1) Vegetation fires emit carbon to the atmosphere, but two approaches to estimating these emissions - "consumed biomass" and "burnt carbon" - produce different results.
2) The "consumed biomass" approach assumes all burnt carbon is emitted, overestimating emissions by 4-9% compared to the "burnt carbon" approach which accounts for carbon remaining in residue after fires.
3) Global vegetation fire emission estimates should use the "burnt carbon" approach for more accurate quantification of the role of fires in the carbon cycle.
The document discusses the Petersen matrix notation for describing complex biochemical systems with multiple simultaneous reactions. It provides an example of the Petersen matrix for the Activated Sludge Model 1 (ASM1), which models the key biological processes in activated sludge wastewater treatment. The ASM1 Petersen matrix includes 13 components, 8 processes, and kinetic equations for each process. It allows calculating the rate of change for each component based on the effects of all processes. The document also provides details on the components, processes, stoichiometry, and kinetic equations included in the ASM1.
Fuzzy logic for plant-wide control of biological wastewater treatment process...ISA Interchange
The application of control strategies is increasingly used in wastewater treatment plants with the aim of improving effluent quality and reducing operating costs. Due to concerns about the progressive growth of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), these are also currently being evaluated in wastewater treatment plants. The present article proposes a fuzzy controller for plant-wide control of the biological wastewater treatment process. Its design is based on 14 inputs and 6 outputs in order to reduce GHG emissions, nutrient concentration in the effluent and operational costs. The article explains and shows the effect of each one of the inputs and outputs of the fuzzy controller, as well as the relationship between them. Benchmark Simulation Model no 2 Gas is used for testing the proposed control strategy. The results of simulation results show that the fuzzy controller is able to reduce GHG emissions while improving, at the same time, the common criteria of effluent quality and operational costs.
This document reviews biomass gasification technologies for producing hydrogen-rich syngas to be used in ammonia production as an alternative to natural gas. It summarizes the conventional natural gas-based process and outlines a potential process using biomass gasification. Several gasification technologies are assessed based on syngas composition, efficiency, operating conditions, scale, and experience with biomass. The goal is to evaluate biomass gasification for ammonia production through life cycle assessment and techno-economic analysis to identify environmental and economic impacts compared to conventional production.
Assessing the Carbon Footprint of the University of Portsmouth's Residential ...Leanne Craddock
This document discusses a study assessing the carbon footprint of residential buildings at the University of Portsmouth and identifying ways to reduce it. The study determined the energy consumption and carbon emissions of selected residential buildings from 2008-2011. It compared the data to benchmarks and analyzed factors like weather and audits of the buildings. The study found that two halls used significantly more energy than expected. It recommended addressing issues like occupant behavior, improving insulation, introducing renewable technologies, and ensuring potential reduction programs are fully utilized to improve energy efficiency and reduce the carbon footprint of the residential buildings.
This document discusses a study of the kinetics of self-reducing mixtures composed of iron ore, steel mill waste (BOF dust), and biomass from elephant grass. Kinetic runs were performed using thermogravimetric analysis at temperatures from 900-1100°C and carbon contents of 15-30%. The reaction fractions over time showed good agreement with first-order kinetics. Activation energies were estimated, with the highest kinetic constants occurring at 1100°C with 30% carbon: 0.0037 s-1 for the Fe3O4→FeO reaction and 0.0258 s-1 for FeO→Fe. The kinetic behavior supported chemical reaction control over diffusion control for self-reducing pellet reactions.
This document summarizes a study analyzing strategies to reduce both air pollution and greenhouse gases in Mexico City. Key points:
1) It develops a database of emissions reduction options from Mexico City's air quality plan and greenhouse gas studies to allow analyzing joint management of pollutants.
2) It implements linear programming and goal programming models to identify lowest-cost strategies for meeting multiple pollutant reduction targets.
3) Analysis finds air quality plan could reduce CO2 3.1% and greenhouse gas measures could reduce CO2 8.7%, though local pollutant reductions are more modest from greenhouse measures.
4) Linear programming allows lowering costs of air quality plan by 20% and achieving greenhouse gas reductions at lower
A simple simulation model for oxidative coupling of methaneAlexander Decker
This document describes a study that developed a mathematical model to simulate the oxidative coupling of methane over a La0.6Sr0.4NiO3 perovskite catalyst. The catalyst was prepared using a reverse microemulsion method and characterized using various techniques. Rate equations were developed based on previous studies of similar catalysts. The model can predict that at temperatures of 925°C or higher, with a methane partial pressure of 0.3 and oxygen partial pressure of 0.1, the catalyst will reach around 10% methane conversion and 50% selectivity to C2+ hydrocarbons.
This document discusses gas absorption accompanied by a fast pseudo-first order photochemical reaction. It presents two cases - where the liquid reactant or the dissolved gas is activated by photons. In both cases, the specific absorption rate of the gas can be enhanced compared to no activation. Equations are derived to describe the concentration profiles and absorption rates for each case. Additional experimental data is needed to quantify the actual enhancement possible from photochemical activation in these situations.
The document discusses the Petersen matrix notation for describing complex biochemical systems with multiple simultaneous reactions. It provides an example of the Petersen matrix for the Activated Sludge Model 1 (ASM1), which models the key biological processes in activated sludge wastewater treatment. The ASM1 Petersen matrix includes 13 components, 8 processes, and kinetic equations for each process. It allows calculating the rate of change for each component based on the effects of all processes. The document also provides details on the components, processes, stoichiometry, and kinetic equations included in the ASM1.
Fuzzy logic for plant-wide control of biological wastewater treatment process...ISA Interchange
The application of control strategies is increasingly used in wastewater treatment plants with the aim of improving effluent quality and reducing operating costs. Due to concerns about the progressive growth of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), these are also currently being evaluated in wastewater treatment plants. The present article proposes a fuzzy controller for plant-wide control of the biological wastewater treatment process. Its design is based on 14 inputs and 6 outputs in order to reduce GHG emissions, nutrient concentration in the effluent and operational costs. The article explains and shows the effect of each one of the inputs and outputs of the fuzzy controller, as well as the relationship between them. Benchmark Simulation Model no 2 Gas is used for testing the proposed control strategy. The results of simulation results show that the fuzzy controller is able to reduce GHG emissions while improving, at the same time, the common criteria of effluent quality and operational costs.
This document reviews biomass gasification technologies for producing hydrogen-rich syngas to be used in ammonia production as an alternative to natural gas. It summarizes the conventional natural gas-based process and outlines a potential process using biomass gasification. Several gasification technologies are assessed based on syngas composition, efficiency, operating conditions, scale, and experience with biomass. The goal is to evaluate biomass gasification for ammonia production through life cycle assessment and techno-economic analysis to identify environmental and economic impacts compared to conventional production.
