The document explores various philosophical concepts related to truth, knowledge, belief, and reasoning. It discusses theories of truth, the nature of propositions and claims, methods of evaluating truth, and the significance of critical thinking in philosophical inquiry. Additionally, the document outlines different forms of reasoning and common fallacies that can undermine arguments.

1. Methods of
Philosophizing

2. Unscramble Letters
Direction. Unscramble the following letters to identify
the concept being described.
1. dgeokwlnoe
2. odubt
3. fcast
4. npoiion
5. lcima
6. agsrmentu
7. hrutt
8. bflseie
10. nocisulcon

3. Truth
 Truth in philosophy means that a statement or belief matches reality or facts.
It's true if it accurately describes how things really are.
 Philosophers explore different ways to understand and define truth, asking
questions like, "What makes something true?" and "How can we know if
something is true?"

4. There are different theories of truth
in philosophy:
1. Correspondence Theory
2. Coherence Theory
3. Pragmatic Theory

5. 1. Correspondence Theory:
 A statement is true if it matches what is real.
For example, saying "The sky is blue" is true if the sky is actually blue.

6. 2. Coherence Theory:
 A statement is true if it fits well with other beliefs or statements.
For example, a scientific theory is true if it aligns with other accepted theories.

7. Pragmatic Theory:
 A statement is true if it works or is useful in practical situations.
Statement: Washing hands reduces the spread of disease.
Pragmatic Truth: This statement is true because it has been proven to work in
practice, reducing the spread of infections and improving public health.

8. Propositions
 A proposition in philosophy is a statement that can be judged as true or false.
It's a sentence that makes a claim about something.
 For example: "The Earth orbits the Sun."
• This can be evaluated as true or false based on evidence and scientific understanding.
"Chocolate is the best ice cream flavor."
• This is subjective and reflects personal opinion rather than an objective fact.
 Propositions are fundamental in philosophical discussions about logic, truth, and
meaning because they allow philosophers to analyze and debate the validity and
significance of various claims.

9. Knowledge
 In philosophy, knowledge is generally understood as a justified true belief.
This means that for someone to know something, the following conditions
typically need to be met:
1. Belief: The person must believe that something is true.
2. Truth: The belief must actually be true.
3. Justification: The person must have good reasons or evidence for believing it.
 For example:
Knowledge: If you believe that "The Earth orbits the Sun," and this is a true fact
supported by scientific evidence, then you have knowledge about this fact.

10. Facts
 In philosophy, facts are statements that are true and can be proven with
evidence.
Example: The Earth orbits the Sun.
 This statement is based on astronomical observations and scientific evidence,
and it remains true regardless of personal beliefs or opinions.
Water boils at 100°C at sea level."
This can be tested and confirmed through scientific methods.

11. Claim
 In philosophy, a claim is a statement that says something is true or false. It shows a
belief or opinion that can be debated or supported with reasons.
 For example:
Claim: "Democracy is the best form of government."
• This is a claim because it asserts a particular view that can be debated and supported or
refuted with arguments and evidence.
Claims are important in philosophy because they are what people argue about.
Philosophers look at these claims to see if they make sense and if the reasons behind
them are strong.

12. Doubt
 In philosophy, doubt means being unsure about whether something is true or reliable.
It involves questioning and not being fully convinced about a belief or idea.
 For example:
Doubt: If you are unsure whether a particular scientific theory is correct, you might doubt
its validity until further evidence is provided.
 Doubt is a key concept in philosophy because it drives critical thinking and inquiry.
Philosophers often explore doubt to understand the limits of human knowledge and
the nature of certainty and belief.

13. Belief
 In philosophy, belief is when someone thinks something is true, even if it
might not be true. It shows what a person accepts or thinks is true.
 For example:
Belief: You might believe that "exercise is good for health" because you trust the
evidence and reasoning behind it.
Beliefs are important in philosophy because they affect how we see the world
and make decisions. Philosophers study beliefs to understand what they are, how
they connect to knowledge and truth, and how we can justify or support them.

16. Conclusion
 In philosophy, a conclusion is the final decision or judgment you make after
thinking through evidence and arguments. It’s what you end up with after
analyzing and reasoning.
 For example:
Conclusion: If you examine evidence about climate change and find that it
consistently points to human impact on the environment, you might conclude that
human activities contribute significantly to global warming.
 In philosophical discussions, conclusions are important because they represent
the final stance on a particular issue or argument, summarizing the results of
careful reasoning and analysis.

17. Arguments
 In philosophy, arguments are a way of trying to show that something is true
by using reasons. An argument has:
• Reasons (Premises): These are statements that help support your main point.
For example: "All cats are animals" and "Whiskers is a cat."
• Main Point (Conclusion): This is the idea you’re trying to prove using the
reasons. For example: "Whiskers is an animal.“
 In short, arguments use reasons to show why something should be believed or
accepted as true.

