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The Decision-Making Process of Adult Learners Who are Nearing Completion of Their Institution's Noncredit ESL Sequence
- 1. The Decision-Making Process of Adult Learners Who Are Nearing Completion of Their Institution’s Noncredit ESL Sequence Futoshi Nakagawa Ed.D. California State University, Fullerton C-REAL Colloquium Series Wednesday, March 2nd, 2016
- 2. Assessment Center Transition (Literacy) Beginning Levels Beginning 1 Beginning 2 Beginning 3 Intermediate Levels Intermediate 1 Intermediate 2 Intermediate 3 My research GAP IN SCHOLARLY LITERATURE Few studies have focused on noncredit ESL students
- 3. PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH • Uncover the key elements that influence the decision-making process of noncredit ESL students
- 4. My Research Transition (Literacy) Beginning Levels Beginning 1 Beginning 2 Beginning 3 Intermediate Levels Intermediate 1 Intermediate 2 Intermediate 3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1) How do adult learners who are about to complete the highest level of noncredit ESL classes offered at their institution describe their decision- making process regarding what they choose to do upon finishing the semester?
- 5. RESEARCH QUESTIONS (Continued) 2) How does this student population describe their experience as noncredit ESL students? 3) How do they describe how the noncredit ESL courses they have taken influenced their life and educational trajectories?
- 6. THEORETICAL FOUNDATION • Baxter Magolda’s (2008) concept of self-authorship – The concept of self-authorship was coined by Kegan (1994) – Her theory ties in with transformational learning as described by Mezirow (2000) – Her theory is grounded in her 21 year longitudinal study of adult learners – Mezirow’s theoretical views on education mirror that of Freire; both held a constructivist view on learning— knowledge is not to be discovered but to be created by the learners
- 7. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK • Adult Learning Theories – Knowles (1980) , Jarvis (1987, 2004, 2006) , McClusky (1970) • Adult Learners: Participation – Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007) • Meaning-Making – Jarvis (1987), Daloz (1986), Kegan (1982), Parham (2009), Mezirow (1991) • Seminal Adult Second Language Acquisition Studies – Schumann (1976) , Gardner and Lambert (1972)
- 8. METHODOLOGY • Philosophical Stance: – Social Constructivist Worldview • Research Design: – Exploratory Qualitative Study – Semi-structured Interviews – Themes Not Theory
- 9. CONTEXT OF RESEARCH • Santiago Canyon College (Santiago Canyon College, 2014a) – Rancho Santiago Community College District • Serves the communities of: – Anaheim Hills, Garden Grove, Irvine, Orange, Santa Ana, and Villa Park • Division of Continuing Education (Santiago Canyon College, 2014b) – Free – Serves educational needs of the community – Open entry/open exit – Noncredit classes (e.g. English as a Second Language) – Programs (e.g. High School Diploma Program, Career Technical Education) – Services (e.g. Career Services and Counseling)
- 10. CONTEXT OF RESEARCH • Enrollment and Demographics (Santiago Canyon College, 2014b) – Orange Education Center: Quick Facts 2013-2014 • Students Served: 12,370 – Ethnicity: • 46.7% Mexican-Chicano and 23.5% White (all continuing ed.) • Predominantly Latino (ESL courses) – Age: • 70.5% are over 25 years of age – FTES by Program • 36.4% English as a Second Language • 26.8% High School Diploma Program • 24.2% Career Technical Education
- 11. DATA COLLECTION • Purposeful Sampling (Creswell, 2008, p. 645) – Homogeneous Sampling Criteria (Creswell & Clark, 2007, p.216) • Enrolled in ESL Intermediate 3 • Recommended by their instructors • Possessed communication skills required for an interview in English • Exploratory Interviews (Kvale, 1996) – In-depth interviews: approximately an hour each – Interviewed 13 participants
- 12. RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS • Mirrored an ESL classroom • 7 females • 6 males • Ages 19 to 75 • From 10 different countries • In the US from 4 months to 22 years
- 13. Open Coding: Line by Line (780 Excerpts) 39 Codes 5 Categories Focused Coding: Line by Line (780 Excerpts) 2nd Time Reassessed Each Category for Accuracy and Consistency Identified Emerging Themes Constant Comparative Method
- 14. TRUSTWORTHINESS • Peer debriefer (Creswell, 2009) • “When you are ready to do some initial sorting of data, begin by identifying the broadest categories imaginable” (Wolcott, 2009, p. 33).