Assessing the Carbon Footprint of the University of Portsmouth's Residential ...Leanne Craddock
This document discusses a study assessing the carbon footprint of residential buildings at the University of Portsmouth and identifying ways to reduce it. The study determined the energy consumption and carbon emissions of selected residential buildings from 2008-2011. It compared the data to benchmarks and analyzed factors like weather and audits of the buildings. The study found that two halls used significantly more energy than expected. It recommended addressing issues like occupant behavior, improving insulation, introducing renewable technologies, and ensuring potential reduction programs are fully utilized to improve energy efficiency and reduce the carbon footprint of the residential buildings.
This document discusses a study of the kinetics of self-reducing mixtures composed of iron ore, steel mill waste (BOF dust), and biomass from elephant grass. Kinetic runs were performed using thermogravimetric analysis at temperatures from 900-1100°C and carbon contents of 15-30%. The reaction fractions over time showed good agreement with first-order kinetics. Activation energies were estimated, with the highest kinetic constants occurring at 1100°C with 30% carbon: 0.0037 s-1 for the Fe3O4→FeO reaction and 0.0258 s-1 for FeO→Fe. The kinetic behavior supported chemical reaction control over diffusion control for self-reducing pellet reactions.
This document summarizes a study analyzing strategies to reduce both air pollution and greenhouse gases in Mexico City. Key points:
1) It develops a database of emissions reduction options from Mexico City's air quality plan and greenhouse gas studies to allow analyzing joint management of pollutants.
2) It implements linear programming and goal programming models to identify lowest-cost strategies for meeting multiple pollutant reduction targets.
3) Analysis finds air quality plan could reduce CO2 3.1% and greenhouse gas measures could reduce CO2 8.7%, though local pollutant reductions are more modest from greenhouse measures.
4) Linear programming allows lowering costs of air quality plan by 20% and achieving greenhouse gas reductions at lower
A simple simulation model for oxidative coupling of methaneAlexander Decker
This document describes a study that developed a mathematical model to simulate the oxidative coupling of methane over a La0.6Sr0.4NiO3 perovskite catalyst. The catalyst was prepared using a reverse microemulsion method and characterized using various techniques. Rate equations were developed based on previous studies of similar catalysts. The model can predict that at temperatures of 925°C or higher, with a methane partial pressure of 0.3 and oxygen partial pressure of 0.1, the catalyst will reach around 10% methane conversion and 50% selectivity to C2+ hydrocarbons.
This document discusses gas absorption accompanied by a fast pseudo-first order photochemical reaction. It presents two cases - where the liquid reactant or the dissolved gas is activated by photons. In both cases, the specific absorption rate of the gas can be enhanced compared to no activation. Equations are derived to describe the concentration profiles and absorption rates for each case. Additional experimental data is needed to quantify the actual enhancement possible from photochemical activation in these situations.
Biomass is considered as a potential source of energy production.Gasification can be employed to convert
dilute biomass energy source in to gaseous products holding concentrated form of energy. A steady state model for fluidized
bed biomass gasifier is developed based on reaction kinetics and hydrodynamic aspects of fluidization. The presence of
sorbent for absorption of carbon dioxide from the product gas is also incorporated in the model.The developed model
predicts the variation of syngas composition, temperature, pressure and velocity along the height of gasifier. Experiments
were carried out in a lab scale fluidized bed biomass gasifier and the results were used to validate the model.An increase of
50.35% in H2 mole fraction and a decrease of 50.88 % in CO2 mole fraction were observed when CaO was used as the
sorbent.
1) Boundary conditions representing air flowing into North America from other regions contribute significantly to uncertainties in atmospheric CO2 mixing ratios, especially at seasonal timescales.
2) Fossil fuel emissions uncertainties are another major source of uncertainty in CO2 mixing ratios when analyzed at annual timescales.
3) Flux tower measurements of ecosystem carbon uptake and atmospheric CO2 concentration data provide consistent results on biases in biogeochemical model simulations, but concentrations cannot fully disentangle diurnal biases identified by flux towers.
Recovery of a Hypereutrophic Urban Lake (Onondaga Lake, NY): Implications fo...Daniele Baker
Daniele Baker Master's Capstone November 15, 2013
Abstract: A 23-year record of limnological parameters for Onondaga Lake was used to evaluate changes during recovery from eutrophication. I (1) compared phytoplankton responses to total phosphorus (TP) in ecologically defined seasonal periods with those in a calendar date defined annual period, (2) ascertained whether chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) concentration was a good proxy for phytoplankton biomass, and (3) assessed whether the phytoplankton assemblage was altered in response to the environmental remediation. Seasonal variations in the relationships between Chl-a and biomass to TP were common. Irregular temporal patterns in Chl-a per unit biomass were due to a shift from Chl-a deficient to Chl-a rich phytoplankton, not changes in light regime. The phytoplankton assemblage varied mostly as a function of changes in total nitrogen (TN), TP, and TN:TP ratios. Phytoplankton diversity did not increase, but phytoplankton bloom frequencies and cellular biovolumes decreased. Synurophyceae and Chrysophyceae, absent since the onset of eutrophication, reappeared in 1998.
49 First Measurement of the Σ Beam Asymmetry in η' Photoproduction off the Pr...Cristian Randieri PhD
First Measurement of the Σ Beam Asymmetry in η' Photoproduction off the Proton near Threshold - July 2014
di P. Levi Sandri, G. Mandaglio, O. Bartalini, V. Bellini, J. P. Bocquet, M. Capogni, F. Curciarello, A. D’Angelo, V. De Leo, J. P. Didelez, R. Di Salvo, A. Fantini, D. Franco, C. Gaulard, G. Gervino, F. Ghio, G. Giardina, B. Girolami, A. Giusa, A. Lapik, A. Lleres, F. Mammoliti, M. Manganaro, D. Moricciani, A. Mushkarenkov, V. Nedorezov, C. Randieri, D. Rebreyend, N. Rudnev, G. Russo, C. Schaerf, M. L. Sperduto, M. C. Sutera, A. Turinge, V. Vegna and I. Zonta (2014)
Abstract
The Σ beam asymmetry in η' photoproduction off the proton was measured at the GRAAL polarized photon beam with incoming photon energies of 1.461 and 1.480 GeV. For both energies the asymmetry as a function of the meson emission angle shows a clear structure, more pronounced at the lowest one, with a change of sign around 90°. The results are compared to the existing theories that fail to account for the data.
