This document discusses redundant nominal person marking in Nahuan languages. It begins by providing background on Nahuan languages and describing how many languages mark the subject of both nominal and verbal predicates with first and second person prefixes. It then examines nominal subject marking in Classical Nahuatl in more detail, noting its consistency and redundancy. The document explores this feature in other Nahuan dialects and languages, finding it is preserved in some but lacking in others. It considers whether nominal subject marking was a proto-Nahuan feature or a later innovation, and suggests Spanish influence may have accelerated its decline in some varieties.

1. Redundant Nominal Person Marking
in Nahuan: Innovation or Retention?
Mitsuya SASAKI
University of Tokyo, JSPS research fellow
SSILA Winter Meeting 2014
January 4, 2014
1

2. Nahuan languages
Uto-Aztecan > Southern UA (?) > Nahuan
Approximately 1,500,000 speakers, mostly in Mexico
“Polysynthetic,” head-marking morphosyntax
Mexicanero
Pochutec
(extinct)
“Nahuatl”
dialects
Pipil
2

3. Nominal “subject” person marking in
Nahuan languages
In many Nahuan languages, first- and secondperson “subject” person prefixes appear in
both predicative and non-predicative nouns to
mark their referential person feature
3

4. Nominal “subject” person marking in
Classical Nahuatl
4

5. Classical Nahuatl
16th / 17th-century old
dialect(s) spoken in the
Valley of Mexico
Central > Nuclear
Latin-script records
– Religious texts
– Chronicles
– Testaments etc.
5

6. Practical orthography
qui, que, ca, co, Vc = /ki/, /ke/, /ka/, /ko/, /Vk/
ci, ce, za, zo, Vz = /si/, /se/, /sa/, /so/, /Vs/
huV, Vuh = /wV/, /Vw/
cuV, Vuc = /kwV/, /Vkw/
x = /š/ [ʃ]
h = /ʔ/ [ʔ]~[h]
tz, ch, tl = /c/ [ts], /č/ [tʃ], /λ/ [tl]
6

7. “Subject” person marking in
Classical Nahuatl
The same set of “subject” prefixes mark the
“subject” of both nominal and verbal predicates
(only for first and second person)
Singular
First person
Second person
Third person
Plural
n(i)t(i)Ø-
t(i)amØ7

8. Cross-categorial “subject” person
marking in Classical Nahuatl
Ca
ti-c-mati
AFF
(Verbal predicate)
2sgS-3sgO-know
“You know it” (FC VI)
Ca
ti-pil-li
AFF
(Nominal predicate)
2sgS-noble-ABS
“You are a noble” (FC VI)
8

9. Redundancy / obligatoriness (1)
Ca
tehhuā-tl
ti-tlahtoāni
AFF
2sg-ABS
2sgS-ruler
“You are the ruler” (Anales de Cuauhtitlán)
Ca ti-nel-li
ti-teōpixcā-tzin-tli
AFF 2sgS-true-ABS 2sgS-priest-HON-ABS
“You are a real priest” (La adoración de los Reyes)
9

10. Redundancy / obligatoriness (2)
an-tlahtohqu-eh
an-ye-zqu-eh
2plS-ruler-PL
2plS-be-FUT-PL
“You will be the rulers” (Crónica mexicáyotl)
ti-piltōn-tli
ti-mo-chīhua-z
2sgS-baby-ABS
2sgS-REFL-make-FUT
“You will become a baby” (FC III)
10

11. Appositional use of person-marked
nouns
Ca nicān t-oncah
AFF here
in
ti-no-pil-tzin
2sgS-exist ART 2sgS-1sgP-child-HON
“Here you are, you who are my son” (FC VI)
... iuhqui
like
in
to-tlahtōl
ti-tlāca-h
ART
1plP-word
1plS-person-PL
“like we humans’ language” (FC XI)
11