- 15. FINDINGS Overarching Theme: The Effect on Family Weighs Heavily on the Decision-Making Process The overarching theme found in this study is that the effect on the participants’ family holds the most weight when forming a decision regarding their education and career aspirations.
- 16. FINDINGS Theme 1: Enrollment in classes stems from situations participants faced that required improved language skills in the target language “…when my daughter got married and she has an American husband and I so want to be close to him and what to do, I need to talk to him…so, you know I need to study.” -RN
- 17. FINDINGS Theme 1: Enrollment in classes stems from situations participants faced that required improved language skills in the target language “Well, I’ve been feeling like I need to like from, how like a year ago…I need to understand more English…Like on my job with most of the people that I asking are you searching for codes or for sizes, okay, I need container size 8x8 or this code S…and that’s it and they know. But if I need something specific, okay, I need like a shell, it has to be clear, flat bottom, this size, this dimensions, it’s kind of more complicated, yeah, and sometimes I don’t know how to explain or like the other day our truck had some difficulties…My boss didn’t know how to explain to him, to the shop, so I have to run over there and explain…yeah and that’s why I know that I need to know more English..,” -EQ
- 18. FINDINGS Theme 2: A family element exists with decisions surrounding employment “So, I didn’t do anything. I didn’t know anything in Japan besides my sport. But however I’m married. I’ve been married for six years and I have two kids so-uh, when I was in Japan I was thinking like you know, when I became, when I become thirty years old, I-uh, I’m going to retire from my sport…But you know still everything is very hard because you know language is different and jobs are different and you know surroundings area all different and the country is different.” -IM
- 19. FINDINGS Theme 3: Family obligations supersede decision to enroll in classes: Class schedules are a key factor “…I just wanted this, this school because the, I like the schedule…because my kids go to school at eight. And here is started at nine.” -EU “Nine o’clock is the perfect time.” -GB
- 20. FINDINGS Theme 4: Participants recalibrate their educational and life aspirations through classroom experiences “…before I been here I never was thinking to take like I mean business administration classes. I see that it’s possible…. You know what I mean? It’s like I see that it’s possible…I can have more choices now because I’m not that scared about English classes or other topic in English.” -AC
- 24. Implications and Recommendations for Practice • For Noncredit ESL Instructors: – Instructors should focus more of their energy and attention on the importance of motivation and support for their students. • Decisions to stop attending class mainly had to do with factors outside of the control of the instructor.
- 25. Implications and Recommendations for Practice • For Administrators in the Field of Noncredit ESL Instruction: – Coordinating class start times with the local K-12 school is worth investigating. – Developing a census type questionnaire that examines factors such as when school starts and ends for students’ children, the number of hours they work, and the distance of their commutes.
- 26. Implications and Recommendations for Practice • For Student Services Professionals: – Faculty and student services staff should actively collaborate and present workshops on the services and resources available at the institution
- 27. Implications and Recommendations for Policy • For Policymakers: – Make a firm commitment to addressing the needs of adult learners – Offer classes in other languages at the sites where they teach ESL classes • Dalton and Crosby (2013) stated: “Central to pluralism is affirming that a pluralistic environment is superior to a nonpluralistic one” (p. 285).
- 28. Recommendations for Future Research • Future Research: – adult learners in the community colleges that began their educational journey in noncredit ESL – a study that utilized a survey with questions based on the themes that emerged in this study – how instructors perceive their role as noncredit ESL instructors – a full grounded theory study
- 29. REFERENCES Baxter Magolda, M. B. (2008). Three elements of self-authorship. Journal of College Student Development, 49(4), 269-284. Blumenthal, A. J. (2002). English as a second language at the community college: An exploration of context and concerns. New Directions for Community Colleges, 2002(117), 45-54. Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill
- 30. REFERENCES Creswell. J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA Sage. Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Daloz, L. (1986). Effective teaching and mentoring: Realizing the transformational power of adult learning experience. San Francisco: Josey-Bass. Dalton, J. C., & Crosby, P. C. (2013). Second-class citizens on campus? Promoting an ethic of care for undergraduates in student–college relationships. Journal of College and C haracter, 14(3), 197-204.