This Masters thesis presentation summarizes research on decomposer metabolism and litter decomposition rates in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The study aimed to estimate bacterial carbon-use efficiency and decomposition rates across different litter types and climates. Materials and methods included collecting litter decomposition and climate data from literature sources. Results showed carbon-use efficiency generally decreased with increased litter carbon-to-nitrogen ratios in both ecosystems. Temperature most influenced decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems, while litter chemistry was most important in aquatic ecosystems. A positive correlation was also found between microbial growth rate and carbon-use efficiency.
Introduction
The transport sectors, including land transport, shipping and
aviation, are major sources of atmospheric pollution (e.g.,
Righi et al., 2013). The emissions from transport are growing
more rapidly than those from the other anthropogenic activities.
According to the ATTICA assessment (Uherek et al.,
2010; Eyring et al., 2010), land transport and shipping shared
74 and 12 % of the global CO2 emissions from transport in
the year 2000, respectively. In the time period 1990–2007,
the EU-15 CO2-equivalent emissions from land transport and
shipping increased by 24 and 63 %, respectively. This growth
is expected to continue in the future, due to increasing world
population, economic activities and related mobility. The future
road traffic scenarios analyzed by Uherek et al. (2010)
essentially agree in projecting an increase of both fuel demand
and CO2 emissions until 2030, with up to a factor of
∼ 3 increase in CO2 emissions with respect to 2000. The ATTICA
assessment also showed that emissions of CO2 from
land transport and shipping affect the global climate by exerting
a radiative forcing (RF) effect of 171 (year 2000)
and 37 mW m−2
(year 2005), respectively. These two sectors
together account for 13 % of the total anthropogenic CO2
warming (year 2005).
In addition to long-lived greenhouse gases, ground-based
vehicles and ocean-going ships emit aerosol particles as well
as a wide range of short-lived gases, including also aerosol
precursor species. Atmospheric aerosol particles have significant
impacts on climate, through their interaction with solar
radiation and their ability to modify cloud microphysical
and optical properties (Forster et al., 2007). In populated areas,
they also affect air quality and human health (Pope and
Dockery, 2006; Chow et al., 2006).
The document provides an executive summary of trends in US greenhouse gas emissions from 1990-2015. It finds that total US emissions increased by 3.5% from 1990-2015, but decreased by 2.3% from 2014-2015, driven by decreases in CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion. CO2 emissions remain the largest contributor to total US emissions. Emissions are now 11.5% below 2005 levels. The summary follows UNFCCC guidelines for calculating and reporting greenhouse gas inventories.
The document describes an in situ study using UV-visible spectroscopy to measure the kinetics of propane oxidative dehydrogenation (ODH) on vanadium oxide catalysts. Transients in UV-visible intensity during ODH reactions were analyzed using a surface reaction mechanism. Rate constants for the kinetically relevant C-H bond activation step were determined and compared to values from steady-state ODH rates. The ratio of these values provides a measure of the fraction of active vanadium sites. Reoxidation rate constants, which cannot be obtained from steady-state analysis, were also determined and found to be orders of magnitude larger than C-H bond activation rates.
Analysis of biomass pyrolysis product yield distribution in thermally thin re...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a numerical study of biomass pyrolysis product yield distribution at different heating rates in the thermally thin regime. A kinetic model consisting of 5 differential equations was used to simulate pyrolysis of maple wood. Results showed that tar yield increased with heating rate while char yield decreased. Gas yield was influenced by secondary reactions and depended on temperature and residence time. Pyrolysis time decreased and temperature increased with higher heating rates. The model can predict product yields for other biomasses given their kinetic parameters.
This document describes a study comparing the acid-base properties of three fulvic acid samples (fua1, fua2, fua3) extracted from a Portuguese pinewood soil. Synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy (SyF) was used to analyze the samples at varying pH levels. Evolving factor analysis (EFA) of the SyF-pH data detected four acid-base systems in each sample with pK values around 3.0, 4.5, 7.0, and 9.0. Potentiometric titration data was also collected and modeled using the pK values from EFA to determine the concentrations of groups responsible for the acid-base properties. The concentrations of carboxylic groups increased
1. Pyro-gasification and anaerobic digestion (AD) both involve the chemical breakdown of organic matter into simpler molecules like gases. Pyro-gasification uses heat to break bonds while AD uses water, bacteria, and enzymes at lower temperatures. Both processes yield similar basic gases but pyro-gasification works better with dry waste while AD needs water. Pre-treatment like crushing and sieving is important for both.
2. Heating values of gases from both processes can be increased through CO2 scrubbing for more efficient combustion. The scrubbed gases are then burned in a combined cycle gas turbine, which can achieve up to 60% efficiency.
3. While biowaste has the potential to
Soil carbon sequestration involves transferring carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the soil through crop residues and other organic materials. This helps offset carbon emissions while improving soil quality and productivity. Management practices that increase biomass additions to soils, minimize disturbance, conserve soil and water, and enhance soil structure and biology can sequester carbon through continuous no-till crop production. The document then discusses carbon sequestration in the context of Indian agriculture and the impacts of climate change on food production in India.
The Global Ecosystem Center has developed a tool called GeoCarbon that uses satellite imagery and IPCC guidelines to produce accurate estimates of terrestrial carbon storage at a high 30-meter resolution globally. It can calculate existing carbon storage, track changes over time, and model scenarios. A case study for Vietnam found that a 2% decrease in forest cover would result in a loss of 104 million metric tons of carbon, equivalent to $7.2 billion on the carbon market. Comparisons showed GeoCarbon estimates were consistent with other studies but provided more detailed data due to its higher resolution. GeoCarbon is presented as a useful decision-making tool for evaluating development impacts on carbon storage.
Required Resources
Required Text
1. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet
a. Chapter 3: Dollars and the Environmental Sense: Economics of Environmental Issues
b. Chapter 21: Air Pollution
Multimedia
1. Annenberg Learner. (n.d.). Carbon lab [Interactive lab]. In The Habitable Planet. Retrieved from http://learner.org/courses/envsci/interactives/carbon/
2. dennettracerocks3d. (2013, June 12). Carbon tax and cap and trade [Video clip]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RmRNCEur1ks
· Transcript
Recommended Resource
Article
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2012). Cap and trade. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/captrade/
CrITICAl THINkING IssUe
Should Carbon dioxide Be Regulated Along with other Major Air Pollutants?
The six common pollutants, sometimes called the criteria pol- lutants, are ozone, particulate matter, lead, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide. These pollutants have a long history with the EPA, and major efforts have been made to reduce them in the lower atmosphere over the United States. This effort has been largely successful—all of them have been significantly reduced since 1990.
