This study aimed to provide baseline knowledge of coral diseases prevalence and coral health at nine reef sites in the northern Egyptian Red Sea: I (El-Ain Al-Sukhna), II (Ras Za’farana), III (Hurghada), IV (Ras Ghozlani), V (Old Quay), VI (Yolanda reef), VII (Ras Umm Sid, Sharm El-Sheikh), VIII (WoodHouse reef, Sharm El-Sheikh), and IX (canyon reef, Dahab). Sites IV, V and VI are located in Ras Mohamed, marine protected area. Field surveys of coral diseases and signs of compromised health in the studied reefs revealed a mean prevalence o f 1.03 %. Macroscopic observations were diagnosed as: black band disease (0.44%), white syndrome (0.13%), pink line syndrome (0.04%), ulcerative white spots (0.02%), skeletal eroding band (0.001 %), coral bleachi ng (2.2%), Drupella cornus snail predation (0.1%), fish predation (0.2%), pigmentation response (0.13%), sediment damage (0.08%), algae overgrowth (0.06%) and sponge overgrowth (0.04%). Prevalence of coral diseases and bleaching were higher in non-MP A sites than in MPA sites. The highest prevalence of coral diseases was recorded on the coral Favia stelligera, followed by Porites lutea, and Goniastrea edwardsi. Enhanced local anthropogenic stresses and increasing sea surface temperature due to global warming are the suggested potential factors responsible for the initiation and the persistence of some coral diseases in the studied reefs.
A Rapid marine biodiversity assessment of the coral reefs in morales Beach, B...Innspub Net
Morales beach is one of the beaches located in the coastal town of Glan, Sarangani Province and noted for its quite enormous coral reef which is continuously degrading. This study was conducted to assess the health status of coral reef ecosystem and to evaluate the physico-chemical parameters of the area. Point Intercept Transect (PIT) method was used to monitor live coral condition and the supporting fauna at a coral reef ecosystem. Physico-chemical parameters were obtained in situ using a thermometer, refractometer, and a pH meter. The result of the study showed a very low percentage cover of hard corals, no cover percentage of soft corals and high cover percentage of other biota or substrate. The reef areas exhibited poor coral cover with an average of 15 percent live hard corals having family Acropora as the most dominant species (Shannon diversity index of 1.653). Water samples obtained were within the DENR (1990) standards suitable for the optimum growth of coral reefs. The health status of the coral reefs in Morales beach showed a partially disturbed reef due to human intervention. It is greatly recommended to constantly monitor the coral conditions in order to effectively manage and protect the increasing number of Marine Protected Areas (MPA).
ATI Technical Training Short Course Underwater Acoustics for Biologists and C...Jim Jenkins
Underwater Acoustics for Biologists and Conservation Managers: A comprehensive tutorial designed for environmental professionals. This three-day course is designed for biologists, and conservation managers, who wish to enhance their understanding of the underlying principles of underwater and engineering acoustics needed to evaluate the impact of anthropogenic noise on marine life. This course provides a framework for making objective assessments of the impact of various types of sound sources. Critical topics are introduced through clear and readily understandable heuristic models and graphics.
A Rapid marine biodiversity assessment of the coral reefs in morales Beach, B...Innspub Net
Morales beach is one of the beaches located in the coastal town of Glan, Sarangani Province and noted for its quite enormous coral reef which is continuously degrading. This study was conducted to assess the health status of coral reef ecosystem and to evaluate the physico-chemical parameters of the area. Point Intercept Transect (PIT) method was used to monitor live coral condition and the supporting fauna at a coral reef ecosystem. Physico-chemical parameters were obtained in situ using a thermometer, refractometer, and a pH meter. The result of the study showed a very low percentage cover of hard corals, no cover percentage of soft corals and high cover percentage of other biota or substrate. The reef areas exhibited poor coral cover with an average of 15 percent live hard corals having family Acropora as the most dominant species (Shannon diversity index of 1.653). Water samples obtained were within the DENR (1990) standards suitable for the optimum growth of coral reefs. The health status of the coral reefs in Morales beach showed a partially disturbed reef due to human intervention. It is greatly recommended to constantly monitor the coral conditions in order to effectively manage and protect the increasing number of Marine Protected Areas (MPA).
ATI Technical Training Short Course Underwater Acoustics for Biologists and C...Jim Jenkins
Underwater Acoustics for Biologists and Conservation Managers: A comprehensive tutorial designed for environmental professionals. This three-day course is designed for biologists, and conservation managers, who wish to enhance their understanding of the underlying principles of underwater and engineering acoustics needed to evaluate the impact of anthropogenic noise on marine life. This course provides a framework for making objective assessments of the impact of various types of sound sources. Critical topics are introduced through clear and readily understandable heuristic models and graphics.
Coral population dynamics across consecutive massmortality e.docxvanesaburnand
Coral population dynamics across consecutive mass
mortality events
B E R N H A R D R I E G L and SAM PURKIS
National Coral Reef Institute, Nova Southeastern University, 8000 N Ocean Drive, Dania, FL 33004, USA
Abstract
Annual coral mortality events due to increased atmospheric heat may occur regularly from the middle of the century
and are considered apocalyptic for coral reefs. In the Arabian/Persian Gulf, this situation has already occurred and
population dynamics of four widespread corals (Acropora downingi, Porites harrisoni, Dipsastrea pallida, Cyphastrea
micropthalma) were examined across the first-ever occurrence of four back-to-back mass mortality events (2009–2012).
Mortality was driven by diseases in 2009, bleaching and subsequent diseases in 2010/2011/2012. 2009 reduced P. har-
risoni cover and size, the other events increasingly reduced overall cover (2009: �10%; 2010: �20%; 2011: �20%; 2012:
�15%) and affected all examined species. Regeneration was only observed after the first disturbance. P. harrisoni and
A. downingi severely declined from 2010 due to bleaching and subsequent white syndromes, while D. pallida and
P. daedalea declined from 2011 due to bleaching and black-band disease. C. microphthalma cover was not affected. In
all species, most large corals were lost while fission due to partial tissue mortality bolstered small size classes. This
general shrinkage led to a decrease of coral cover and a dramatic reduction of fecundity. Transition matrices for dis-
turbed and undisturbed conditions were evaluated as Life Table Response Experiment and showed that C. microph-
thalma changed the least in size-class dynamics and fecundity, suggesting they were ‘winners’. In an ordered
‘degradation cascade’, impacts decreased from the most common to the least common species, leading to step-wise
removal of previously dominant species. A potentially permanent shift from high- to low-coral cover with different
coral community and size structure can be expected due to the demographic dynamics resultant from the distur-
bances. Similarities to degradation of other Caribbean and Pacific reefs are discussed. As comparable environmental
conditions and mortality patterns must be expected worldwide, demographic collapse of many other coral popula-
tions may soon be widespread.