- 31. REFERENCES Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitude and motivation in second language learning. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House. Jarvis, P. (1987). Adult learning in the social context. London: Croom Helm Jarvis, P. (2004). Adult education & lifelong learning: Theory and practice. London: Routledge. Jarvis, P. (2006). Towards a comprehensive theory of human learning. London and New York: Routledge/Falmer Press. Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge Books.
- 32. REFERENCES Kegan, R. (1982). The evolving self: Problem and processes in human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kegan, R. (1994). In over our heads: The mental demands of modern life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kvale, S. (2007). Doing interviews. In U. Flick (Ed.), The Sage qualitative research kit. London: Sage. McClusky, H. Y. (1970). An approach to a differential psychology of the adult potential. In S.M. Grabowsky (E.d.), Adult Learning and Instruction. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearninghouse on Adult Education.
- 33. REFERENCES Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco: Jossey=Bass. Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mezirow, J. (Ed.). (2000). Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Parham, T. A. (2009). Foundations for an African American psychology: Extending roots to an ancient Kemetic past. In H. A. Neville, S.Utsey, and B. Tynes (Eds.), Handbook of African American Psychology. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
- 34. REFERENCES Santiago Canyon College. (2014a). SCC fact sheet. Retrieved from http://www.sccollege.edu/About/Documents/scc-fact-sheet.pdf Santiago Canyon College. (2014b). Quick facts. Retrieved from http://www.sccollege.edu/Departments/oec/AboutOEC/Documents/New%20We bsite/OEC%20Quick%20Facts%202013-14.pdf Schumann, J. H. (1976). Second language acquisition: The pidginization hypothesis. Language learning, 26(2), 391-408. Wolcott, H.F. (1990). Writing Up Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Yin, R. K. (2008). Case study research: Design and methods (Vol. 5). Sage.
- 35. THANK YOU! Thank you C-REAL for all that you do!
Editor's Notes
- Ask audience if they’re familiar with the term noncredit. Antonio Guzman
- There is currently a gap in the literature that explores the decision-making process of adult learners who are nearing completion of their institution’s noncredit ESL sequence. Did the student leave the ESL program because she acquired enough English to get an entry-level job or because the program wasn’t meeting her needs? Is the ESL program in need of improvement if students have to repeat courses, or is repetition simply a part of learning a language?
- The purpose of this study was to find the key elements that influenced the overall thought process of this student population as they made decisions regarding their educational and life aspirations.
- My first research question was: How do adult learners who are about to complete the highest level of noncredit ESL classes offered at their institution describe their decision-making process regarding what they choose to do upon finishing the semester?
- The two additional questions that guided my research were: How does this student population describe their experience as noncredit ESL students? How do they describe how the noncredit ESL courses they have taken influenced their life and educational trajectories?
- In terms of the theoretical foundation, I drew from Baxter Magolda’s (2008) concept of self-authorship that is grounded in constructivist ideals to guide the literature review as well as the design of this study. The concept of self-authorship was coined by Kegan (1994) to explain the ability of adults to define their own identity and make wise choices guided by their own visions within the context of external influences often associated with adults, such as work and family. Her theory ties in with transformational learning as described by Mezirow (2000). In addition, Mezirow’s theoretical views on education mirror that of Freire; they both held a constructivist view on learning—that knowledge is not to be discovered but to be created by the learners.
- My literature review covered: adult learning theories, views on why adults participate in education, or why they do not the meaning-making process and studies that explained the central factors surrounding adults learning a new language
- Now, on to the Methodology. The goal of social constructivists in research is to rely as much as possible on the participants’ views of the situation being studied. Since my research focused on explaining the central themes surrounding the decision-making process, a qualitative approach was a good fit for this exploratory study. I’d like to reiterate that the goal of this study was to construct the emerging themes from the data, not develop a full theory.