In 2009, the EPA suggested that we add carbon dioxide to this list. Two years earlier, the U.S. Supreme Court had or- dered the EPA to make a scientific review of carbon dioxide as an air pollutant that could possibly endanger public health and welfare. Following that review, the EPA announced that greenhouse gases pose a threat to public health and welfare. This proclamation makes it possible that greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide, will be regulated by the Clean Air Act, which regulates most other serious air pollutants.
The EPA’s conclusion that greenhouse gases harm or en- danger public health and welfare is based primarily on the role these gases play in climate change. The analysis states that the impacts include, but are not limited to, increased drought that will impact agricultural productivity; more intense rainfall, leading to a greater flood hazard; and increased frequency of heat waves that affect human health. The EPA’s proposal pro- gram to regulate carbon dioxide as an air pollutant has been upheld by court decisions
The next step in adding carbon dioxide and other green- house gasses, such as methane, to the list of pollutants regulated by the EPA was a series of public hearings and feedback from a variety of people and agencies. Some people oppose listing carbon dioxide as an air pollutant because, first of all, it is a nutrient and stimulates plant growth; and, second, it does not
directly affect human health in most cases (the exception being carbon dioxide emitted by volcanic eruption and other volcanic activity, which can be extremely toxic).
The EPA in late September of 2013 announced the initial steps to reduce carbon pollution under President Obama’s Cli- mate Action Plan. The objective will be standards for new coal burning power plants. Conversations are st ...
Evaluating the Perfect Carbon: Nitrogen (C:N) Ratio for Decomposing CompostIRJET Journal
This study analyzed the effect of carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratios on the decomposition of compost and its impact on soil strength and plant growth. An experiment was conducted with compost mixtures at C:N ratios of 1:1, 1:2, and 2:1. The mixtures were monitored under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The results showed that the compost with a C:N ratio of 2:1 decomposed the fastest, with temperature averages of 21.13°C in sunlight and 22.3°C without sunlight. This optimal 2:1 C:N ratio produces the best compost for plant growth while minimizing fossil fuel usage and reducing landfill waste.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) of Dairy and beef cattles Mohmed Sarhan
Global Greenhouse gas Emissions in animal production: towards an
Integrated life cycle sustainability assessment from Ruminant Farming Systems
Abstract
The objectives of this review were to evaluate the environmental impacts of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and emissions intensity (Ei) for the small ruminants, Dairy and beef cattle livestock production systems using the life-cycle assessment (LCA) method with a system boundaries from “Cradle-to- farm-gate” and to promote the other capability of this internationally accepted approach nowadays in the agriculture world to determine weaknesses and robustness and/or the performance of the livestock production system adapted in any regions or areas of examination. This aim was illustrated using results from LCAs in the literature and from a pilot study of different production systems. The emissions were estimated using a whole farm GHGs models, based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) methodology with a yearly time-step. By recognizing different farming systems for ruminant species (i.e. pasture, mixed, and zero grazing). with specific reference to recent published models, outline general conclusions from application of these published models, and describe some limitations and risks associated with these approaches. Certain models were adapted (i.e. an economic optimization model, an environmental assessment model) in which it considers all significant CH4, N2O, and CO2 emissions and removals on the farm and off-farm emissions of N2O derived from nitrogen applied on the farm. This review however, shows that LCAs of different case studies currently cannot be compared directly. Such a comparison requires further international standardization of the LCA method. Nonetheless a recent collective global LCA estimated the GHG intensity of ruminant supply chains to produce 5.7 gigatonnes CO2-eq per annum representing about 80% of the livestock sector emissions. Enteric Methane CH4 was the largest contributing source of GHG accounting for 47%. N2O from soil and deposited manure accounted for a further 24%, while LUC is estimated to contribute 9% of the sector’s overall GHG emissions. However, LCAs should be performed at a large number of practical farms for each production system of interest. Application of LCA on practical farms, however, requires in-depth research to understand underlying processes, and to predict, or measure, variation in emissions realized in practice.
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The Task Force Inventory – understanding inventory methodologiesipcc-media
This document discusses the IPCC guidelines approach for national greenhouse gas inventories under the UNFCCC. It outlines that the UNFCCC requires parties to report anthropogenic emissions and removals from land using comparable methodologies agreed by COP. The IPCC guidelines recommend using the managed land proxy to estimate anthropogenic land emissions, as most direct human impacts occur on managed lands. Reporting includes emissions and removals from all sources on managed lands that the IPCC guidelines provide methods for, such as carbon stock changes and non-CO2 gases from agriculture. Natural emissions sources are generally excluded. A tiered approach provides methods of increasing complexity.
The document discusses how phytoplankton play a key role in the biological carbon pump by transferring carbon from the atmosphere to the oceans. It explains that rising CO2 levels and climate change may impact phytoplankton physiology, community structure, and size, which could influence the efficiency of the biological carbon pump and the ocean's ability to absorb carbon long-term. The review aims to explore how predicted temperature increases and changes to the carbonate system could affect phytoplankton traits in order to understand implications for the biological carbon pump and future carbon sequestration in the oceans.
Atmospheric carbon dioxide variations at Mauna Loa Observatory, HawaiiSimoneBoccuccia
This document summarizes atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) measurements taken at Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii between 1964 and 1971. Key findings include:
- The annual average CO2 concentration increased 3.4% between 1959 and 1971, though the rate of increase was not steady, declining in the mid-1960s and accelerating recently.
- CO2 measurements show a seasonal oscillation and long-term increase reflecting uptake by land plants and fossil fuel emissions respectively.
- Diurnal variations in CO2 are observed, with higher concentrations during the day attributed to nearby volcanic vents and plant respiration, and lower stable concentrations at night.
Biomass is considered as a potential source of energy production.Gasification can be employed to convert
dilute biomass energy source in to gaseous products holding concentrated form of energy. A steady state model for fluidized
bed biomass gasifier is developed based on reaction kinetics and hydrodynamic aspects of fluidization. The presence of
sorbent for absorption of carbon dioxide from the product gas is also incorporated in the model.The developed model
predicts the variation of syngas composition, temperature, pressure and velocity along the height of gasifier. Experiments
were carried out in a lab scale fluidized bed biomass gasifier and the results were used to validate the model.An increase of
50.35% in H2 mole fraction and a decrease of 50.88 % in CO2 mole fraction were observed when CaO was used as the
sorbent.
1) Boundary conditions representing air flowing into North America from other regions contribute significantly to uncertainties in atmospheric CO2 mixing ratios, especially at seasonal timescales.