Keywords: climate change, coral reef, demographics, mass mortality, population dynamics
Received 13 March 2015; revised version received 26 May 2015 and accepted 29 May 2015
Introduction
Coral reefs are among the most sensitive ecosystems to
excursions from mean environmental conditions, such
as temperature, UV irradiation, and nutrient levels and
suffer heavy mortality from consequent bleaching and
diseases (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007; Selig et al., 2010;
Wiedenmann et al., 2013; D’Angelo & Wiedenmann,
2014; Riegl et al., 2015). Rising global temperatures and
alterations in nutrient dynamics are predicted to fur-
ther increase the frequenc.
corallivory and algal dynamics on some coral reefs in the persian gulfpersiangulf1
Macroalgae are a sign of degradation of coral reefs. Distribution of macroalgae on reefs is moderated by grazers including fish and sea urchins. However, several fish species including certain parrotfishes graze on live coral tissues, at times causing profound damage. In this paper, the positive role of macroalgae in suppressing parrotfish predation on Porites corals, the dominant coral genus in Qeshm Island, is investigated at three research sites at Qeshm Island in the Persian Gulf between April and July 2014 and 2015. Macroalgae, which were abundant in April, decreased significantly in frequency in July, while at the same time, the percentage of Porites colonies, the frequency of fish bite marks on Porites colonies, and the overall area of live coral tissue, which was grazed by parrotfishes increased dramatically, all of which were only negligible in April (with certain exceptions). Nevertheless, no changes were observed in parrotfish abundance. Despite partially supportive statistical data, this phenomenon is more likely to be due to the increased nutritional values of the corals in July in comparison to April. However, to understand the cause(s) and mechanisms involved in this annual phenomenon, more investigations seem necessary.
Spatial Coverage of Water Hyacinth Infestation Around Lake Tana, Ethiopia ESIJjournal1
Water hyacinth, Eichhornia Crassipes, is an aquatic invasive species which is native to South America. It profoundly affects the tropical and subtropical region of the world. In addition, it is recognized as one of the worst weeds and most aggressive invasive species by the International Union for theConservation of Nature (IUCN). In Africa, Zimbabwe is one of the first African countries which water hyacinth was officially recorded. In Ethiopia, it announced in 1956 in Koka Lake and Awash river. Water hyacinth infestation around the Lake Tana is aggravated from time to time. This study was conducted on five woredas (such as Dera, Fogera, Libokemkem, Gondar Zuria and Dembia) which have a higher infestation of water hyacinth coverage. There were about 5394 hectares of water hyacinth areal coverage of the whole woredas at the cost of the Lake. From those woredas, Dembia was holding most areal coverage (2563
hectares) of water hyacinth infestation. To determine the areal extent of water hyacinth around the lake, consecutive ground control truck points was calibrated.
Trends in Macrophyte Diversity in Anthropogenic Perturbed Lentic Ecosystems w...Premier Publishers
Aquatic macrophytes hold several niches within the ecosystem, including inter alia water purification, carbon sequestration and serve as microhabitats for aquatic insects. These dynamic roles make macrophytes good indicators of current environmental conditions. Hence assessing their abundance in line with wetland ecosystem dynamics and function is essential. Frequency of occurrence and density values were estimated, using twenty (20) 2 m x 2 m quadrats for each macrophyte encountered. The results of the study revealed twenty-one (21) macrophytes belonging to 16 families. These ponds varied markedly in terms of species composition and in numerical strength such that Polygonum lanigerum (1143+175st/ha), Setaria verticillata (337.5+ 32.8st/ha), Azolla pinnata (337.7+ 16.4 st/ha) recorded high density values while Lagenaria breviflora (18.7±2.19), Sida acuta (18.75±5.30), Ludwigia erecta (18.7±0.15) and Milletia aboensis (18.7±0.03) were the least abundant species. Pond A and D with 11 taxa each had the higher Shannon-Wiener (2.192, 2.214) and Simpson (0.8699, 0.8787) diversity indices respectively when compared to the other ponds. On the contrary, pond C with four taxa had the least Shannon-Wiener and Simpson diversity indices (1.253, 0.6782) respectively. Equitability and evenness ranged between 0.914 - 0. 952 and 0.814 - 0.900 respectively. Bray and Curtis cluster analysis showed that pond B was the most dissimilar compared to other ponds in terms of the taxa composition.
AGU 2012 Conference, San Francisco, CA
Student Oral Presenter
• Presented at the American Geophysical Union (AGU) on “Validating Annual Growth Bands of Deep Sea
Corals from the Gulf of Mexico and Southeastern United States”.
A study on the biodiversity of snake island in South Andaman - JBESInnspub Net
Snake Island is an uninhabited small rocky islet off Carbyn’s Cove in Port Blair, Andaman. The biodiversity of this rocky island is its distinctive feature as it becomes a small habitat for various organisms close to the open sea. During this present study a total no. of 217 species were recorded out of which 205 has been identified. Pisces was the dominant group, followed by cnidarians, molluscs, arthropods etc. The island is highly influenced by sea water as during high tides nearly 75 % of the island is submerged by seawater. This is the reason of dominance of marine organisms (94 %) over terrestrial organisms (6 %) in the island. Another characteristic feature of the island is the formation of numerous rocky and sandy water channels and the presence of a ‘coral pool’ at the end of one such channel on the north-eastern part of the island. During high tide these channels are filled with water and exchange of seawater takes place in the coral pool, where highest diversity of species was observed. Lack of intertidal species in the island is evident due to the high action of waves from the open sea and lack of hiding areas other than rocky crevices. Get more articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-6-number-4-april-2015-jbes/
Physico-chemical parameters and macrobenthic invertebrates of the intertidal ...Angelo Mark Walag
Physico-chemical parameters and macrobenthic invertebrates of the intertidal zone of Gusa, Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines were assessed from March to May 2014. Water temperature, pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, and type of substrate were determined in the study were within the normal range. A modified transect-quadrat method was used in an approximately 14,000 m2 of study area. Seven hundred twenty seven individuals belonging to 15 species were found in the area. These organisms belong to four phyla namely: Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, and Annelida. The three most abundant organisms found were Coenobita clypeatus, Ophiothrix longipeda, and Cypraea poraria with relative abundance of 73.86%, 4.13% and 3.71% respectively. Most of the macrobenthic fauna identified exhibited a clumped pattern of distribution, while the rest are randomly distributed. The species diversity of the area is 1.19 which is very low compared to reports from related studies.