- The site of my research was Santiago Canyon College’s Division of Continuing Education. It offers day, evening and Saturday classes. The center also offers academic counseling and career services to students.
- From this slide, I’d like to point out that 70.5% of the students are over the age of 25, and the three largest programs in regards to FTES are ESL, the High School Diploma Program, and Career Technical Education, with ESL with being the largest.
- The method I used in finding my participants is referred to as purposeful sampling; that is, I intentionally selected the sites and the participants. The type of purposeful sampling that was used is called homogeneous sampling. This term is used to describe the selection of participants based on a subgroup. I selected participants that fit the following criteria: enrolled in ESL Intermediate 3, recommended by their instructor, and possessed communication skills required for an interview in English I conducted exploratory interviews, which are interviews that have little structure and ultimately seek to uncover information about experiences and discover new angles on a topic.
- My Participants. I did my best to gather data from participants that mirrored an ESL classroom. With the help of my former colleagues I was happy with the results. I had 7 females and 6 male participants and the ages ranged from 19 to 75. I had 10 different countries out of the 13 participants. The length of time in the US ranged from 4 months to 22 years. Needless to say, I had a very diverse group. More criteria you have the quicker saturation that you will achieve
- This exploratory qualitative study used tenets of constructivist grounded theory in the data analysis process. I divided the coding process into two phases: open coding and focused coding as described by Charmaz (2014). First, I applied codes that described each excerpt during the line-by-line open coding process. After coding 780 excerpts I ended up with approximately 50 codes, which eventually boiled down to 39 codes because some of the codes were describing the same action but were just stated differently in the open coding process. With the 39 codes set, my next step was to create categories by seeing which of the codes associated together conceptually. Five categories were created. From this point, I decided that the next step would be to code all 780 excerpts again a second time to check the accuracy and consistency of the categories. After validating the categories, themes that emerged were identified. Throughout the coding process, I implemented the constant comparative method of data analysis to sort the raw data by constantly comparing the codes and categories with the intent to reduce redundancy and create consistent evidence that was grounded in the data.
- I used a peer debriefer to review and ask questions about my study during the open coding phase. Dr. Person recommended that I reach out to my cohort member Dr. Chin Lam, who also did a qualitative study. I sent Dr. Lam transcripts and my coding—some of the transcripts were from interviews that I did toward the beginning of the data collection process and the others were the last few interviews as a way to check my consistency in my coding. Overall, Dr. Lam’s comments were extremely helpful and stated that my codes were consistent with the excerpts. However, she expressed concern that my codes were a bit too broad. While I was aware that she used a different design in her phenomenological study (pause) she used the Van Kaam method of data analysis as modified by Moustakas (1994), her comments still forced me to not move forward in my data analysis process until I felt confident in the design that I chose for my study. And that meant going back to review several books on qualitative research to get a better understanding of the data analysis process that I was attempting. Fortunately, it was around this time that Dr. Beckham let me borrow a thin blue book titled “Writing Up Qualitative Research” by Harry F Wolcott, which was kind of like a Qualitative research book for Dummies. And, from this book, I share the quote, “When you are ready to do some initial sorting of data, begin by identifying the broadest categories imaginable.” Upon reading this manual, I began to better understand what qualitative research looks like in actual practice. In sum, having a peer debriefer gave me the opportunity rethink, reassess, and think critically about how I was analyzing the data and most importantly kept me true to the process.
- Now I’m going to switch gears from data analysis to the findings of this study. To give a simple overview (pause) an overarching theme and four other themes emerged from the data. The overarching theme is The Effect on Family Weighs Heavily on the Decision-Making Process. I identified this to be the central finding because the data showed how this theme overlapped into the additional four themes that emerged in this study. That is, the participants’ assessment of how a decision made would affect their family was imbedded in each of the four other themes.
