The plays As You Like It and Gallathea are a defense of theater in opposition to Puritan’s critics such as Philip Stubbes. Puritans have been against Shakespeare who argued contends the cross-dressing that was explored during Elizabethan period.

1. The Unjust Use of
Authority in As You like It
and Gallathea,
and in a Wider Context

2. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
As per Oxford dictionary, (2014) Authority is the power or right to give orders,
making decisions, and enforce obedience. Authority is the power to influence
others, especially because of one’s commanding manner or one has recognized
knowledge about something. In William Shakespeare’s As You Like It and John
Lyly’s Gallathea both poets artfully incorporate two completely different worlds,
one that is filled with injustice, corruption, lavishness and constant covetousness
for power (court) and the other world is an example of justice, chastity, altruism
and simplicity.
Frye (1957) calls this a ‘green world’, a place in which characters have the freedom
of exploring their own desires and escaping the harsh city life and authority
abusing power. The Elizabethan’s theatre, usually placed outside of the city limits,
impersonates the ‘green world’ which allows for the alleviation of the audience's
frustrations towards authority in that they are using the theatre as a means to
release their anxieties through the action and characters of the play (Locklear,
2014; Shakespeare & Company, 2007).

3. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
The plays As You Like It and Gallathea are a defence of theatre in opposition to
Puritan’s critics such as Philip Stubbes. Puritans have been against Shakespeare who
argued contends the cross-dressing that was explored during Elizabethan period.
Both plays are critical of authority and its unjust acts invested in religion and politics
in Elizabethan England (Montrose, 2006). Furthermore, both plays As You Like It and
Gallathea critically examine the abuse of patriarchy by highlighting the issues of the
family’s corruption, usurping someone’s social title, and banishing family members
only to acquire power that is more authoritative.
Rasmussen (2007) in the play As You Like It, the court is a decaying and broken
world where even close relatives fight to acquire authority in unjust and unlawful
acts. As his younger brother the new duke; and three exiles, the elderly duke or four
loving lords have put themselves into intentional banishment with him, whose lands
and revenues enrich the new duke; therefore, he gives them good leave to wander.
Duke Frederick, one of the play’s villains, banished his own brother and took over his
place on the throne, usurping his brother’s place in the society and simultaneously
stealing his well-deserved title.

4. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
Two plays does not show that Patriarchy is a political-social system that does not
work as unison neither it focuses that males are naturally dominating, greater to
every individual (Hooks, 2007). Everything, which is believed to be weak in front of
males especially females and males are gifted with the right to rule on the weak
and to sustain that supremacy through various forms of authority is denied by
giving rights to women. However, in both plays, it is showed that the political
system is instable because of Women’s actions (Dusinberre, 2005).
Duke Frederick has ostracised not only his own brother, Duke Senior, but also his
followers into a life of exile for his own hunger for power and ambition.
Furthermore, Duke Frederick not only banished his own brother from the court,
but later he also expatriated his niece Rosalind. This banishment was triggered by
the fear that Rosalind was more popular and praised by the Duke’s subjects than
his own daughter Celia as her very silence, her patience spoke to the citizens, and
they pity her. Thou art a fool. She robs thee of thy name (p. 485, ln71-73).

5. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
According to Rasmussen (2010) even though Rosalind is more popular, Celia’s
voice at court is grown-up and more realistic; the voice of authority and merry
competence in comparison with Rosalind’s uncertain and unstable start.
Additionally Rosalind’s popularity was very inconvenient for Duke Frederick. The
power was his only concern and Celia was the extension of his authority.
Therefore, to maintain her public appeal he was forced to move Rosalind out of
the way.
By the end of the play, we see Duke’s transformation that was probably influenced
by the fact that during the Elizabethan period, the monarch was considered to be
chosen by god. Usurping someone’s position in the family hierarchy was a violent
act against the social and domestic rules; furthermore, it was the act against
Puritan’s authority (Archer, 2006). To avoid being considered unholy, Duke had to
justly return what he stole. Thus for critics: ‘Duke Frederick’s sudden
metamorphosis seems more implausible’ (Morrissin, 1996).

6. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
What Shakespeare pointed out in As You Like It is that a lot of authoritative abuse
stems from domestic relationships and lineage. Orlando is another victim of an
unlawful mistreatment involving his own family. His older brother Oliver abuses
his authority of being the elder male sibling. The brother tyrant controls Orlando’s
inheritance while treating him as a peasant. Shakespeare outlines here the
problems of inheritance. The play emphasises that no human is immortal so time
is the biggest enemy: “And then, from hour to hour, we rot and rot” (Bate J.,
2010).
Michele Herman (1995) in Time as a Tool of Patriarchal Oppression in As You Like
It looks at the issues, saying that in order to protect authority when powerless to
overcome the force of time, it is important for patriarchal leaders to compensate
for the fact. This can be done by giving on wealth and privilege to their first- born
sons despite of whether they are the most deserving. While both the Duke and
Oliver restore their ill-gotten gains, Duke Fredrick entirely gives over his authority
but Oliver’s remains as the elder bother. However, in the same situation Rosalind
is banished from the court.

7. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
Rosalind is a Shakespearean heroine who when banished from court by her
uncle Duke Frederick, decides to disguised herself as a young, handsome boy,
Ganymede. This transformation was only possible in the green world (the
theatre) where women had the authority to live the way they desired
(Dekker & Pol., 2002). By doing so, Shakespeare used his authority as a writer
to challenge traditional taboo conceptions of cross-dressing that was
unconditionally forbidden by the Puritans. Moreover the Puritans demanded
a complete ban of theatrical plays and other entertainments that
experimented with the cross-dressing, as according to them, this was sinful
and represented a ‘moral decline of the country’ (Finley, 2003).

8. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
Queen Elizabeth used her authority to fight with this type of religious
organisation as even she evinced masculine character traits. Her independent
leadership brought her to the conclusion that she: ‘will have here but one
mistress and no master’ (Hibbert, 1990). Philip Stubbes, famous Puritan and
scholar, described his negative views of cross-dressing in Anatomy of Abuses
where he criticised those women who rebelled against his beliefs when
performing in ‘transvestite’ theatre. As out by Ed. Wells (2009) the apparel was
given as a symbol characteristic, to discern betwixt sex and sex, and therefore, for
one to dress in the apparel of another sex, is to join with the same, and to
contaminate the reality of his own kind.

9. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
Rosalind’s camouflage as a male character gave her the authority to influence
the other characters. By pretending to be someone else, Rosalind abused
Orlando’s trust towards her. Additionally, Rosalind abused the patriarchal power
by claiming the male authority when being women in a male disguise. Although
this was forbidden during Elizabethan period, it was justified by Shakespeare for
the purpose of a happier marriage. Nevertheless, Shakespeare's use of cross-
dressing is acceptable in that it is used ultimately to achieve a happy union and
places the female character into the role of wife by the play’s end.

10. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
However, where Shakespeare shows women authority, patriarchal tyranny was
one of the major issues that were touched upon by John Lyly in Gallathea (Lyly,
1902). In the play, the monster Agar is given the authority to collect the most
beautiful virgins for the god Neptune. The inhabitants have to live in constant
fear of being punished by the unpredictable god in case he will not acquire
what he desires. Not only do people have to strive and contend with the
tyrant’s wrath, Neptune particularly gave himself the right to refuse any other
willing candidates like Hebe, who wanted to sacrifice herself to save others:
‘take in this Virgine, whose want of beauty hath sauced her own life and
(destroyed) all yours’(Ed. Bond, 1902: p. 466,ln.59-60,). This sexist statement
substantiated that not only is Neptune self-reliant but his absolute authority
made him immoral and insensitive.

11. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
Cupid, the god of love, also used his authoritative power in mischievous ways.
Although his actions were not as dangerous and harmful as Neptune’s was, he
still abused that authority for his own pleasure. Since he is the god of love, he
has the authority to meddle and make nymphs fall in love with Lyly’s heroes,
Gallathea and Phillida, who at that time were still in disguises pretending to be
boys. This god’s actions were perceived as abnormal: “Any love encouraged by
Cupid, though, is exposed as false and unnatural in this play whereas in
contrast the love between Phillida and Gallathea is spontaneous, and in the
respect ‘natural (G.V. Stanivukovic, 2001). As Dooley argues here, love cannot
be forced on anyone, it has to be spontaneous, and otherwise it is not a real
feeling. Here Dooley mentions that authority is also used in making people fall
in love, where cupid is using authoritative power in playful ways (Shakespeare
& Cymbeline, 2005).

12. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
Additionally, in Lyly’s play two fathers, Tyterus and Mellebeus, separately forced
their daughters Gallathea and Phyllida to disguise themselves as men and hide
in the ‘green world’ to avoid being kidnapped by Agar. According to Phyllida’s
father, gender change is something that can be learned and definitely,
something that one can get used to: ‘Fear not Phyllida. Use will make it easy,
fear must make it necessary.’ (Ed. Bond, 1902: p.436, ln.22-23) Not only did
both fathers act against their daughters will, but they also transgressed, flouted,
and disobeyed the higher authority, Neptune. Gallathea is willing to adhere to
rules imposed by Neptune but also recognises her obligation to father as an
authoritative figure of the household (Orgel & Keilen, 2005).

13. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
Gallathea is a victim to both governmental and domestic authority, the father
forcing her to do something she deems indecent/unnatural where the former
lays claim on her life. Both patriarchal authorities are influential, but clearly,
Neptune who has the ultimate power over all the subjects. Neptune represents
here the upper class society whose ‘demands illustrate the brutal penalties that
may attend a flouting a patriarchal authority. As per Sinfield (2006) it is a play
about virginity versus rape, and monsters doing things to young women.
Unfortunately, in a patriarchal society, what influences people is the misogynistic
view of women as commodity, which causes them, being treated as ‘other’ or as
subjects of exchange. What makes it even more disturbing is the fact that it is
not clear what happens with the brutalized virgins and if their love survives.

14. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
The heroes’ gateway to love was difficult. In order to escape their brutal destiny,
both Gallathea and Phyllida were forced to cross-dress. Under male disguises,
not knowing the other’s true gender, they have been discovering and learning
from one another what it means to be a male. This play shows how in the course
of time their feelings for each other turned into love. Gallathea is the first
Renaissance play that explores lesbian relationships, which again was a taboo
topic and deeply forbidden in Protestant England. Again as with Shakespeare’s
As You Like It cross- dressing was negatively discussed and criticised especially by
Puritans who sought simplicity in the churches, and furthermore fought to ban
these theatrical performances that were exploring and discovering gender
changes (Love, 2003).

15. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
As per Babington, Noegeorgu and Googe, (1879) Philip Stubbes argued that
the women also there have dublets and Jerkins, and though this be a kind
of attire appropriate only to man, yet they blush not to wear it. As if they
could as well change their sex, & put on the kind of man, as they can wear
apparel assigned only to man, it is thought they would as verily become
men indeed. Therefore, these Women may not improperly be called
Hermaphroditi that is, Monsters of both kinds, half women, half men.

16. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
Men who dressed up as women and vice-versa were perceived as monsters that
set their faces against authority. What is interesting is the fact that in Lyly’s and
Shakespeare’s time women were not allowed on the theatrical stage which brings
up the further issue of the tangled gender plots on the stage such as women
pretending to be a men were actually men, and men pretending to be women
were also men. Grace Tiffany (1995) in Erotic Beasts and Social Monsters argued
that cross-dressing explodes gender categories by illuminating stereotypically
male behaviour as fictive role-play, performable by either sex. Although this
statement was directed specifically to Rosalind in As You Like It, it can also apply to
Gallathea, where both heroines were successfully able to play the role of, and
transform into, male characters.

17. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
Furthermore, in the same way as in Shakespeare’s play, the cross -dressing was
only possible on stage, where the actors and audience could benefit from the
green world’s freedom. Critics have re-imagined the cross-dressing concept on
Elizabethan stage as it is a phenomena which is always inside the patriarchal
systems; either particular instance of cross-dressing are understood as
transgressive or reaffirming patriarchal power which however becomes
inevitable described only in respect to patriarchy (Jean Howard, 2000).

18. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
This play not only touched upon the cross-dressing controversy but also
that of homosexual love. Its plot tangles together both sexual
inquisitiveness and gender identity. Lyly makes a clear statement in the
play that homosexual love is forbidden: ‘I would not wish to be a woman
unless it was because thou art a man’ (Ed. Bond, 1902: p.449, ln.7-8).
Although this homosexual couple was destined to fail, by the end of the
play the goddess Venus suggests the alternative solution of
metamorphosis. She advised that their relationship could be saved if one
of them is changed into a man. Interestingly, Venus’s matriarchal authority
wins over the patriarchal tyranny of both fathers who disagreed with
goddess’ decision.

19. CHAPTER: LITERATURE REVIEW
Nevertheless, metamorphosis was suggested as the only solution to save their
homosexual relationship, which again proved that in order for the relationship to
succeed it is necessary to join opposite sexes together and not the same.
Additionally, the never seen transformation leaves the audience to question
whether the sex change will actually happen. The ending controverts authority’s
legitimacy, and leaves the audience with the possibility of a broken promise.
In both plays, Shakespeare and Lyly used their authority as writers to criticise the
misuse of power like Stubbes, which in the wrong hands becomes a curse for the
authority’s subjects (Gosson, 2000). The plays As You Like It and Gallathea were
written to release social anxieties caused by the misuse of patriarchal, religious,
domestic and social norms. Regimented people affected by injustice could find
comfort and freedom in the ‘green world’ where they could contemplate their
misery. The Elizabethan theatre became the asylum for those seeking something
that for authorities was considered as unholy and therefore was forbidden.

20. References
A. Sinfield, 2006. Shakespeare, Authority, Sexuality: Unfinished Business in Cultural Materialism. 1st
ed. Routledge: Oxon.
Archer, I., 2006. The Pursuit of Stability: social relations in Elizabethan. London: Cambridge.
Babington, G..N. & Googe, B., 1879. Phillip Stubbes's Anatomy of the Abuses in England in
Shakspere's Youth. 1st ed. England: New Shakespere society.
Bate J., R.E., 2010. William Shakespeare As You Like It. 1st ed. England: Macmillan Publishers LTD.
Dekker, R.M. & Pol., L.C.V.d., 2002. The Tradition of Female Transvestitism in Early Modern Europe.
New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Dusinberre, J., 2005. Shakespeare and the Nature of Women. 2nd ed. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Finley, G., 2003. Puritan; past, present, and future. [Online] Available at:
http://endtimepilgrim.org/puritans.htm.
Frye, N., 1957. Anatomy of criticism: Four essays. NJ: Princeton University Press.
G.V. Stanivukovic, 2001. Ovid and the Renaissance Body. 1st ed. Canada: University of Toronto Press
Incorporated.
Gosson, S., 2000. Against Poets and Pipers: from The School of Abuse.
Herrman, M., 1995. Time as a Tool of Patriarchal Oppression in As You Like It. [Online] Available at:
http://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article=1061&context=rev.

21. References
Hibbert, C., 1990. The Virgin Queen: A Personal History of Elizabeth. 1st ed. USA: Viking Penguin.
Hooks, B., 2007. Understanding Patriarchy. Louisville Anarchist Federation.
Jean Howard, 2000. The Stage and Social Struggle in Early Modern England. New York: Routledge.
Locklear, S., 2014. As You like It. [Online] Available at: http://www.enotes.com/topics/as-you-like-
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http://www.pbs.org/shakespeare/glossary/glossary274.html.
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Montrose, L.A., 2006. Purpose of Playing: Shakespeare and the cultural politics of the Elizabethan
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Morrissin, M., 1996. As You like It (MaxNotes). 1st ed. USA: Research and Education Association.
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22. Thank You
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