2) Fossil fuel emissions uncertainties are another major source of uncertainty in CO2 mixing ratios when analyzed at annual timescales.
3) Flux tower measurements of ecosystem carbon uptake and atmospheric CO2 concentration data provide consistent results on biases in biogeochemical model simulations, but concentrations cannot fully disentangle diurnal biases identified by flux towers.
Recovery of a Hypereutrophic Urban Lake (Onondaga Lake, NY): Implications fo...Daniele Baker
Daniele Baker Master's Capstone November 15, 2013
Abstract: A 23-year record of limnological parameters for Onondaga Lake was used to evaluate changes during recovery from eutrophication. I (1) compared phytoplankton responses to total phosphorus (TP) in ecologically defined seasonal periods with those in a calendar date defined annual period, (2) ascertained whether chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) concentration was a good proxy for phytoplankton biomass, and (3) assessed whether the phytoplankton assemblage was altered in response to the environmental remediation. Seasonal variations in the relationships between Chl-a and biomass to TP were common. Irregular temporal patterns in Chl-a per unit biomass were due to a shift from Chl-a deficient to Chl-a rich phytoplankton, not changes in light regime. The phytoplankton assemblage varied mostly as a function of changes in total nitrogen (TN), TP, and TN:TP ratios. Phytoplankton diversity did not increase, but phytoplankton bloom frequencies and cellular biovolumes decreased. Synurophyceae and Chrysophyceae, absent since the onset of eutrophication, reappeared in 1998.
49 First Measurement of the Σ Beam Asymmetry in η' Photoproduction off the Pr...Cristian Randieri PhD
First Measurement of the Σ Beam Asymmetry in η' Photoproduction off the Proton near Threshold - July 2014
di P. Levi Sandri, G. Mandaglio, O. Bartalini, V. Bellini, J. P. Bocquet, M. Capogni, F. Curciarello, A. D’Angelo, V. De Leo, J. P. Didelez, R. Di Salvo, A. Fantini, D. Franco, C. Gaulard, G. Gervino, F. Ghio, G. Giardina, B. Girolami, A. Giusa, A. Lapik, A. Lleres, F. Mammoliti, M. Manganaro, D. Moricciani, A. Mushkarenkov, V. Nedorezov, C. Randieri, D. Rebreyend, N. Rudnev, G. Russo, C. Schaerf, M. L. Sperduto, M. C. Sutera, A. Turinge, V. Vegna and I. Zonta (2014)
Abstract
The Σ beam asymmetry in η' photoproduction off the proton was measured at the GRAAL polarized photon beam with incoming photon energies of 1.461 and 1.480 GeV. For both energies the asymmetry as a function of the meson emission angle shows a clear structure, more pronounced at the lowest one, with a change of sign around 90°. The results are compared to the existing theories that fail to account for the data.
This Masters thesis presentation summarizes research on decomposer metabolism and litter decomposition rates in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The study aimed to estimate bacterial carbon-use efficiency and decomposition rates across different litter types and climates. Materials and methods included collecting litter decomposition and climate data from literature sources. Results showed carbon-use efficiency generally decreased with increased litter carbon-to-nitrogen ratios in both ecosystems. Temperature most influenced decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems, while litter chemistry was most important in aquatic ecosystems. A positive correlation was also found between microbial growth rate and carbon-use efficiency.
Introduction
The transport sectors, including land transport, shipping and
aviation, are major sources of atmospheric pollution (e.g.,
Righi et al., 2013). The emissions from transport are growing
more rapidly than those from the other anthropogenic activities.
According to the ATTICA assessment (Uherek et al.,
2010; Eyring et al., 2010), land transport and shipping shared
74 and 12 % of the global CO2 emissions from transport in
the year 2000, respectively. In the time period 1990–2007,
the EU-15 CO2-equivalent emissions from land transport and
shipping increased by 24 and 63 %, respectively. This growth
is expected to continue in the future, due to increasing world
population, economic activities and related mobility. The future
road traffic scenarios analyzed by Uherek et al. (2010)
essentially agree in projecting an increase of both fuel demand
and CO2 emissions until 2030, with up to a factor of
∼ 3 increase in CO2 emissions with respect to 2000. The ATTICA
assessment also showed that emissions of CO2 from
land transport and shipping affect the global climate by exerting
a radiative forcing (RF) effect of 171 (year 2000)
and 37 mW m−2
(year 2005), respectively. These two sectors
together account for 13 % of the total anthropogenic CO2
warming (year 2005).
In addition to long-lived greenhouse gases, ground-based
vehicles and ocean-going ships emit aerosol particles as well
as a wide range of short-lived gases, including also aerosol
precursor species. Atmospheric aerosol particles have significant
impacts on climate, through their interaction with solar
radiation and their ability to modify cloud microphysical
and optical properties (Forster et al., 2007). In populated areas,
they also affect air quality and human health (Pope and
Dockery, 2006; Chow et al., 2006).
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Analysis of biomass pyrolysis product yield distribution in thermally thin re...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a numerical study of biomass pyrolysis product yield distribution at different heating rates in the thermally thin regime. A kinetic model consisting of 5 differential equations was used to simulate pyrolysis of maple wood. Results showed that tar yield increased with heating rate while char yield decreased. Gas yield was influenced by secondary reactions and depended on temperature and residence time. Pyrolysis time decreased and temperature increased with higher heating rates. The model can predict product yields for other biomasses given their kinetic parameters.
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1. Pyro-gasification and anaerobic digestion (AD) both involve the chemical breakdown of organic matter into simpler molecules like gases. Pyro-gasification uses heat to break bonds while AD uses water, bacteria, and enzymes at lower temperatures. Both processes yield similar basic gases but pyro-gasification works better with dry waste while AD needs water. Pre-treatment like crushing and sieving is important for both.
2. Heating values of gases from both processes can be increased through CO2 scrubbing for more efficient combustion. The scrubbed gases are then burned in a combined cycle gas turbine, which can achieve up to 60% efficiency.
3. While biowaste has the potential to
Soil carbon sequestration involves transferring carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the soil through crop residues and other organic materials. This helps offset carbon emissions while improving soil quality and productivity. Management practices that increase biomass additions to soils, minimize disturbance, conserve soil and water, and enhance soil structure and biology can sequester carbon through continuous no-till crop production. The document then discusses carbon sequestration in the context of Indian agriculture and the impacts of climate change on food production in India.