- Now moving on to the first of the four themes in this study: (pause) Enrollment in classes stems from situations participants faced that required improved language skills in the target language. Jarvis (1987) stated that the learning process in adult learners is initiated when they are faced with a situation that they are unable to successfully respond to or navigate through because they do not possess the necessary skills. Similarly, many participants in this study shared how certain situations involving their language ability lead them to enroll in noncredit ESL classes. For example, RN is 69 years old and from Belarus. She has lived in the US for 15 years. She came to the US because her daughter was studying at a university in San Francisco, and she could no longer stand to be away from her only daughter. She stated: “When my daughter got married to an American husband, I wanted to be close to him and talk to him, so you know, I needed to study.”
- Here is another example of Theme 1 of a participant that faced a situation that he was unable to successfully respond to or navigate through because he did not possess the necessary skills, and how this experience influenced the participant’s decision to enroll in noncredit ESL classes. EQ is 33 years old and from Mexico. He has been living in the US for 12 years. He immigrated to Southern California because his father was here. He works for a distribution company that supplies restaurants. He stated, “Well, I’ve been feeling like I need to learn since about a year ago. I need to understand more English...Like on my job, most of the people that ask are searching for codes or for sizes. Ok, I need a container size 8x8 or this code S…and that’s it and they know. But if I need something specific, okay, I need a shell, it has to be clear, flat bottom, this size, these dimensions, it’s kind of more complicated, yeah, and sometimes I don’t know how to explain or like the other day our truck had some difficulties…My boss didn’t know how to explain to him, to the shop, so I had to run over there and explain…yeah and that’s when I knew that I needed to know more English…”
- The next theme, theme 2 is (pause) A family element exists with decisions surrounding employment. It was interesting to discover how work and family were interwoven for the participants. For the participants that worked, the field that they were currently in was not necessarily based on personal preference—participants described how the necessity to financially support their family, whether here in the US or back in their home country, played an important role in how they made their decisions. IM’s father-in-law deals in international trade. After retiring from his prior profession as an athlete in Japan, he immigrated to the US to learn the trade and with the understanding that someday he would eventually take over his father-in-law’s company. At the time of the interview, he had only been living in the US for 4 months. He stated: “So, I didn’t do anything. I didn’t know anything in Japan besides my sport. However, I’m married. I’ve been married for 6 years and I have 2 kids so, when I was in Japan I thought, when I become 30 years old, I’m going to retire from my sport. But you know, everything is very hard because, you know, the language is different, jobs are different and the surroundings are all different and the country is different.”
- On to Theme 3, Family obligations supersede decision to enroll in classes: Class schedules are a key factor. For many participants the main factor that determined whether to enroll in classes or not was how well the class schedule fit around their day-to-day family responsibilities. EU, who recently quit her full-time job, had the opportunity to take classes while her children were at school. When describing her decision to enroll in classes she talked about the class schedule. She stated, “I just wanted to go to this school because I liked the schedule. Because my kids go to school at 8 and my class starts at 9.” GB, also expressed that the starting time was an important factor in deciding to attend the noncredit Intermediate 3 class. Although he resides in a city that requires about a 30 minute commute to the school, he made the drive because the time did not conflict with him having to send his children off to school. As he stated, “Nine o’clock is the perfect time.” Students taking classes at night made similar statements.
- The final theme, Theme 4, (pause) Participants recalibrate their educational and life aspirations through classroom experiences, the participants shared how taking classes not only improved their English language skills, but made them rethink what was possible for their future. AC is 44 years old and from Peru. He has been living in the US for 20 years--his family immigrated to the US because his father felt that the political situation in Peru was becoming too volatile and dangerous. He was a college student in Peru when he had to leave. He is now the owner of a franchise. He stated, “Before I never even thought about taking business administration classes. Now, I see that it’s possible…You know what I mean? It’s like I see that it’s possible…I have more choices now because I’m no longer scared about English classes or other topics in English.” Now I that I have discussed my findings, I will present how the themes mesh together within the context of the decision-making process in the form on an Explanatory Model.