12. Types of nominal “subject” marking (1)
Predicative use:
Ca
tehhuā-tl ti-tlahtoāni
AFF 2sg-ABS 2sgS-ruler
“You are the ruler” (Anales de Cuauhtitlán)
Intraeventive use: an-tlahtohqu-eh an-ye-zqu-eh
2plS-ruler-PL
2plS-be-FUT-PL
“You will become the rulers” (Crón. Mex.)
Appositional use: t-oncah
in
ti-no-pil-tzin
2sgS-exist ART 2sgS-1sgP-child-HON
“Here you are, you who are my son”
(FC VI)
12

13. Types of nominal “subject” marking (2)
Single-word marking
– Ca
AFF
tehhuā-tl ti-tlahtoāni
2sg-ABS 2sgS-ruler
“You are the ruler” (Anales de Cuauhtitlán)
Multi-word marking
– tehhuātl ti-cual-li
2sg
2sgS-good-ABS
ti-tlahtoāni
2sgS-ruler
“You are a good ruler” (Compendio del Arte)
13

14. “Omnipredicativity” hypothesis
Launey (1994, 2003): Nahuatl nouns are
essentially predicative (“omnipredicative”)
Andrews (2003): Nahuatl nominal words are
“nominal nuclear clauses”
14

15. Summary: nominal “subject” person
marking in Classical Nahuatl
Uniform “subject” marking for both
predicative and non-predicative nouns
Redundant, obligatory marking
– Double marking in [Adj + N]
“Omnipredicativity” hypothesis
15

16. Cross-dialectal comparison
16

17. “Dialectal Areas” of Nahuan
Pochutec †
Nahuan
“General
Aztec”
Occidental
Central
Nuclear
Classical
Huasteca
Oriental
(Adapted from Langacker 1977 and Lastra de Suárez, 1986;
cf. also Canger 1988, Kaufman 2001, Hasler 1975, etc.)
17

18. Preservation of non-predicative nominal
preson marking
Milpa Alta Nahuatl (Horcasitas 1968)
– ... tlen
ti-c-nequi
tehuan ti-temachtiqu-ez
REL 1plS-3sgO-want 1pl
1plS-teacher-PL
“what we teachers want”
Tetelcingo Nahuatl (Tuggy 1979)
– Ohalá ma
OPT
nı-ye-nı
nı-riko
EXHRT 1sgS-be-IRR 1sgS-rich
“Would that I were rich”
18

19. Lack of non-predicative nominal person
marking in some Nahuan languages
El Salvador Pipil (Campbell, 1985)
– Taha
2sg
ti-mayordomoh
2sgS-steward
“You are a steward”
– N-yu
ni-nemi
1sgS-go 1sgS-live
deskalsoh
barefoot
“I am goind to be barefoot”
19

20. Optional person marking on nonpredicative nouns
Nahuatl of Norte de Puebla (Bible translation)
– Wan ahmo xi-ye-can
and
NEG
nan-xoxos
2S.OPT-be-PL 2plS-foolish
“Therefore do not be foolish” (Eph. 5:17)
– Xi-ye-can
chicahuac ica
2S.OPT-be-PL strong
by
To-tecoh-tzin
1plP-lord-HON
“Be strong in the Lord” (Phil 4:1)
20

21. Nominal subject person marking:
innovation or retention?
21

22. Nominal subject person marking:
innovation or retention?
Consistent and redundant nominal “subject”
marking found in Classical Nahuatl:
Proto-Nahuan feature?
Later innovation?
22

23. “Dialectal Areas” of Nahuan
Occidental
Pochutec †
Nahuan
Central
“General Aztec”
Huasteca
Oriental
(Adapted from Langacker 1977 and Lastra de Suárez, 1986;
cf. also Canger 1988, Kaufman 2001, Hasler 1975, etc.)
23

24. Four “Dialectal Areas”
Huasteca
Oriental Periphery
Central
– Sierra de Puebla
– Isthmus
– Central Guerrero
– Southern Guerrero
– Pipil
– Nuclear
Occidental Periphery
– Puebla-Tlaxcala
– Western Coast
– Xochitepec-Huatlatlauca
– West of the State of Mexico
– Southeastern Puebla
– Durango-Nayarit
(Adapted from Lastra de Suárez, 1986)
24