Deciphering the nature of the coral–Chromera association. Mohamed et al-2018-...Amin Mohamed
Since the discovery of Chromera velia as a novel coral-associated microalga, this organism has attracted interest because of its unique evolutionary position between the photosynthetic dinoflagellates and the parasitic apicomplexans. The nature of the relationship between Chromera and its coral host is controversial. Is it a mutualism, from which both participants benefit, a parasitic relationship, or a chance association? To better understand the interaction, larvae of the common Indo-Pacific reef-building coral Acropora digitifera were experimentally infected with Chromera, and the impact on the host transcriptome was assessed at 4, 12, and 48 h post-infection using Illumina RNA-Seq technology. The transcriptomic response of the coral to Chromera was complex and implies that host immunity is strongly suppressed, and both phagosome maturation and the apoptotic machinery is modified. These responses differ markedly from those described for infection with a competent strain of the coral mutualist Symbiodinium, instead resembling those of vertebrate hosts to parasites and/or pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Consistent with ecological studies suggesting that the association may be accidental, the transcriptional response of A. digitifera larvae leads us to conclude that Chromera could be a coral parasite, commensal, or accidental bystander, but certainly not a beneficial mutualist.
Novel insights into the establishment of symbiosis. Amin Mohamed-2016-thesis JCUAmin Mohamed
Reef-building corals are considered as meta-organisms where the coral animal lives in symbiosis with a wide array of microorganisms. While mutualistic association between corals and Symbiodinium is crucial for the functioning and success of the coral reef ecosystems, surprisingly little is currently known about its molecular basis and this is especially true of the events leading to establishment of the relationship. A morphologically similar alga to Symbiodinium was discovered in Australian corals and has been identified as Chromera. The discovery of Chromera is very significant as it holds a unique position in evolution, between the photosynthetic dinoflagellates and the parasitic apicomplexans. The nature of the association between Chromera and corals is currently unclear. In this thesis, I used high throughput next generation sequencing technology (Illumina RNA-Seq) to explore the molecular mechanisms underlying establishment of coral-algal symbiosis between coral larvae and a competent strain of Symbiodinium. I examined also the nature of the poorly understood relationship between corals and the newly described photosynthetic apicomplexan alga Chromera using RNA-Seq. Finally, I present a functional genomic resource (transcriptome) for a Chromera strain isolated from a Great Barrier Reef coral, and use a comparative transcriptomic approach to examine sharing of functions and pathways among Chromera, Symbiodinium kawagutii and Plasmodium falciparum.
More Related Content
Similar to Status of coral reef health in the northern red sea egypt icrs 2012 paper
Coral population dynamics across consecutive massmortality e.docxvanesaburnand
Coral population dynamics across consecutive mass
mortality events
B E R N H A R D R I E G L and SAM PURKIS
National Coral Reef Institute, Nova Southeastern University, 8000 N Ocean Drive, Dania, FL 33004, USA
Abstract
Annual coral mortality events due to increased atmospheric heat may occur regularly from the middle of the century
and are considered apocalyptic for coral reefs. In the Arabian/Persian Gulf, this situation has already occurred and
population dynamics of four widespread corals (Acropora downingi, Porites harrisoni, Dipsastrea pallida, Cyphastrea
micropthalma) were examined across the first-ever occurrence of four back-to-back mass mortality events (2009–2012).
Mortality was driven by diseases in 2009, bleaching and subsequent diseases in 2010/2011/2012. 2009 reduced P. har-
risoni cover and size, the other events increasingly reduced overall cover (2009: �10%; 2010: �20%; 2011: �20%; 2012:
�15%) and affected all examined species. Regeneration was only observed after the first disturbance. P. harrisoni and
A. downingi severely declined from 2010 due to bleaching and subsequent white syndromes, while D. pallida and
P. daedalea declined from 2011 due to bleaching and black-band disease. C. microphthalma cover was not affected. In
all species, most large corals were lost while fission due to partial tissue mortality bolstered small size classes. This
general shrinkage led to a decrease of coral cover and a dramatic reduction of fecundity. Transition matrices for dis-
turbed and undisturbed conditions were evaluated as Life Table Response Experiment and showed that C. microph-
thalma changed the least in size-class dynamics and fecundity, suggesting they were ‘winners’. In an ordered
‘degradation cascade’, impacts decreased from the most common to the least common species, leading to step-wise
removal of previously dominant species. A potentially permanent shift from high- to low-coral cover with different
coral community and size structure can be expected due to the demographic dynamics resultant from the distur-
bances. Similarities to degradation of other Caribbean and Pacific reefs are discussed. As comparable environmental
conditions and mortality patterns must be expected worldwide, demographic collapse of many other coral popula-
tions may soon be widespread.
Keywords: climate change, coral reef, demographics, mass mortality, population dynamics
Received 13 March 2015; revised version received 26 May 2015 and accepted 29 May 2015
Introduction
Coral reefs are among the most sensitive ecosystems to
excursions from mean environmental conditions, such
as temperature, UV irradiation, and nutrient levels and
suffer heavy mortality from consequent bleaching and
diseases (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007; Selig et al., 2010;
Wiedenmann et al., 2013; D’Angelo & Wiedenmann,
2014; Riegl et al., 2015). Rising global temperatures and
alterations in nutrient dynamics are predicted to fur-
ther increase the frequenc.
corallivory and algal dynamics on some coral reefs in the persian gulfpersiangulf1
Macroalgae are a sign of degradation of coral reefs. Distribution of macroalgae on reefs is moderated by grazers including fish and sea urchins. However, several fish species including certain parrotfishes graze on live coral tissues, at times causing profound damage. In this paper, the positive role of macroalgae in suppressing parrotfish predation on Porites corals, the dominant coral genus in Qeshm Island, is investigated at three research sites at Qeshm Island in the Persian Gulf between April and July 2014 and 2015. Macroalgae, which were abundant in April, decreased significantly in frequency in July, while at the same time, the percentage of Porites colonies, the frequency of fish bite marks on Porites colonies, and the overall area of live coral tissue, which was grazed by parrotfishes increased dramatically, all of which were only negligible in April (with certain exceptions). Nevertheless, no changes were observed in parrotfish abundance. Despite partially supportive statistical data, this phenomenon is more likely to be due to the increased nutritional values of the corals in July in comparison to April. However, to understand the cause(s) and mechanisms involved in this annual phenomenon, more investigations seem necessary.