- The image on this slide shows the evolution of the explanatory model. This process can be described as an example of the Constant Comparative Method a term developed by Glaser and Stauss (1967). This approach allows a theory to emerge from organizing and reducing data. Myself being the data analysis instrument, I felt like I was constantly zooming in-and-out of the data until I was able to find a clear picture with themes relatively on the same plane. Nothing too granular or panoramic. I’d like to clearly state that since the data gathered in this study was based on one interview per each of the 13 participants that lasted approximately an hour, I acknowledge that the data was too thin to develop a theory.
- The purpose of this model is to present the relationship between the themes that emerged in this study and to serve as a reference to my thought process regarding how I constructed meaning and brought into focus the decision-making process of the participants.
- The effect a decision had on the participant’s family was the dominant factor in the decision-making process of the participants. The data indicated that a family element existed within the interactions between the components in the decision-making process. Viewing this model from the top, the decision for the participants to enroll in noncredit ESL and to work were based on the balance of needs within the family. However, the realization in itself was not the determining factor that led to enrolling in class; it was how enrolling in classes would affect their day to day family responsibilities that determined enrollment. The arrows from the Noncredit ESL box to the circles labeled Education and Career represent how the classroom experience fostered a change in their outlook toward their educational and career goals. Eleven out of the 13 participants responded that taking classes changed the way they thought about their future. The participants described how they factored in their newly acquired knowledge regarding their educational and career goals, again within the context of how this decision would affect their families in deciding how they would move forward upon finishing their noncredit Intermediate 3 course.
- Now, I going to talk about the Implications and Recommendations for Practice. First, for Noncredit ESL Instructors. Although we cannot generalize, the reasons given by the participants in this study for stopping out in the past had to do with factors outside of the control of the instructor. The recommendation is for instructors to not be overly concerned when some students stop attending their class and to focus more of their energy and attention on the importance of motivation and support for their students as well as quality instruction.
- For administrators: Coordinating class times with the K-12 is definitely worth considering, and Developing a census type questionnaire that includes a section that allows students to list barriers to coming to class would create a clearer understanding, which would be beneficial in creating policy that fosters the right conditions to allow adult learners to participate.
- I recommend developing a more robust line of communication between faculty and student services professionals. Workshops delivered by both faculty and staff that focused on the services and resources available at the institution during in-service or flex-week would add value to the student experience in and out of the classroom.
- Moving on to Implications and Recommendations for Policy. Policymakers must meet the challenge of creating programs that address the factors that hinder participation and enrollment as well as teaching the skills that the students desire to acquire or sharpen, instead of simply relabeling or re-categorizing existing courses that are in line with the goals of AB 86. We should offering language classes that reflect the diversity of the surrounding community. According to Merry and de Ruyter (2011), an institution that embraces pluralism prepares learners to live their lives able to empathize and address the needs of people who experience injustice and oppression because of their differences. And, Dalton and Crosby (2013) stated: “Central to pluralism is affirming that a pluralistic environment is superior to a nonpluralistic one” (p. 285).
- And, I’m going to conclude my presentation with Recommendations for Future Research. It would be interesting if a future researcher did a qualitative study that examined adult learners in the community colleges that began their educational journey in noncredit ESL. By observing the transition from noncredit to credit from a different angle and by those who are currently taking courses could reveal further trends as well as confirm the findings of this study. A second recommendation would be a quantitative study that utilized a survey with questions based on the themes that emerged in this study. It would also be interesting to examine the result of a pathway analysis of the sociodemographic factors of the student population. The result would be valuable in the sense that findings would be generalizable and correlations found in the data could spark additional research questions. Yet another recommendation would be to further examine how instructors perceive their role in noncredit ESL. The responses from the participants in this study indirectly suggested that they do more than just teach English. And, finally, a full grounded theory study that develops a full theory on the decision-making process of adult learners who are nearing completion of their institution’s noncredit ESL sequence would be desired. Instead of starting the research with a prepared set of questions as I did in my data collection process, I would recommend non-structured interviews and modifying and evolving the questions as well as analyzing the data after each interview, planning multiple interviews with each participant and focus group-type interview sessions. In sum, my study only scratches the surface on the topic; further research is definitely needed.