that the use of an antagonist strength exercise can
augment power production (4) for the bench press throw. Such work should
provide a strong basis for scientists wishing to further investigate this
phenomenon.
14. 14
References
1. Baker, D., (2003) Acute effect of alternating heavy and light resistances on
power output during upper-body complex power training. Journal of
Strength and Conditioning Research 17 (3) p493-497.
2. Baker, D., (2003) Acute negative effect of a hypertrophy-oriented training
bout on subsequent upper-body power output. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 17 (3) p527-530.
3. Baker, D. and Newton, R.U., (2005) Methods to increase the effectiveness
of maximal power training for the upper body. Strength and Conditioning
Journal 27 (6) p24-32.
4. Baker, D. and Newton, R.U. (2005) Acute effect on power output of
alternating an agonist and antagonist muscle exercise during complex
training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 19 (1) p202-205.
5. Brandenburg, J. (2005) The acute effects of prior dynamic resistance
exercise using different loads on subsequent upper-body explosive
performance in resistance-trained men. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 19 (2) p427-432.
6. Docherty, D., Robbins, D. and Hodgson, M. (2004) Complex training
revisited: a review of its current status as a viable training approach.
Strength and Conditioning Journal 26 (6) p52-57.
7. Duthie, G.M., Young, W.B. and Aitken, D.A. (2002) The acute effects of
heavy loads on jump squat performance: an evaluation of the complex
and contrast methods of power development. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 16 (4) p530-538.
8. Ebben, W.B., Hintz, M.J. and Simenz, C.J. (2005) Strength and
conditioning practices of major league baseball strength and conditioning
coaches. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 19 (3) p538-546.
9. Ebben, W.P., Jensen, R.L. and Blackard, D.O. (2000) Electromyographic
and kinetic analysis of complex training variables. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 14 (4) p451-456.
15. 15
10.Ebben, W.P. and Watts, P.B. (1998) A review of combined weight training
and plyometric training modes: complex training. Strength and
Conditioning Journal 20 (5) p18-27.
11.Fleck, S. and Konter, K. (1986) Complex training. Strength and
Conditioning Journal 8 (5) p66-68.
12.Gourgoulis, V., Aggeloussis, N., Kasimatis, P., Mavromatis, G. and Garas,
A. (2003) Effect of a submaximal half squats warm-up program on vertical
jumping ability. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 17 (2)
p342-344.
13.Hrysomallis, C. and Kidgell, D. (2001) Effect of heavy dynamic resistance
exercise on acute upper-body power. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 15 (4) p426-430.
14.Jensen, R.L. and Ebben, W.P. (2003) Kinetic analysis of complex training
rest interval on vertical jump performance. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 17 (2) p345-349.
15.Jones, P. and Lees, A. (2003) A biomechanical analysis of the acute
effects of complex training using lower limb exercises. Journal of Strength
and Conditioning Research 17 (4) p694-700.
16.Kotzamanidis, C., Chatzopoulos, D., Michailidis, C., Papaiakovou, G. and
Patikas, D. (2005) The effect of a combined high-intensity strength and
speed training program on the running and jumping ability of soccer
players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 19 (2) p369-375.
17.McBride, J.M., Triplett-McBride, T., Davie, A. and Newton, R.U. (2002)
The effect of heavy v’s light-load jump squats on the development of
strength, power and speed. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 16 (1) p75-82.
18.McBride, J.M., Nimphius, S. and Erickson, T.M. (2005) The acute effects
of heavy-load squats and loaded countermovement jumps on sprint
performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 19 (4) p893-
897.
16. 16
19.Scott, S.L. and Docherty, D. (2004) Acute effects of heavy preloading on
vertical and horizontal jump performance. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 18 (2) p201-205.
20.Simenz, C.J., Dugan, C.A. and Ebben, W.P. (2005) Strength and
conditioning practices of national basketball association strength and
conditioning coaches. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 19
(3) p495-504.
21.Tricoli, V., Lamas, L., Carnevale, R. and Ugrinowitsch, C. (2005) Short-
term effects on lower-body functional power development: weightlifting v’s
vertical jump training programs. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 19 (2) p433-437.
22.Smilios, I., Pilianidis, T., Sotiropoulos, K., Antonakis, M. and Tokmakidis,
S.P. (2005) Short-term effects of selected exercise and load in contrast
training on vertical jump performance. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 19 (1) p135-139.