Spatial Coverage of Water Hyacinth Infestation Around Lake Tana, Ethiopia ESIJjournal1
Water hyacinth, Eichhornia Crassipes, is an aquatic invasive species which is native to South America. It profoundly affects the tropical and subtropical region of the world. In addition, it is recognized as one of the worst weeds and most aggressive invasive species by the International Union for theConservation of Nature (IUCN). In Africa, Zimbabwe is one of the first African countries which water hyacinth was officially recorded. In Ethiopia, it announced in 1956 in Koka Lake and Awash river. Water hyacinth infestation around the Lake Tana is aggravated from time to time. This study was conducted on five woredas (such as Dera, Fogera, Libokemkem, Gondar Zuria and Dembia) which have a higher infestation of water hyacinth coverage. There were about 5394 hectares of water hyacinth areal coverage of the whole woredas at the cost of the Lake. From those woredas, Dembia was holding most areal coverage (2563
hectares) of water hyacinth infestation. To determine the areal extent of water hyacinth around the lake, consecutive ground control truck points was calibrated.
Trends in Macrophyte Diversity in Anthropogenic Perturbed Lentic Ecosystems w...Premier Publishers
Aquatic macrophytes hold several niches within the ecosystem, including inter alia water purification, carbon sequestration and serve as microhabitats for aquatic insects. These dynamic roles make macrophytes good indicators of current environmental conditions. Hence assessing their abundance in line with wetland ecosystem dynamics and function is essential. Frequency of occurrence and density values were estimated, using twenty (20) 2 m x 2 m quadrats for each macrophyte encountered. The results of the study revealed twenty-one (21) macrophytes belonging to 16 families. These ponds varied markedly in terms of species composition and in numerical strength such that Polygonum lanigerum (1143+175st/ha), Setaria verticillata (337.5+ 32.8st/ha), Azolla pinnata (337.7+ 16.4 st/ha) recorded high density values while Lagenaria breviflora (18.7±2.19), Sida acuta (18.75±5.30), Ludwigia erecta (18.7±0.15) and Milletia aboensis (18.7±0.03) were the least abundant species. Pond A and D with 11 taxa each had the higher Shannon-Wiener (2.192, 2.214) and Simpson (0.8699, 0.8787) diversity indices respectively when compared to the other ponds. On the contrary, pond C with four taxa had the least Shannon-Wiener and Simpson diversity indices (1.253, 0.6782) respectively. Equitability and evenness ranged between 0.914 - 0. 952 and 0.814 - 0.900 respectively. Bray and Curtis cluster analysis showed that pond B was the most dissimilar compared to other ponds in terms of the taxa composition.
AGU 2012 Conference, San Francisco, CA
Student Oral Presenter
• Presented at the American Geophysical Union (AGU) on “Validating Annual Growth Bands of Deep Sea
Corals from the Gulf of Mexico and Southeastern United States”.
A study on the biodiversity of snake island in South Andaman - JBESInnspub Net
Snake Island is an uninhabited small rocky islet off Carbyn’s Cove in Port Blair, Andaman. The biodiversity of this rocky island is its distinctive feature as it becomes a small habitat for various organisms close to the open sea. During this present study a total no. of 217 species were recorded out of which 205 has been identified. Pisces was the dominant group, followed by cnidarians, molluscs, arthropods etc. The island is highly influenced by sea water as during high tides nearly 75 % of the island is submerged by seawater. This is the reason of dominance of marine organisms (94 %) over terrestrial organisms (6 %) in the island. Another characteristic feature of the island is the formation of numerous rocky and sandy water channels and the presence of a ‘coral pool’ at the end of one such channel on the north-eastern part of the island. During high tide these channels are filled with water and exchange of seawater takes place in the coral pool, where highest diversity of species was observed. Lack of intertidal species in the island is evident due to the high action of waves from the open sea and lack of hiding areas other than rocky crevices. Get more articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-6-number-4-april-2015-jbes/
Physico-chemical parameters and macrobenthic invertebrates of the intertidal ...Angelo Mark Walag
Physico-chemical parameters and macrobenthic invertebrates of the intertidal zone of Gusa, Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines were assessed from March to May 2014. Water temperature, pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, and type of substrate were determined in the study were within the normal range. A modified transect-quadrat method was used in an approximately 14,000 m2 of study area. Seven hundred twenty seven individuals belonging to 15 species were found in the area. These organisms belong to four phyla namely: Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, and Annelida. The three most abundant organisms found were Coenobita clypeatus, Ophiothrix longipeda, and Cypraea poraria with relative abundance of 73.86%, 4.13% and 3.71% respectively. Most of the macrobenthic fauna identified exhibited a clumped pattern of distribution, while the rest are randomly distributed. The species diversity of the area is 1.19 which is very low compared to reports from related studies.
Similar to Status of coral reef health in the northern red sea egypt icrs 2012 paper (20)
Deciphering the nature of the coral–Chromera association. Mohamed et al-2018-...Amin Mohamed
Since the discovery of Chromera velia as a novel coral-associated microalga, this organism has attracted interest because of its unique evolutionary position between the photosynthetic dinoflagellates and the parasitic apicomplexans. The nature of the relationship between Chromera and its coral host is controversial. Is it a mutualism, from which both participants benefit, a parasitic relationship, or a chance association? To better understand the interaction, larvae of the common Indo-Pacific reef-building coral Acropora digitifera were experimentally infected with Chromera, and the impact on the host transcriptome was assessed at 4, 12, and 48 h post-infection using Illumina RNA-Seq technology. The transcriptomic response of the coral to Chromera was complex and implies that host immunity is strongly suppressed, and both phagosome maturation and the apoptotic machinery is modified. These responses differ markedly from those described for infection with a competent strain of the coral mutualist Symbiodinium, instead resembling those of vertebrate hosts to parasites and/or pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Consistent with ecological studies suggesting that the association may be accidental, the transcriptional response of A. digitifera larvae leads us to conclude that Chromera could be a coral parasite, commensal, or accidental bystander, but certainly not a beneficial mutualist.