18. Explanations
 In philosophy, explanations help clarify why something is true or how it works.
They provide reasons or details to make an idea or concept easier to
understand.
 For example: If someone asks why a scientific theory is accepted, the
explanation would include the evidence and reasons that support it, showing
how it explains what we see.
Explanation:
 Explanations are important in philosophy because they help make complex
ideas clearer, justify conclusions, and improve our understanding. They
involve breaking things down and analyzing them to give a clear picture.

19. Fallacies
In simple terms, fallacies are mistakes in reasoning that make an argument weak
or wrong. They are errors in how we argue or persuade.
 Example: You shouldn’t listen to her argument about climate change because
she doesn’t even have a degree in science.

20. Bias
 Bias is when someone's personal likes or dislikes unfairly influence their
opinions or decisions, rather than looking at things fairly or objectively.
 Scenario: A company is hiring a new marketing manager.
If a committee member prefers candidates from their own university, they might
unfairly favor those candidates, even if other applicants are just as qualified.
This bias can lead to an unfair hiring process.

21. Directions: Choose the letter of the
correct answer.
1. Which term refers to a statement that can be proven to
be true or false?
A) Opinion
B) Fact
C) Belief
D) Bias

22. 2. What is a claim?
A) A conclusion that is always true
B) A statement that is supported by evidence
C) An opinion with no evidence
D) A statement that cannot be debated

23. 3. What is a conclusion in an argument?
A) The introduction of the topic
B) The initial statement made without evidence
D) A random opinion
D) The final decision or result based on reasoning

24. 4. What term describes an inherent prejudice
that affects one's judgment?
A) Bias
B) Proposition
C) Truth
D) Doubt

25. 5. Which term is used to describe the process of
drawing a conclusion based on evidence and
reasoning?
A) Explanation
B) Proposition
C) Belief
D) Argument

26. 6. What distinguishes a fact from an opinion?
A) Facts are based on personal feelings, while opinions are
based on evidence.
B) Facts are always uncertain, while opinions are always
certain.
C) Facts can be objectively verified, while opinions are
subjective and based on personal perspectives.
D) Facts and opinions are essentially the same thing.

27. 7. Which term refers to the certainty or lack of
certainty about the truth of a statement or
proposition?
A) Knowledge
B) Truth
C) Doubt
D) Explanation

28. 8. What is a proposition in philosophical terms?
A) A claim that is intended to be proven or
disproven
B) A statement that expresses a judgment or opinion
C) A question that seeks clarification
D) An explanation that justifies a belief

29. 9. What is an opinion?
A) A verified statement
B) A statement that can be objectively
measured
C) A personal view or belief
D) A factual assertion

30. 10. What does "doubt" refer to?
A) Certainty about a statement
B) A lack of belief or uncertainty about a statement
C) A confirmed fact
D) A detailed explanation

31. Group Activity: Give 10 examples of
fact and 10 examples of opinion
Group 1: Family
Group 2: Education
Group 3: Religion
Group 4: Economics
Group 5: Government

32. RUBRICS

33. Session 2

34. Fallacy Characteristics
Ad hominem attacking the person presenting the argument instead of the
argument itself.
Appeal to force using the threat of force or an undesirable event to advance
an argument.
Appeal to emotion using emotions such as pity or sympathy.
Appeal to the popular the idea is presented as acceptable because a lot of people
accept it.
Appeal to tradition the idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long time.
Begging the question assuming the thing or idea to be proven is true; also known as
circular argument.
Cause-and-effect assuming “cause-and-effect” relationship between unrelated
events
Fallacy of composition assuming that what is true of a part is true for the whole
Fallacy of division assuming that what is true for the whole is true for its parts.

35. Bias Characteristics
Correspondencebiasor
attribution
effect tendencytojudgeaperson’spersonalitybyhisorher
actions,withoutregard fortheexternalfactors orinfluence.
Confirmationbias tendencytolookforandreadilyacceptinformationwhich fits
one’s ownbeliefsor viewsand toreject ideasorviews thatgo
againstit.
Framing focusingonacertainaspectofaproblemwhileignoringother
aspects.
Hindsight thetendencytoseepasteventsaspredictable,orto ascribea
patterntohistoricalevents.
Conflictofinterest apersonorgroupisconnectedtoorhasavested interestin
theissuebeingdiscussed.
Culturalbias analyzinganeventorissuebased onone’s culturalstandards

41. Session 3

42. Methods of Philosophy Lead to Wisdom and
Truth
The methods of philosophy will help to learn the process of doing philosophy in a
systematic way. On the other hand, philosophizing is to think or express oneself in a
philosophical manner.
Although philosophy is an organized body of knowledge, the subject matter of
philosophy is questions, which have three major characteristics;
1. Philosophical questions have answers but the answers remain in dispute.
2. Philosophical questions cannot be settled by science, common sense, or faith.
3. Philosophical questions are of perennial intellectual interest to human beings.