25. Huasteca Nahuatl
Eastern Huasteca (Tepoxteco, Veracruz)
Ni-tepahtihque-tl
1sgS-curer-ABS
“I am a doctor”
(Ti-)cual-li
ti-tepahtihque-tl
2sgS-good-ABS 2sgS-curer-ABS
“You are a good doctor”
Ni-eli-z
ni-tepahtihque-tl
1sgS-be-FUT
1sgS-curer-ABS
“I will be a doctor”
(Victoriano de la Cruz, speaker p.c.)
25

26. Central Nahuatl
Central > Nuclear > Tetelcingo (Morelos)
taha
ok
tı-pılalak-tlı
2sg
still
2sgS-lad-ABS
“You are still a lad” (Tuggy, 1979, 15)
Ohalá
ma
nı-ye-nı
OPT
EXHRT
1sgS-be-IRR 1sgS-rich
nı-riko
“Would that I were rich” (Tuggy, 1979, 32)
...
tli
tejua
te-jorioj-te
te-c-pea
REL
1pl
1plS-Jewish-PL 1plS-3sgO-have
“... which we Jewish people have” (Bible trans., Acts 26:3)
26

27. Oriental Periphery
Oriental > Sierra de Puebla > Cuetzalan, Puebla
Ti-tayecanque ti-ye-zqui
2sgS-leader
2sgS-be-FUT
“You will be a/the leader”
Ni-tomineh
ni-cat-ca
1sgS-rich
1sgS-be-PST
“I was rich”
Ti-nel-li
(yn)
2sgS-true-ABS ART
“You are a true priest”
ti-teopixca-t
2sgS-priest-ABS
(Tomas Amaya Aquino, speaker p.c.)
Probably no non-predicative nominal “subject” marking in Pipil
27

28. Occidental Periphery
Mexicanero of Western Sierra Madre (Canger 2001)
– kwaha
when
ni-tepiči
ni-ká-h
1sgS-small
1sgS-be-PST
“when I was little …”
Probably no non-predicative nominal “subject”
marking in:
– San Pedro Jícora (Preuss & Ziehm 1968–1976)
– Michoacán (Sischo 1979)
28

29. Archaic texts
Archaic songs from Primeros Memoriales
(cf. Sullivan & Dakin 1980)
– Ātl-āyahui-cān
ni-Xochiquetzal-li ... nihuītz
water-mist-LOC 1sgS-X.-ABS
1sgS-come
“I, Xochiquetzal, ... come from the place of watery
mist”
29

30. Summary
Non-predicative nominal “subject” person
marking is attested in all of the four dialectal
areas, though sporadically
Archaic songs also have non-predicative
nominal “subject” person marking
30

31. Why did nominal “subject” marking
decline in many Nahuan languages?
31

32. Why did nominal “subject” marking
decline in many Nahuan languages?
Typological markedness?
Influence of other indigenous languages?
Influence of Spanish?
32

33. Double “subject” marking in [Adj + N]
Eres un buen gobernador
Ti-cual-li
ti-tlahtoāni
2sgS-good-ABS 2sgS-ruler
“You are a good ruler”
33

34. Instability of double person marking
in modern Nahuatl
Tetelcingo Nahuatl: double person marking on
adjective-noun configuration is optional
(Tuggy 1979:11)
2pl
nen-ka-te
nen-kwalı
nen-tlɔka
2plS-be-PL
– nemehwa
2plS-good
2plS-men
“You are good men”
– taha tı-kwalı
2sg
2sgS-good
tlɔka-tl
man-ABS
“You are a good man”
34

35. Double “subject” marking in [Adj + N]
(1)
Ti-cual-li
ti-tlahtoāni
“You are a good ruler”
(Compendio del Arte de la lengua mexicnana)
Ca
ti-nel-li
ti-teōpixcā-tzin-tli
“You are a real priest”
(La adoración de los Reyes)
35

36. Double “subject” marking in [Adj + N]
(2)
In tlā ti-huēi ti-tlahtlacoāni
“If you are a big sinner”
(Promptuario manual mexicano)
nehhuātl ni-huēi ni-tlahtlacoāni
“I, a big sinner”
(Catecismo mexicano)
36

