{writeup: http://bit.ly/RSRAb02A} Section A of Chapter 2 on the Moral Foundations of Knowledge explains how all human knowledge is built on values. Statistics is a form of rhetoric which is especially powerful because it claims to be objective and value free. Once we recognize that all knowledge is value-laden, then our task becomes to uncover the concealed values within apparently objective statistics. This talk provides some examples. Our ongoing online course on Real Statistics: A Radical Approach aims to rebuild the discipline on new foundations. Register for the course at http://bit.ly/AZRealStats Registrations will close on Oct. 20th 2022

1. The Illusion of Objectivity
Real Statistics: A Radical Approach
Section A Chapter 2: The Moral Foundations of Knowledge

2. Central Point of Difference
Logical Positivist Epistemology: Defines Knowledge to be “Science”
BUT: Positivists do not understand what science is.
Islamic Epistemology: Knowledge is of two types: USEFUL and USELESS.
Useful knowledge helps us on our path towards recognition of God.
This involves developing our potentials and capabilities.
Useless/Harmful knowledge PREVENTS the development of our human
potential for excellence.
Science is knowledge of the EXTERNAL reality. Islam teaches us about
our internal reality.

3. The Fact/Value distinction
• Facts are objective. They provide information about external reality,
which is the same for all. Propositions about facts can be empirically
tests and verified or falsified.
• Values are subjective. They provide internal information about our
emotional responses to various types of scenarios. These vary from
person to person and change across type. These are not part of
“knowledge” – not science.
Positivist Epistemology values FACTS and considers VALUES as
unimportant.
Islamic Epistemology prioritizes VALUES over FACTS.

4. All Human Knowledge is Value-Laden
• There are NO objective facts.
• All of Social Sciences in general, and ALL of statistics in particular, are
built on subjective values.
• BUT, because of POSITIVIST commitments, all assertions of knowledge
must PRETEND to be objective and value-free.
• Islamic epistemology teaches us that all human knowledge is built on
moral foundations.
• Therefore, an Islamic approach requires us to UNCOVER the hidden
values in apparently objective statistical procedures.

5. Skill to Learn: Uncovering hidden norms
Positivist View: Statistics produces OBJECTIVE FACTS about the real
world. These are aspects of external reality, and same for all observers.
This is NEVER true – we have no access to external reality, only to our
subjective perceptions of external reality.

6. The Greatest Illusion: Objectivity of numbers
“Numbers do not lie!” – widely believed
“How to Lie With Statistics” Darrell Huff. More sales than all other
textbooks of statistics combined!
Two KINDS of numbers: SIMPLE COUNTS, more complex evaluations.
Simple counts ARE objective and factual.
More complex counts ALWAYS incorporate subjective judgments.

7. Simple Counts
Number of Sales of “How to Lie with Statistics” is greater than that of
all other statistics textbooks combined.
This is a simple count: How many were sold?
Even for simple counts, there are many fudge factors involved.
BUT there are many OTHER ways to dispute simple count arguments.
WHAT is the argument being made?
Statistics is often used to LIE and DECEIVE?
Is the number of sales SUPPORTIVE of this argument?
Not necessarily. Explain Why Not.

8. COMPLEX COUNTS
GNP in 2018 of Pakistan is 1.244 trillion dollars measured in Purchasing
Power Parity (PPP)
This is NOT a simple count. Getting this number involves MANY value
judgements.
There are 18 or more different GNP/GDP series in World Bank Data Set
on World Development indicators.
Which one is “correct”?
Look through the fog to ask WHAT argument is being made?
Often, it is about how rich a country is. But this can be disputed on
many grounds.

9. Statistics as Rhetoric
• To UNCOVER hidden values, look for the ARGUMENT being made!
• All statistics are arguments, but often cloaked in objectivity.
• Simple Counts are objective, complex counts are NOT.
• Complex Counts BORROW objectivity from simple counts and have
APPEARANCE of being indisputable facts.
• CLOSER Examination will reveal many weaknesses.
• OUR goal in this course is to LEARN how to make arguments and
counter-arguments (not how to manipulate numbers).

10. Which country is the most “prosperous”?
• Has GDP always been used as a measure of prosperity?
• Historical Record: Dominant powers have always used measures
which emphasize their own leadership.
• Prior to rise of America after WW1, England defined prosperity in
terms of trade and naval power.
• We can create alternative measures of prosperity (family, community
oriented) which would leave USA far behind others.
• See: http://bit.ly/AZrecd Rejecting European Concepts of Development

11. Which University is the “BEST”?
Central Insight: NOT available to most: THERE IS NO ANSWER to this
question.
We must respond by a question: For which purpose?
“Barefoot” university is best at educating the poor and illiterate.
“Harvard” is best at maintaining a high reputation.
Does Harvard provide the best education?
• It would not be suitable for most people on the planet.
• Michael Sandel lectures on Murder and Cannibalism aim at
brainwashing students into expedient morality

12. Crucial Element of Deception:
Theory/Practice Distinction
• When we USE statistics to make an argument in a real-world context,
it is possible to see the arguments and make counter-arguments.
• Separating theory from practice and applications makes it much more
difficult to understand the moral foundations of knowledge.
• World Bank publishes WDI: World Development Indicators. It is just a
collection of numbers – what are the moral foundations? What is the
argument being made? NOT easy to see through.
• World Bank is acquiring authority. Statistics are VERY EXPENSIVE to
collect. ONLY concepts WORTH measuring are measured!

13. Hunting for Concealed Values
• Some criteria are presented as useful for college rankings.
• Who chose those criteria?
• What was he/she trying to prove?
• What alternatives are available?
• Is the shift from what is really needed, to what is available, free of
harm
CHOICE of criteria is ALWAYS value-laden.

14. Measuring the Unmeasurable
• Often, what we want to measure, cannot be reduced to numbers.
• Qualitative things – like corruption, intelligence, value of research.
• Attempts to measure the unmeasurable lead to HARM, instead of
benefit.
• Corruption Rankings and College Rankings will be discussed in much
greater detail in later lectures in this course.

15. Weights and Measures
• Consider Student/Faculty ratio:
• If we think about how much attention each student gets, LOW
student/faculty ratios are good.
• If we think about service to the nation, HIGH student/faculty ratios
may be better.

16. Which is the best student?
Ayesha SATS: English: 760 Math 400
Bilal SATS: English: 330 Math 800
Jamal SATS: English: 600 Math 600
Which of these is the best student?
Which one is the most intelligent?
Which one should we admit to our university?
None of these questions can be answered without a lot more real-
world context. Statistics CANNOT be done in pure theory mode.

17. Concluding Remarks
• Separating THEORY from PRACTICE makes it possible to HIDE values.
• Theory cannot be separated from practice. What theory should be
used depends on the real-world context.
• Modern statistical textbooks teach theories without practical
applications. This confuses and de-motivates students.
• Our textbook on REAL statistics will do statistic in context of real-
world applications.
• When real-world context is clear, then moral questions immediately
arise, and values embedded in statistical arguments can be seen.

18. LINKS
Real Statistics: A Radical Approach: Chapter 2: Tentative Title: Moral
Foundations of Knowledge Alternative Title: Islamic Theories of
Knowledge. Student Feedback is most welcome
Section A: The Illusion of Objectivity
ONGOING ONLINE COURSE on this new textbook of elementary
statistics, which aims to rebuild the discipline on new foundations.
Register for course at: http://bit.ly/AZRealStats to access all course
materials and online lectures.
Registrations will close on 20th October 2022