Novel insights into the establishment of symbiosis. Amin Mohamed-2016-thesis JCUAmin Mohamed
Reef-building corals are considered as meta-organisms where the coral animal lives in symbiosis with a wide array of microorganisms. While mutualistic association between corals and Symbiodinium is crucial for the functioning and success of the coral reef ecosystems, surprisingly little is currently known about its molecular basis and this is especially true of the events leading to establishment of the relationship. A morphologically similar alga to Symbiodinium was discovered in Australian corals and has been identified as Chromera. The discovery of Chromera is very significant as it holds a unique position in evolution, between the photosynthetic dinoflagellates and the parasitic apicomplexans. The nature of the association between Chromera and corals is currently unclear. In this thesis, I used high throughput next generation sequencing technology (Illumina RNA-Seq) to explore the molecular mechanisms underlying establishment of coral-algal symbiosis between coral larvae and a competent strain of Symbiodinium. I examined also the nature of the poorly understood relationship between corals and the newly described photosynthetic apicomplexan alga Chromera using RNA-Seq. Finally, I present a functional genomic resource (transcriptome) for a Chromera strain isolated from a Great Barrier Reef coral, and use a comparative transcriptomic approach to examine sharing of functions and pathways among Chromera, Symbiodinium kawagutii and Plasmodium falciparum.
Evaluation of Pool-Seq as a cost-effective alternative to GWASAmin Mohamed
Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) of pools of individuals (Pool-Seq) provides a cost-effective method for genome-wide association studies (GWAS), and offers an alternative to sequencing of individuals that remains cost prohibitive. Pool-Seq is being increasingly used in population genomic studies in both model and non-model organisms. In this paper, the ability of Pool-Seq to recover known GWAS signals was evaluated. Existing GWAS data for 2,112 animals with 729K SNPs were obtained and pooled to simulate data obtained from a pooled WGS approach. Traditional GWAS results was compared with the absolute allele frequency difference (dAF) metric suitable for use with Pool-Seq data. Specifically, we tested the ability of dAF scans to recover known GWAS signals for two different traits with large and moderate gene effects. Pools of different sizes (50, 100 and 200 individuals per pool) were also compared. The results showed the ability of the absolute allele frequency difference (dAF) approach to recover known GWAS peaks obtained by traditional SNP association and recommended the use of a pool size of 100 individuals for DNA pooling.
Molecular basis of sex maturation in Atlantic salmon: Integrated genomics app...Amin Mohamed
We present the parameters of an animal trial, coupled with multi omics data and integrated analysis, designed to elucidate the earliest triggers which commit animals to sexual maturation. Our approach has two major components. First, animals will be photoperiod manipulated to artificially narrow the time window during which maturation is initiated. Tissue samples will be collected before, during and after the initiation event. The second component involves next generation sequencing to obtain detailed gene expression and regulation. We will target the brain, pituitary and gonad tissues as the brain-pituitary-gonad (BPG) axis is central to regulating sexual maturation. We anticipate our approach has the potential to both identify the genes involved, and open new approaches to control the timing of maturation in this important production species.
Despite the ecological significance of coral-Symbiodinium symbiosis, very little is known about the molecular mechanisms involved in the establishment of the relationship. Gene expression studies based on microarrays have led to the assumption that host transcriptome is largely unresponsive during the establishment of symbiosis with competent Symbiodinium. In the present study, Illumina RNA-Seq was used to investigate transcriptome changes in Acropora digitifera larvae during exposure to competent Symbiodinium (a clade B strain). A transient period of differential expression involving a small number of genes (1073 transcripts; <3% of the transcriptome) was detected very early in the infection process i.e. 4h after infection. This phenomenon has not previously been detected as a consequence of both the lower sensitivity of the microarray approaches used and the sampling times used. The transcriptome data imply that translation and oxidative metabolism are supressed in the coral host during the infection process, and altered expression of some apoptosis-related genes was also observed. The results also suggest the involvement of both partners in the establishment of the symbiosis; there is an active response on the part of the host in recognizing the symbiotic partner, but an apparent suppression of host immune responses may be initiated by the symbiont. The results are also consistent with the hypothesis that the symbiosome is a phagosome that has undergone early arrest, raising the possibility of a common mechanism of symbiont infection in corals and symbiotic sea anemones.
Presentation at the annual AIMS@JCU seminar day in 2015.
The mutualistic relationship between reef-building corals and intracellular photosynthetic dinoflagellates of the genus Symbiodinium provides the foundation of the coral reef ecosystem. Disruption of this relationship leads to coral bleaching which is occurring on a large scale and poses a real threat to the survival of coral reefs. In spite of the great ecological significance of this partnership to coral reefs, little is currently known about the molecular mechanisms involved in the establishment and maintenance of the symbiosis. A number of studies have investigated host gene expression during the establishment of coral-algal symbiosis, but these have failed to detect host symbiosis-related signals. To better understand the early events occurring during the establishment of symbiosis, infection experiments were conducted during spawning in Sesoko Island, Okinawa, Japan in June 2013 using Acropora digitifera larvae and a competent strain of symbionts, Symbiodinium sp. clade B. Next generation sequencing (Illumina RNAseq) was used for the first time to follow coral transcriptome-wide gene expression after exposure to competent Symbiodinium at 4-, 12-, 48- h post infection. These experiments allowed the detection of transient transcriptomic signals in the coral during the initial infection period. The data imply that the establishment of symbiosis involves cross talk between the partners; an active response is required on the part of the host in order to recognize appropriate partners but at the same time the symbionts appear to suppress some host responses, including immunity
Since the discovery of Chromera velia, a novel microalga in 2008 during a study of Australian coral symbionts, great interest in this new algal species has developed. C. velia is an important organism being considered to sit phylogenetically between the photosynthetic dinoflagellate algae and the parasitic Apicomplexa. C. velia has been detected and isolated from different scleractinian corals in Australia including corals of the Great Barrier Reef. However little is known about the ecology and genetics of this microorganism. The study aims to use next generation sequencing technology (Illumina RNAseq) to generate a reference transcriptome assembly of C. velia isolated from Montipora digitata at the GBR. Differential gene expression in altered experimental treatments is investigating the diversity and dynamics of C. velia transcripts (mRNAs). Cultures were subjected to heat shock, heat stress, cold shock, cold stress, and darkness with control cultures grown under normal conditions, cultures grown under mixotrophic condition and cultures containing motile/immotile stages. Analysis of the transcriptome of C. velia will provide genomic insight into this novel chromerid alga through identifying genes involved in various physiological and metabolic processes as investigated under different experimental conditions.