The Global Ecosystem Center has developed a tool called GeoCarbon that uses satellite imagery and IPCC guidelines to produce accurate estimates of terrestrial carbon storage at a high 30-meter resolution globally. It can calculate existing carbon storage, track changes over time, and model scenarios. A case study for Vietnam found that a 2% decrease in forest cover would result in a loss of 104 million metric tons of carbon, equivalent to $7.2 billion on the carbon market. Comparisons showed GeoCarbon estimates were consistent with other studies but provided more detailed data due to its higher resolution. GeoCarbon is presented as a useful decision-making tool for evaluating development impacts on carbon storage.
Required Resources
Required Text
1. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet
a. Chapter 3: Dollars and the Environmental Sense: Economics of Environmental Issues
b. Chapter 21: Air Pollution
Multimedia
1. Annenberg Learner. (n.d.). Carbon lab [Interactive lab]. In The Habitable Planet. Retrieved from http://learner.org/courses/envsci/interactives/carbon/
2. dennettracerocks3d. (2013, June 12). Carbon tax and cap and trade [Video clip]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RmRNCEur1ks
· Transcript
Recommended Resource
Article
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2012). Cap and trade. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/captrade/
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Surawski_et_al_ncomms11536_2016
1. ARTICLE
Received 7 Aug 2015 | Accepted 6 Apr 2016 | Published 5 May 2016
Incorrect interpretation of carbon mass balance
biases global vegetation fire emission estimates
N.C. Surawski1,w, A.L. Sullivan2, S.H. Roxburgh2, C.P. Mick Meyer3 & P.J. Polglase2,w
Vegetation fires are a complex phenomenon in the Earth system with many global impacts,
including influences on global climate. Estimating carbon emissions from vegetation fires
relies on a carbon mass balance technique that has evolved with two different interpretations.
Databases of global vegetation fire emissions use an approach based on ‘consumed biomass’,
which is an approximation to the biogeochemically correct ‘burnt carbon’ approach. Here we
show that applying the ‘consumed biomass’ approach to global emissions from vegetation
fires leads to annual overestimates of carbon emitted to the atmosphere by 4.0% or 100 Tg
compared with the ‘burnt carbon’ approach. The required correction is significant and
represents B9% of the net global forest carbon sink estimated annually. Vegetation fire
emission studies should use the ‘burnt carbon’ approach to quantify and understand the role
of this burnt carbon, which is not emitted to the atmosphere, as a sink enriched in carbon.
DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11536 OPEN
1 CSIRO Agriculture, GPO Box 1700, Canberra, Acton 2601, Australian Capital Territory, Australia. 2 CSIRO Land and Water, GPO Box 1700, Canberra, Acton
2601, Australian Capital Territory, Australia. 3 CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere, 107–121 Station Street, Aspendale, Victoria 3195, Australia. wPresent
addresses: Energy, Environment and Water Research Center (EEWRC), The Cyprus Institute, PO Box 27456, Nicosia 2121, Cyprus (N.C.S.); Fenner School of
Environment & Society, Australian National University, Linnaeus Way, Acton, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia (P.J.P.). Correspondence and
requests for materials should be addressed to N.C.S. (email: n.surawski@cyi.ac.cy).
NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | 7:11536 | DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11536 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications 1
2. V
egetation fires have existed in the Earth system since
shortly after the appearance of terrestrial vegetation B420
million years ago1,2 and are a necessary disturbance for
maintaining some ecosystems3. They also have a range of
anthropogenically deleterious consequences such as damage to
assets and infrastructure, loss of life, as well as degrading ambient
air quality leading to negative impacts on human health4.
Vegetation fires also perturb global biogeochemical cycles,
with impacts on climate4–6. It is estimated that over the period
2001–2010, global vegetation fires emitted an average of 2.5 Pg
per year (1 Pg ¼ 1 Â 1015 g) of carbon to the atmosphere7,
equivalent to 30% of annual-averaged anthropogenic emissions
from fossil fuel combustion over 2004–2013 (ref. 8). Changes in
global vegetation fire regimes, such as an increased fire frequency,
have been predicted from modelling studies undertaken in the
northwest of the United States9, as well as Mediterranean-
type ecosystems under a warmer and wetter future climate10.
Furthermore, charcoal records from boreal forests suggest that
current vegetation fire frequencies are at their highest level in the
last 3,000 years11 and predictions of a future increase in fire
intensity have been made12. Given the global impact of vegetation
fires on ecosystems and climate, accurate accounting methods
are required to estimate their greenhouse gas emissions, to
characterize their climate forcing and to properly design carbon
mitigation strategies involving the management of vegetation.
Using the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
methodology13, total emissions from fire are calculated using the
product of activity and an emissions factor (EF). Activity refers to
a process occurring in the environment that leads to emissions
(for example, fire) and an EF is thus defined as emissions per unit
activity.
When calculating an EF from fire, the principle of a carbon
mass balance (CMB) is invoked, with the technique ultimately
being attributed to either Ward et al.14 or Radke et al.15. While
the partitioning of the chemical species of interest and total
emitted carbon into reference-gas-normalized emission ratios is
consistently applied in vegetation fire emission studies16–18, there
have been inconsistencies in the treatment of vegetation exposed
to fire but not emitted to the atmosphere (that is, post-burn
combustion residue).
In this article, we show that neglecting changes in the post-
burn carbon content (CCpost, %) leads to an upward bias in
emission estimates for the ‘consumed biomass’ CMB inter-
pretation compared with the ‘burnt carbon’ approach. We
therefore recommend that vegetation fire studies employ the
‘burnt carbon’ approach to more accurately estimate emissions,
by taking into account the change in carbon content from post-
fire residues.
Results
Definitional preliminaries. Following the definitions from
Surawski et al.16, we define ‘burnt’ as fuel that has been thermally
altered as a result of exposure to fire and either emitted to the
atmosphere or left in the post-fire residue; and we define
‘consumed’ as that component of the fuel that is emitted to the
atmosphere as a result of exposure to fire. We follow the
definition of Keane et al.19 that ‘fuels are the dead and live
biomass available for fire ignition and combustion’.
The basis of biased emission estimates. Since the publication of
the CMB technique15, the method has been interpreted and
applied in two different ways in the vegetation fire emission
literature17,20. The first is the ‘consumed biomass’ approach
(Fig. 1, top pathway), which is based on the simplifying
assumption that all burnt carbon is volatilized and emitted. We
demonstrate below that this assumption is incorrect and leads to
biased results. The second method, the ‘burnt carbon’ approach,
additionally takes into account changes between the pre- and
post-fire carbon content of the fuel and is unbiased (Fig. 1,
bottom pathway).