43. The methodology or method that philosophers use to address philosophical
question is critical thinking.
Critical Thinking is the careful, reflective, rational and systematic approach to
questions of very general interest.
Critical thinking means understanding if philosophy and refraining from merely
giving claims but through careful thought, one reasons through to argumentation.
The scientific method also leads to wisdom and truth because it uses an evidence-
based approach to come up with its conclusion. In this method, all truths are supported by
facts that can easily be tested or proven again through experiments, logical reasoning, or
observation.

44. Evaluate Truth from Opinions in Different Situations Using the Methods of
Philosophizing
A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or drawing
conclusions from a statement using various philosophical methods, such as: Socratic,
dialectic, scientific, and historical.
When you evaluate information, it is very important to distinguish between fact and
opinion. How do we know if something is true? Philosophers emphasize the importance of
belief as a basis for determining truth. It is said that there are instances when we have to
unlearn something so that we may learn anew.
Philosophers questioned what they knew and even analyzed their methods of
knowing in order to understand themselves and the world much better.
The discussion on truth is part of philosophical studies on knowledge where
philosophers explore the nature of knowledge and the ways of knowing.

45. Both the Socratic and dialectic method are based on a discussion between two or
more people who may carry differing views but wish to pursue the truth by seeking an
agreement with one another. Meanwhile, the scientific method is a process of
determining truth or knowledge through experimentation, inductive and deductive
reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing.
The scientific method, also called empirical method, is a process of determining
truth or knowledge through experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and
hypothesis or theory testing.
Logic is the truth based on reasoning and critical thinking. It includes analysis and
construction of arguments. It serves as path to freedom from half-truths and deception.

47. Deductive Reasoning
 In this type of reasoning, conclusion comes first, followed by main points, and the last
will be the supporting data, facts, examples, and evidences. General idea comes first
before the specific or particular idea.

48. Inductive Reasoning
In this type of reasoning, supporting data, facts, examples, and evidences come first
followed by the main points and conclusion will be the last part. This is the vice versa of
the deductive reasoning because particular idea comes first before the general idea.

49. Direction: Read the conversation below and answer the following question. Write your
answer on the space provided.
Lover’s Quarrel
Shanon: Did you hear about what happened between Angel and her boyfriend?
Vanvan: What happened?
Shanon: They got a huge fight last night. Angel called me up. She was crying and she said
that Mike hit her.
Dean: Wait, what? That’s not right? Mike came by my place last night and he was pretty
shaken up. He had scratch marks on his arms and a bite on his left hand. He said Angel just
attacked her and was accusing him of seeing another girl.
Shanon: No! Angel said it was Mike who started to hit her and she had to defend herself!

50. Question 1: As friend of Angel and Mike, how will you react to the statements given?

51. Direction. Fill in the blanks. Choose your
answer from the box and write your
answer on the space provided.
 Philosophy is concerned with determining the concept of
_________________. Truth lies at the heart of any inquiry.
 In philosophy, systematic __________________ is employed to help
determine the truth. This means that every statement, claim,
evidence, and experience is scrutinized and analyzed.
 There are various philosophical views regarding truth. One
perspective is that a belief is true if it can be justified or proven
through the use of one’s_______________________, a belief or
statement is true if it is based on facts. Another way of
determining what is true is getting a _______________________or
having people agree on a common belief. Philosophers also believe
that claims and belief should also be subjected to tests to
determine truth.
 Opinions are statements which not only give facts but also
provide conclusions or perspective regarding certain situations.
 Arguments often take the form of statements that are either
claims of facts and are phrased in such a way that they seem
reasonable. Hence, some arguments may contain fallacies which
means they are products of faulty reasoning.
 __________________ or the personal views of the person
presenting it affect the way he or she sees reality.
Doubt Truth Senses
Consensus Bias Opinion

52. Group Activity
 Direction. Select one issue from the current issues in our society today. How do you
apply methods of philosophizing in determining the truth. Write your answer on the
space provided.

54. Review
Direction. Identify the following
statement. Choose your answer form
the box. Write your answer on the
space provided.
_______________ 1. It is the clear awareness and understanding of something.
_______________ 2. These are statements which are observed to be real or truthful.
_______________ 3. These are comprised of statements that provide views on a certain matter.
_______________ 4. These are arguments based on faulty reasoning.
_______________ 5. It is most often used to mean being in .accord with fact or reality, or fidelity to an original
or standard.
_______________ 6. A fallacy which is attacking the person presenting the argument instead of the argument
itself
_______________ 7. A fallacy which the idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long time.
_______________ 8. A kind of biases which is focusing on a certain aspect of a problem while ignoring other
aspects.
_______________ 9. A kind of biases which a person or group is connected to or has a vested interest in the
issue being discussed.
_______________ 10. Is by analyzing an event or issue based on one’s cultural stand.
Facts
Cultural
of Bias Truth Framing Knowledge
Appeal to
Tradition
Fallacies Opinion Ad
Hominem
Conflict of
Interest