Coral diseases, coral bleaching and other health issues affecting Red Sea cor...Amin Mohamed
Research paper presented at the 12th International Coral Reef Symposium (ICRS) Cairns, Australia 9-13 July 2012 in the Climate change and bleaching mini-symposium. The paper has presented the first detailed quantitative data on the distribution and prevalence of coral diseases and other compromised health signs including coral bleaching that affect multiple corals in multiple sites along the Egyptian Red Sea coast.
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Status of coral reef health in the northern red sea egypt icrs 2012 paper
1. th
Proceedings of the 12 International Coral Reef Symposium, Cairns, Australia, 9-13 July 2012
9A Coral bleaching and climate change
Status of coral reef health in the northern Red Sea, Egypt
1 2 1
Amin R. Mohamed , Abdel-Hamid A.M. Ali , Hany A. Abdel-Salam
1
Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Benha University, Benha 13518, Egypt
2
National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF), Suez, Egypt
Corresponding author: am_rd85@yahoo.com
Abstract. This study aimed to provide baseline knowledge of coral diseases prevalence and coral health at nine
reef sites in the northern Egyptian Red Sea: I (El-Ain Al-Sukhna), II (Ras Za’farana), III (Hurghada), IV (Ras
Ghozlani), V (Old Quay), VI (Yolanda reef), VII (Ras Umm Sid, Sharm El-Sheikh), VIII (WoodHouse reef,
Sharm El-Sheikh), and IX (canyon reef, Dahab). Sites IV, V and VI are located in Ras Mohamed, marine
protected area. Field surveys of coral diseases and signs of compromised health in the studied reefs revealed a
mean prevalence o f 1.03 %. Macroscopic observations were diagnosed as: black band disease (0.44%), white
syndrome (0.13 %), pink line syndrome (0.04%), ulcerative white spots (0.02%), skeletal eroding band (0.001 %),
coral bleachi ng (2.2%), Drupella cornus snail predation (0.1%), fish predation (0.2 %), pigmentation response
(0.13%), sediment damage (0.08%), algae overgrowth (0.06%) and sponge overgrowth (0.04%). Prevalence of
coral diseases and bleaching were higher in non-MP A sites than in MPA sites. The highest prevalence of coral
diseases was recorded on the coral Favia stelligera, followed by Porites lutea, and Goniastrea edwardsi.
Enhanced local anthropogenic stresses and increasing sea surface temperature due to global warming are the
suggested potential factors responsible for the initiation and the persistence of some coral diseases in the studied
reefs.
Key words: coral health, coral disease, global warming, Red Sea, Egypt.
Introduction The aims of this study were to provide baseline
Coral reefs are among the most heavily degraded knowledge of coral health and disease prevalence in
marine ecosystems. Over the last two decades, coral the northern Egyptian Red Sea, and to identify coral
reef communities h ave experienced increasingly species that were the most susceptible to each specific
stressful conditions due to a combination o f n atural disease.
and anthropogenic factors (Wilkinson 2004). Coral Material and Methods
disease potentially acts as a bioindicator of reef health Study area
(Green and Bruckner 2000) and recent increases in Data were collected from nine di fferent reef sites
coral disease events have been linked to along the northern Egyptian Red Sea coast (Fig.1).
environmental stress and climate change (Lesser et al. Sites were selected to represent reefs that were
2007). Coral disease diagnosis is primarily rel atively undisturbed (Site IV, V, VI, and VIII) and
macroscopic, taking into account characteristics such reefs that have been impacted by human activities
as the extent of tissue loss, tissue color and exposure (Site I, II, III, VII, and IX). Sites IV, V and VI are
o f coral skeleton (Ainsworth et al. 2007). located in Ras Mohammed Marine Park (Marine
Red Sea reefs are cited among the most diverse in Protected Area).
the wo rld in terms of overall species diversity (Loya
1972), yet the corals in this region are not well
studied (Rinkevich 2005). In the Red Sea, coral reef
degradation has increased dramatically during the last
three decades, particularly along the Egyptian Red
Sea coast due to enhanced anthropogenic disturbances
and their interaction with natural stressors (Ali et al.
2011). These stressors are thought to cause coral
diseases and bleaching leading to a loss of coral cover.
Unfortunately, very little is currently known about the
prevalence, distribution and pathology of coral
disease in the Red Sea (Antonius and Riegl 1997; Al -
Moghrabi 2001).
2. th
Proceedings of the 12 International Coral Reef Symposium, Cairns, Australia, 9-13 July 2012
9A Coral bleaching and climate change
Figure 1: Map of nine coral disease prevalence survey sites in the (0.08±0.007%), algae overgrowth (0.06 ±0.001 %), and
northern Egyptian Red Sea. I El-Ain Al-Sukhna, II Ras Za’farana,
sponge overgrowth (0.04 ±0.003%).
III Hurghada, IV Ras Ghozlani, V Old Quay, VI Yolanda reef, VII
Ras Umm Sid, VIII WoodHouse reef, and IX Canyon reef. Variation of coral diseases among survey sites
Field survey The prevalence of coral diseases and compromised
Surveys were carried out during the summer health varied significantly among sites (ANOVA, F=
months of 2009 and 2010 using SCUBA diving and 8.8, df=1, p≤0.05). Prevalence was higher in non-
snorkeling. At each site, three replicate 20m long and MPA sites than in MPA sites. The highest diseases
2m wide belt transects (English et al. 1997) were prevalence (1.5 ±0.08 %) was recorded at site III
surveyed at f ixed intervals on the reef slope (at a followed by site VII (1.4±0.1 %) and site I (1.3±0.2%),
uniform depth contour of 2-6m). All colonies within while the lowest prevalence (0.07±0.02%) was
each transect were identified, counted, photographed, recorded at site VIII (Fig.4). There was a weak
2
and checked f signs of disease, bleaching, predation
or positive relationship (r =0.02, p≤0.05) between the
and compromised health. Coral species and diseases amount of hard coral cover and prevalence of coral
were identified in situ and underwater photographs disease and compromised health.