Both approaches have the same starting point, which is the
amount of biomass fuel before burning (Bpre, t haÀ 1 on a dry
matter basis) and its carbon content (CCpre, %). In the absence of
measurements of fuel carbon content, a carbon content of 50% is
commonly assumed18, although a value of 45% has also been
suggested21. The pre-burning carbon load (t haÀ 1 on a dry
matter basis) can then be calculated from estimates of both
Bpre and CCpre (Cpre ¼ Bpre  CCpre). Both interpretations
of the CMB technique rely on estimates of biomass fuel after
burning (Bpost) to enable calculation of a combustion factor
(CF ¼ (Bpre À Bpost)/Bpre) (ref. 13). It is the subsequent analysis
where the two interpretations of the CMB technique diverge and
bias is introduced.
The ‘consumed biomass’ approach is more commonly
applied21–25 (and references therein) and does not require any
further measurements after Bpost has been calculated. In this case,
estimation of an EF is based on consumed biomass only and
reports EFs as the mass of a chemical species emitted per
kilogram of dry fuel consumed. The ‘burnt carbon’ approach is
far less commonly applied16,17,26,27 and requires an estimate of
the post-burning carbon content for burnt fuel that is not emitted
to the atmosphere. Estimating CCpost enables the post-fire carbon
load (Cpost ¼ Bpost  CCpost) to be calculated. This in turn enables
burnt carbon to be partitioned between that emitted to the
atmosphere (SCemit ¼ Cpre À Cpost) and that remaining as post-
burn combustion residue (Cpost, for example, charred material
enriched in carbon; Fig. 1). Consequently, the second
interpretation of the CMB technique is based on ‘burnt carbon’
involving either atmospheric emission or resulting in an ashed or
charred residue after exposure to fire (Cpost in Fig. 1) with both of
these ultimate fates being represented as a percentage of burnt
carbon.
The explicit and incorrect assumption of the ‘consumed
biomass’ CMB method (top pathway in Fig. 1) is that all burnt
carbon is volatilized and emitted to the atmosphere20,25,28. In
contrast, the ‘burnt carbon’ CMB method (bottom pathway in
Fig. 1) correctly accounts for burnt carbon remaining as a residue
after a vegetation fire. Many vegetation fire research studies have
shown that not all burnt fuel carbon is volatilized and emitted to
the atmosphere17,26,29–34. The need to take into account
the full-carbon budget of vegetation fires has been raised
previously21,35,36, yet vegetation fire emission studies generally
do not measure CCpost (with CCpost4CCpre for charred post-fire
material30,31,34), which precludes use of the ‘burnt carbon’ CMB
method and this leads to an overestimation bias of emissions for
the ‘consumed biomass’ method relative to the ‘burnt carbon’
method.
To avoid this bias with the ‘consumed biomass’ CMB
approach, it is necessary to multiply its EF by the fraction of
burnt fuel carbon emitted to the atmosphere, SCemit/Cfuel
(ref. 16), where SCemit is the mass of emitted carbon and Cfuel
is the mass of fuel carbon burnt (Supplementary Table 1). Only
if all burnt fuel carbon is emitted to the atmosphere (that is,
SCemit/Cfuel ¼ 1, which is very unlikely to be achieved in a real
fire), would these two methods agree without inclusion of the
correction factor. Otherwise, estimates of emissions using the
‘consumed biomass’ approach will be overestimated (that is,
relative to the ‘burnt’ carbon approach), represented by the
difference between complete volatilization and emission of
carbon to the atmosphere, and the true fraction of carbon
volatilized and emitted to the atmosphere (e ¼ 1 À SCemit/Cfuel).
ARTICLE NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11536
2 NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | 7:11536 | DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11536 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications
3. Quantification of the correction factor. To quantify the
magnitude of this overestimation, we obtained empirical
estimates from the literature17,29–34 (Supplementary Table 1) of
the fraction of burnt fuel carbon emitted to the atmosphere or the
fraction of burnt carbon retained in post-burn residues (and in
one case both emissions and residues), to determine the likely
values of e in various vegetation types around the globe. e values
range from a minimum of 0.4% in a savanna ecosystem34 to a
maximum of 50% in a temperate forest34. On the basis of 40
records (Fig. 2), the median e value is 4.0% with the interquartile
range (25th–75th percentiles) spanning the interval 2.0–12.0%.
Discussion
In terms of estimating global emissions from vegetation fires, the
widely used Global Fire Emissions Database22, and others such as
the Fire INventory from NCAR23, and IPCC good practice
guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories13 rely on the
‘consumed biomass’ approach for reporting EFs. If we use the
median e value of 4.0% and apply this to the globally averaged
annual carbon emissions from 2001 to 2010 of 2.5 Pg (ref. 7), the
overestimation of emissions (that is, for the ‘consumed biomass’
approach compared with the ‘burnt carbon’ approach) amounts
to B100 Tg (1 Tg ¼ 1 Â 1012 g) of carbon per year, with an
uncertainty range (25th–75th percentiles) of 50–300 Tg.
Furthermore, the ‘consumed biomass’ approach (which assumes
100% volatilization of burnt carbon) precludes the ability to
quantify the efficacy of any direct management of fire for post-fire
residues for mitigating net vegetation fire emissions, such as the
preferential firing of vegetation fuels for enhanced charred post-
fire residues to increase sequestration in the pedosphere.
Altogether, the potential for a 50–300-Tg error in annual global
vegetation fire emission estimates highlights that vegetation fire
research should be conducted in a more coordinated manner1,37,
to ensure the complete biogeochemistry of fire events are
adequately represented. Despite recommendations in the
literature21, measurements of CCpost are not routinely made in
vegetation fire emission studies. This prevents SCemit/Cfuel from
being calculated, leading to an overestimation of emissions for the
‘consumed biomass’ approach relative to the ‘burnt carbon’
approach. Furthermore, this overestimation means that the
amount of carbon in burnt residues needs to be adjusted to
maintain global carbon mass balance from vegetation fires. Apart
from improving global vegetation fire emission estimates, it is
envisaged that global studies of CCpost will broaden our
understanding of ecosystem carbon fluxes due to fire, including
the potential for managing burnt carbon residues to enhance
ecosystem carbon storage and to spawn research efforts exploring
the post-fire fate of carbon34–36,38. In particular, such efforts
should estimate the global e value with different fire behaviours
and ecosystem types, as only a coarse estimate was obtained using
current estimates in the literature. In conducting such research,
however, it is important to realize that greater uncertainties are
present for burnt areas, fuel load and combustion factors from
global vegetation fires39.
Methods
EF reporting methods. Examples of studies that have adopted the approximate
‘consumed biomass’ approach to emissions accounting from vegetation fires are
ubiquitous21–25 (and references therein).