37. Summary: double “subject” marking in
[Adj + N]
The double person marking in [Adj + N]
configuration, the most unstable type of
nominal “subject” person marking, is observed
manly in missionary texts
cf. Eres un buen hombre
37

38. Single marking in Spanish names
in
ti-chpōch-tli
in
ti-Santa
María
ART 2sgS-maiden-ABS ART 2sgS-Saint Mary
“you, Virgin Saint Mary” (Psalmodia Christiana)
Ca ni-miqui-z
in
nehhuātl ni-Pedro Tozan
AFF 1sgS-die-FUT ART 1sg
1sgS-Pedro Tozan
“I, Pedro Tozan, will die” (testament, 1587)
38

39. Single marking in Spanish names
nehhuā-tl
Ana
María
1sg-ABS
Ana
María
“I, Ana María” (testament, 1600)
Ni-qu-ihtoa
nehhuā-tl
Juana Agustina
1sgS-3sgO-say
1sg-ABS
Juana
...
Agustina
“I, Juana Agustina, say ….” (testament, 1609)
Ca
ti-huēi
apostol
AFF
2sgS-big apostle
“You are a great apostle” (Psalmodia christiana)
39

40. Summary: “subject” marking in Spanish
loan expressions
In Classical Nahuatl, Spanish multi-word loan
expressions (especially personal names) lacked
the double marking of “subject” prefixes
More generally, Spanish loan expressions
sometimes lacked “subject” person marking
40

41. Summary: Spanish influence on nominal
“subject” person marking in Nahuatl
The unstability of redundant nominal
“subject” marking in:
– Adj + N phrases (found mainly in missionary texts)
– Spanish multi-word person names
– Spanish loanwords
41

42. Conclusion (1)
Despite the large cross-dialectic diversity, the
non-predicative use of “subject” marking in
nouns in Nahuan languages can be
reconstructed for Proto-Nahuan
Its obligatoriness (cf. Classical Nahuatl) might
be a later innovation
42

43. Conclusion (2)
The decline of obligatory “subject” person
marking has been accelerated by the contact
with Spanish in Central Nahuatl
43

44. ¡Tlazohcāmati!
¡Muchísimas gracias!
44

45. References (1)
Andrews, J Richard. 2003. Introduction to Classical Nahuatl:
Revised Edition. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Campbell, Lyle. 1985. The Pipil Language of El Salvador. Berlin:
Walter de Gruyter.
Canger, Una. 1988. Nahuatl dialectology: a survey and some
suggestions. IJAL 54:28–72.
Canger, Una. 2001. Mexicanero de la Sierra Madre Occidental.
Mexico: Colegio de México.
Hasler, Juan A. 1975. Los dialectos de la lengua nahua. América
Indígena 35:179–188.
Horcasitas, Fernando. 1968. De Porfirio Díaz a Zapata. Mexico
City: UNAM.
45

46. References (2)
Kaufman, Terrence. 2001. The History of the Nawa Language
Group from the Earliest Times to the Sixteenth Century. A peper
for MALDP.
Langacker, Ronald W. 1977. Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar,
vol 1. Dallas: SIL.
Langacker, Ronald W. 1979. Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar,
vol 2. Dallas: SIL.
Lastra de Suárez, Yolanda. 1986. Las áreas dialectales del náhuatl
moderno. Mexico City: UNAM.
Launey, Michel. 1994. La grammaire omniprédicative. Paris:
L’Harmattan.
Launey, Michel. 2003. Le type omniprédicatif et la morphosyntaxe
du nahuatl. Faits de Langue 21:9–24.
46

47. References (3)
Preuss, Konrad Theodor and Elsa Ziehm. 1968–1976. NahuaTexte aus San Pedro Jícora in Durango, vols I–III. Berlin:
Gebrüder Mann Verlag.
Sischo, William R. Michoacán Nahual. In Langacker (1979), pp.
307–380.
Sullivan, Thelma D. and Karen Dakin. 1980. Dialectología del
náhuatl de los siglos XVI y XVII. Rutas de intercambio en
Mesoamérica y el norte de México, vol. 2:291–301.
Tuggy, David H. 1979. Tetelcingo Nahuatl. In Langacker (1979),
pp. 1–140.
47