(SeaLife ECOShot/SL321) were used for further 0.5
confirmation. Hard corals were identified to species
level using the identif cation guides of Sheppard and
i
0.4
Sheppard (1991), Wallace (1999), and Veron (2000).
Coral disease, bleaching, predation and other signs of P ercent prevalence
0.3
compromised health (pigmentation response,
sediment damage, algae and sponge overgrowth) were
identified by the characteristics of lesions using the 0.2
guides of Beeden et al. (2008) and Raymundo et al.
(2008). 0.1
Data Analysis
The prevalence o f coral disease, bleaching, 0.0
predation and other signs of compromised health was
B
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ov ag
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gr
o
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expressed as a percentage of the total number of coral
sp
on e r g
er
pe pre
pr
ov
sh
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colonies surveyed per transect. Mean prevalence and
ge
e
e
Fi
m
ga
ta
ru
di
en
Se
D
standard errors were calculated from all three
Sp
gm
Pi
replicate transects per site. Differences in the Figure 2 : Mean prevalence of coral diseases and compromised
prevalence of disease and compromised health signs health states across nine survey sites in the northern Egyptian Red
Sea in 2009-2010 . BBD, black band disease; WS, white syndrome;
among affected hard coral species and sites were
PLS, pink line syndrome; UWS, ulcerative white spots; SEB,
tested using separate one-way analyses of variance skeletal eroding band; Bl, bleaching.
(ANOVA). Regression analysis was used to examine
whether the prevalence of coral disease was related to
live hard coral cover and species abundance. Cluster
analysis (joining or tree clustering method) was
carried out using STATISTICA software to examine
the similarities among the studied sites in coral
disease and compromised health occurrence.
Results
Overall prevalence of coral diseases
Field surveys in the northern Red Sea revealed an
overall prevalence o f 0.63% o f coral diseases and
0.4% o f signs of compromised health (Fig.2). The
prevalence o f each disease and compromised health
state (Fig.3) was as follows; black band disease
(BBD,0.44±0.02%), white syndrome (WS,
0.13±0.006 %), pink line syndrome (PLS,
0.04±0.004 %), ulcerative white spots (UWS,
0.02±0.001 %), skeletal eroding band (SEB,
0.001±0.0001%), coral bleaching (0.07 ±0.01 %),
Drupella cornus snail predation (0.009±0.0004 %),
fish predation (0.005 ±0.0008 %), pigmentation
response (0.13 ±0.006%), sediment damage
3. th
Proceedings of the 12 International Coral Reef Symposium, Cairns, Australia, 9-13 July 2012
9A Coral bleaching and climate change
Figure 3: In situ photographs of diseases and compromised health such as UWS, SEB, and Drupella cornus predation
signs affecting corals in the northern Egyptian Red Sea. A) BBD on
only occurred at a single site (Table 1) .
Goniastrea edwardsi; B) WS on Porites and tissue bordering WS
Disease/ syndrome Sites
lesion is colored by pigmentation response C) SEB on Stylophora
pistillata; D) PLS on Porites lutea; E) Fish predation on Porites
BBD III, IV,V,VI,VII, and IX
lutea; F) Drupella cornus predation on Porites lutea; F)
Pigmentation response on Porites lutea; G) Completely bleached WS III, V, VI, VII, and IX
Acropora humilis H) Pigmentation response on Porites luea. Full
names of coral diseases as per Fig 2.
PLS I and IX
SEB II
1.8
UWS VII
1.6
Bleaching I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII
1.4
Drupella Predation I
P erc ent P rev alence
1.2
Fish predation VI and VII
1.0
Other signs of I, II, IV, V, VI, VII, and IX
0.8 Compromised health
0.6 Table 1: Distribution of diseases and compromised health signs
affecting corals in the northern Egyptian Red Sea. Full names of
0.4
coral diseases as per Fig 2.
0.2 Variation in coral diseases among hard coral species
There was a significant difference in disease
0.0
prevalence among affected coral species (ANOVA,
VI
I
IV
IX
II
I
II
V
F=22.3, df=1, p≤0.05). The highest prevalence o f
VI
te
III
VI
te
te
te
te
te
Si
te
te
Si
Si
te
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
coral disease was recorded in species Favia stelligera
Figure 4: Mean prevalence of diseases and compromised health
signs affecting corals in the surveyed sites in the northern Egyptian (6.1±0.3%), followed by Porites lutea (5.3±0.2 %),
Red Sea (N = 9 sites; n = 3 transect per site; mean ± SE) and Goniastrea edwardsi (4.0 ±0.2 %). The hard coral
The studied sites were divided into two clusters based mostly affected by BBD and WS was Favia stelligera
on the occurrence of particular diseases (Fig 5). The (5.0± 0.3% and 1.1±0.08 %, respectively ). Bleaching
largest cluster includes reef sites located nearby the predominantly occurred on Goniastrea pectinata
Gulf of Aqaba (sites VI, VIII, V, VII and IX), and site (0.7±0.03%) and UWS was reported mostly on
III. The second cluster includes sites in the Gulf of Goniastrea edwardsi (0.5 ±0.02%). The hard coral
Suez (sites I and II). most affected by PLS, fish predation and signs o f
compromised health was Porites lutea (0.6±0.03 %,
0.2±0.01 % and 2±0.1%, respectively) which was also
the only species on which Drupella cornus predation
was reported (0.1±0.07%). There was a positive
2
rel ationship (r =0.57, p≤0.05) between disease
prevalence and relative species abundance
Discussion
This study documents coral disease occurrence and
prevalence along the northern Egyptian Red Sea and
provides important baseline information in this region
where limited quantitative coral disease data exists.
The present results indicates a low coral disease
prevalence o f 0.63% on co ral reefs in the area o f
study. This level of coral disease is much lower than
those reported from other reefs both in the Indo -
Pacific: 7.2%-10.7%, GBR of Australia (Willis et al
2004); 6.2%, the Solitary Islands in Australia (Dalton
Figure 5: Cluster analysis dendrogram showing the similarities in
the occurrence of particular coral diseases among sites in northern
and Smith 2006); 8.9%, Southeastern India (Thinesh
Egyptian Red Sea. et al. 2009) and in the Caribbean: 11%, St. Lucia
Distribution o f the different coral diseases and (Nugues 2002) and 5.28% (Weil 2004).
compromised health varied among the studied sites. Distribution o f coral diseases and compromised
Bleaching was widespread (occurring at 8 out of 9 health states varied among the studied sites, which
sites) along with other signs of compromised health (7 might be due to differences in species composition
sites), BBD (6 sites), and WS (5 sites ). Other diseases and the types o f stressors affecting each site. The
4. th
Proceedings of the 12 International Coral Reef Symposium, Cairns, Australia, 9-13 July 2012
9A Coral bleaching and climate change
cluster analysis revealed similarities between sites that WS commonly affects plate species of genus
located nearby the Gulf of Aqaba and Hurghada (Fig Acropora.