Examples of studies exploring the more complete ‘burnt carbon’ approach are
far less common16,17,26,27.
EF reporting fundamentals. Estimating emissions from vegetation fires involves
multiplying the amount of fuel consumed6 by an EF (ref. 24). The amount of fuel
consumed is obtained by multiplying the area burnt (A) by the fuel load (B) and a
combustion factor (CF). The basis of the CMB technique is that for the dominant
carbonaceous species emitted in a plume (usually CO2, CO and CH4), excess
mixing ratios (that is, molar concentrations above background) are measured.
Before fire
Bpre
Fire After fire
Cpre=Bpre×CCpre
Cpost=Bpost×CCpost
Bpre–Bpost
Cpre–Cpost
Cpost
Bpost
Burnt residue
EFburnt carbon
EFconsumed biomass
Burnt carbon approach
to atmosphere
to atmosphere
Emissions approx
Emissions correct
Consumed biomass approach
Estimate
Cfuel
∑Cemit
Emissionsapprox×
∑Cemit
=Emissionscorrect
Cfuel
Figure 1 | A diagrammatic illustration of how biased emission estimates from fire occur. A schematic of the two different ways the carbon mass balance
technique has been interpreted and applied in vegetation fire emission studies. Cpre and Bpre denote pre-fire carbon and biomass fuel, CCpre and CCpost
represent pre- and post-fire carbon content, and Cpost and Bpost denote post-fire carbon and biomass fuel, respectively. SCemit/Cfuel represents the
correction factor required for the burnt carbon accounting framework. Emissionsapprox represents approximate emissions estimated using the consumed
biomass approach and Emissionscorrect represents emission estimates using the burnt carbon approach. EF denotes emissions factor with the estimate
depending on what accounting framework is used (that is, consumed biomass or burnt carbon).
50
40
30
20
10
0
values(%)
Figure 2 | A box plot of the global e value distribution based on our
literature review. The e value is the percentage of carbon exposed to fire
(that is, burnt) that remains as a post-fire residue, based on 40
records17,29–34 (Supplementary Table 1). The five-number summary for e is:
minimum ¼ 0.4%, 25th percentile ¼ 1.98%, median ¼ 3.95%, 75th
percentile ¼ 12.0%, maximum ¼ 50% (the single outlier is shown as an
open circle). The interquartile range (IQR) ¼ 10.0.
NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11536 ARTICLE
NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | 7:11536 | DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11536 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications 3
4. Then, emission ratios are calculated by normalizing (that is, dividing) the excess
mixing ratio of the species of interest to the excess mixing ratio of a reference gas,
or in some cases the sum of the excess mixing ratios of total emitted carbon40. An
EF is then obtained by dividing the emission ratio for the species of interest by that
of the emitted and detected carbon
Conversion of the consumed biomass method to burnt carbon. Using the
‘consumed biomass’ interpretation of an EF (an approximation that assumes that
all fuel carbon is volatilized and emitted to the atmosphere), emissions for the Xth
carbon-based species (EX) can be calculated by multiplying the area burnt, the fuel
load and the combustion and EFs together via:
EX ¼ AÂBÂCFÂEFX ð1Þ
In equation (1), EFX, reported on a kg species X per kg consumed basis, is defined
by18:
EFX ¼ CpreÂUCÂ
CX
CT
; ð2Þ
where UC is a conversion factor used to convert between atomic and molar masses,
CX is the number of moles of species X and CT is the total number of carbon moles
emitted to the atmosphere.
Assuming that CO2 is used as a reference gas for the normalization of emission
ratios (that is, other choices include CO or CH4 (ref. 16) or total emitted carbon40),
CX/CT is given by:
CX
CT
¼
DCX
DCO2
PN
j¼1
NCjÂ
DCj
DCO2
; ð3Þ
where DCX represents the difference between the plume and ambient mixing ratios
for species X, and NCj represents the number of carbon atoms in species j, with
summation being performed across the total number of carbon species N.
Alternatively, using the ‘burnt carbon’ interpretation, emissions for the Xth
(that is, carbon based) species are given by:
EX ¼ AÂBÂCFÂCpreÂUCÂEFX : ð4Þ
In equation (4), assuming again that CO2 is used as a reference gas, EFX (defined as
the percentage of burnt carbon emitted as species X) is defined by17:
EFX ¼
P
Cemit
Cfuel
 DCX
DCO2
PN
J¼1
NCjÂ
DCj
DCO2
; ð5Þ
where SCemit is the mass of fuel carbon emitted to the atmosphere from j different
carbon species, and Cfuel is the mass of fuel carbon burnt.
Note that:
P
Cemit
Cfuel
¼
Cpre À Cpost
Cpre
¼
BpreCCpre À BpostCCpost
BpreCCpre
¼ 1 À
BpostCCpost
BpreCCpre
: ð6Þ
Consequently, the only way that the equation (1) can equal equation (4) is if
equation (2) is multiplied by SCemit/Cfuel (ref. 16). The presentation here focused
on carbon-based species, but similar calculations can be performed for nitrogen-
based species (such as N2O).
Global estimates of the correction factor. A broad literature search was
conducted using the Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar databases to
parameterize this quantity. Literature searches were motivated by listings of major
field-based vegetation fire emission campaigns commencing in the 1980s and
ending with the Fire Lab at Missoula Experiments (Supplementary Table 1). On the
basis of our literature search, in Supplementary Table 1, we parameterise the global
e value for different ecosystems and fuel types, as well as for different fire types, fuel
sampling methods, carbon residue sampling methods and carbon residue quanti-
fication methods. A statistical summary of our e value database is provided in Fig. 2
and its caption.
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Acknowledgements
We thank M. Battaglia and S. Eady for their support of this project. We thank Dale Hurst
and Pep Canadell for reviewing a previous draft. We dedicate this paper to the memory
of Professor Mike Raupach who made seminal contributions to carbon cycle research.
Author contributions
A.L.S. suggested undertaking this project of highlighting different interpretations of the
CMB technique. S.H.R. suggested a graphical representation of different interpretations
of the CMB technique. N.C.S. prepared Figs 1 and 2 and Supplementary Table 1, and
wrote the manuscript with contributions from all co-authors.
Additional information
Supplementary Information accompanies this paper at http://www.nature.com/
naturecommunications
Competing financial interests: The authors declare no competing financial interests.
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How to cite this article: Surawski, N. C. et al. Incorrect interpretation of carbon mass
balance biases global vegetation fire emission estimates. Nat. Commun. 7:11536
doi: 10.1038/ncomms11536 (2016).
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