5). These sites are heavily impacted by human Pink line syndrome (PLS) is an Indo -pacific coral
touristic activities such as SCUBA diving and disease and it was firstly described from Kavaratti
snorkeling. Additionally there was high similarity Island, Indian Ocean in 2001. It is characterized by a
between sites I and II (non-MPA sites), which are band o f pink-pigmented tissue separating dead
impacted by oil pollution and massive construction skeleton from apparently healthy tissue. This band
activities. may begin as a small ring and progress outward
Black band disease (BBD) was the most prevalent horizontally across a coral colony (Sutherland et al.
coral disease on the surveyed sites, accounted fo r 2004). The results o f this study showed that PLS had
42% of the cases o f coral diseases at the surveyed a low prevalence in all studied reefs, accounting fo r
sites (Fig 2) with a lower prevalence (0.44%) than 3.8% o f the diseases prevalence obtained. The coral
reported from the Great Barrier Reef (GBR, 2.8%; Porites lutea was the most susceptible coral to PLS.
Dinsdale 2002) and the Florida Keys (0.72%; Kuta These results are consistent with the findings o f
and Richardson 1996). BBD has also been recorded in Ravindran and Raghukumar (2002) who reported that
other areas of the Red Sea (Antonius 1988 a, b; Green Porites compressa and Porites lutea were affected by
and Bruckner 2000; Al-M oghrabi 2001). The PLS.
relatively high levels o f BBD in the study were Skeletal eroding band (SEB) and ulcerative white
observed at sites nearby large cities including: Dahab, spots (UWS) showed the lowest prevalence in the
Sharm El-Sheikh, and Hurghada. This may be area of study (Fig. 2). Stylophora pistilata was the
attributed to enhanced terrestrial sedimentation, most susceptible coral to SEB which is consistent
nutrient enrichment and sewage discharge (Voss and with results of Winkler et al. (2004) who reported that
Richardson 2006). These local st ressors are largely Acropora and Stylophora were the coral genera most
associated with population growth in the coastal cities heavily impacted by SEB in the Gulf o f Aqaba.
and towns, co astal development and expansion o f Coral bleaching occurred more frequently among
tourism activities. It is important to note that the the investigated sites than any of the diseases or other
greatest numbers o f BBD cases were recorded on signs o f compromised health, but prevalence within
faviid corals, where Favia stelligera was the most sites was low. Elevated sea surface temperature
susceptible species to BBD. This is consistent with associated with the global warming is a main cause of
Indo-Pacific records of BBD f r two massive faviid
o coral bleaching (Hoegh -Guldberg et al. 2007), and
species, Goniastrea pectinata and Platygyra has previously affected R ed Sea reefs in 1998 and
Lamellina, from the Philippines and a further seven 2002/2003 (Antonius 1988a, Loya 2004). The low
massiv e faviids from the Red Sea (Willis et al 2004). level of bleaching in this study may have been caused
Unlike in the Caribbean, where BBD primarily infects by above average sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in
massive species (Kuta and Richardson 1996), the Red Sea at the time of our surveys. SST anomalies
branching pocilloporid and acroporid corals are of 1°C (2009) and 1.5 °C (2010) above the maximum
important host species on the GBR. While BBD mean SST of 29°C (NOAA coral reef watch satellite)
primarily affects faviids in the Red Sea and Caribbean, were recorded during the surveys.
greater infection rates in pocilloporids and acroporids Prevalence of Drupella predation and fish
on the GBR might be attributed to differential species predation was very low (0.009% and 0.005 %,
composition. respectively ) compared to the prevalence o f other
White syndrome (WS) is a common coral disease compromised health states. Porites lutea was the only
in the Indo-Pacific and is a collective term fo r species subjected to both Dr upella and fish predation.
conditions producing white symptoms on the GBR Other signs of compromised health were common in
(Willis et al. 2004). In this study, WS had a the study area, including: pigmentation response,
prevalence of 0.13% in all studied reefs and sediment damage and competition (algae and sponge
accounted for 12.6% of the observed diseases. WS overgrowth). At some study sites, sedimentation from
has been reported from other areas in the Red Sea increased coastal construction activities constitutes
(Antonius 1988a; Antonius and Riegl 1998), the Indo - one of the potential causes of coral tissue loss. Porites
Pacific (GBR, Willis et al. 2004; Philippines, was the most affected coral by pigmentation response
Raymondo et al. 2005; Indonesia, Haapkyla et al. and it appears to respond to a variety of competitive
2007) and the West Indian Ocean (Weil et al. 2006). and p arasitic challenges by producing pink or purple
The most susceptible coral species to WS in this study pigmentation (Willis et al. 2004). In contrast to PLS,
were Favia st elligera and the plate coral Acropora which has well defined pink lines bordering the dead
hyacinthus. Similarly, Beeden et al. (2008) reported patches in the affected colonies, reported
5. th
Proceedings of the 12 International Coral Reef Symposium, Cairns, Australia, 9-13 July 2012
9A Coral bleaching and climate change
pigmentation responses are in the form of spots or Kuta KG, Richardson LL (1996) Abundance and distribution of
black band disease on coral reefs in the northern Florida Keys.
patches of brightly colored tissues.
Coral Reefs 15:219–223
This study has documented that Egyptian Red Sea Lesser MP, Bythell JC, Gates RD, Johnstone, RW and Hoegh-
reefs are currently impacted by a number of diseases Guldberg O (2007) Are infectious diseases really killing corals?
and syndromes. These coral diseases affect both Alternative interpretations of the experimental and ecological
data. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol. 346: 36–44
protected and non -protected reefs. Prevalence of coral
Loya Y (1972) Community structure and species diversity of
diseases and bleaching were higher in non-MPA sites hermatypic corals at Eilat, Red Sea. Mar Biol 13:100-123
than in MPA sites. Enhanced local anthropogenic Loya Y (2004) The Coral Reefs of Eilat – Past, Present and Future:
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potential factors responsible fo r the initiation and National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
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