RECENT ADVANCES IN IMPROVEMENT OF VEGETABLE CROPS IN INDIAAditika Sharma
This document provides an overview of recent advances in improving vegetable crops in India. It discusses the development of higher yielding and stress resistant varieties through both conventional breeding methods like hybridization, selection, and mutation breeding as well as advanced techniques like genetic engineering and marker assisted selection. Key achievements include the development of gynoecious lines in cucumber, seedless varieties of watermelon, varieties adapted to year-round cultivation, hybrid varieties with disease resistance, and nutritionally enriched varieties. The application of biotechnology tools such as transgenic approaches, molecular markers, and genome sequencing in vegetable improvement is also summarized.
Celery ranks second in importance amongst salad crops. In India this crop is not commercially as a vegetable crop. Celery as a salad crop is mostly grown in kitchen or home gardens. In colder climate and on the hills. Celery is a biennial plant, while at planes it becomes an annual. It has dark green foliage with less developed stalks and swollen roots.
Hybrid seed production is important for vegetables to harness heterosis and ensure food security. The document discusses various techniques for hybrid seed production in different vegetable crops. It describes the principles of hybrid seed production including production of inbred lines, hybridization techniques like hand emasculation and pollination, and use of male sterility. Specific techniques for tomato, eggplant, pepper, cucurbits like watermelon and pumpkin are provided detailing crop management practices and hybridization steps to produce hybrid seeds commercially.
Scope and importance, principles and concepts of precision horticulture Dr. M. Kumaresan Hort.
This document provides an overview of precision horticulture, including its key concepts, benefits, components, tools, and research areas. Precision horticulture aims to do the right agricultural activities in the right places and times. It recognizes field variability and regulates management accordingly using technologies like GPS, sensors, and GIS to assess spatial and temporal differences. This approach can increase yields and profits while reducing waste and environmental impacts by optimizing input use. The tools and research highlighted show potential for improving production efficiency and quality prediction in horticultural crops. However, realizing these benefits faces challenges in India due to small landholdings and lack of technical expertise.
Sugarcane seed, process, practices, frameworksPhani Mohan K
Sugarcane seed and Trait development is key component on productivity enhancement of both Sucrose and also Biomass. Under present market dynamics yields of Sugar,Ethanol, and Bagasse availability both for cogen and also 2nd, 3rd generation Ethanol are dependent on the Seed which is of primary Importance.
Multitier cropping system for profitability and scalability in vegetable prod...Shashank Shekhar Solankey
Multistoried /multitier cropping system: As the name indicates, under this system two or more crops of different heights are grown simultaneously on a certain piece of land in any certain period of time. Thus land, water, and space are utilized in most efficient and economic way. Multistoried/ multitier cropping system aims at better use of the production components such as soil, water, air, space, radiation and other inputs on sustainable basis (Singh et al., 2014).
The document provides a progress report from an internship at Bhola Paswan Shastri Agricultural College in Purnea, Bihar. It summarizes activities conducted at the college including simulation games, farm visits, and guest lectures. It then details activities conducted at the Krishi Vigyan Kendra in Araria, including soil sampling and analysis, farmer training programs, and crop pest identification. Constraints faced by farmers in the region are identified as lack of quality inputs, mechanization, soil health issues, and marketing and infrastructure problems. The intern concludes they gained knowledge on crop production practices, local resources, and challenges in technology transfer.
This document provides information on chilli breeding in India. It discusses the botanical details of chilli and its importance as a crop rich in nutrients and used widely in curries. It presents data on the area and production of chilli in India from 2010-2015. It then outlines some common chilli breeding methods and objectives such as developing early maturity, high yield, and stress resistance. The document concludes by describing several popular chilli varieties developed in India, including Arka Lohit, Arka Sweta, Arka Harita, and Arka Suphal, as well as some chilli hybrids like TNAU Hybrid Chilli CO 1, Arka Meghana, Pusa Jwala, and
RECENT ADVANCES IN IMPROVEMENT OF VEGETABLE CROPS IN INDIAAditika Sharma
This document provides an overview of recent advances in improving vegetable crops in India. It discusses the development of higher yielding and stress resistant varieties through both conventional breeding methods like hybridization, selection, and mutation breeding as well as advanced techniques like genetic engineering and marker assisted selection. Key achievements include the development of gynoecious lines in cucumber, seedless varieties of watermelon, varieties adapted to year-round cultivation, hybrid varieties with disease resistance, and nutritionally enriched varieties. The application of biotechnology tools such as transgenic approaches, molecular markers, and genome sequencing in vegetable improvement is also summarized.
Celery ranks second in importance amongst salad crops. In India this crop is not commercially as a vegetable crop. Celery as a salad crop is mostly grown in kitchen or home gardens. In colder climate and on the hills. Celery is a biennial plant, while at planes it becomes an annual. It has dark green foliage with less developed stalks and swollen roots.
Hybrid seed production is important for vegetables to harness heterosis and ensure food security. The document discusses various techniques for hybrid seed production in different vegetable crops. It describes the principles of hybrid seed production including production of inbred lines, hybridization techniques like hand emasculation and pollination, and use of male sterility. Specific techniques for tomato, eggplant, pepper, cucurbits like watermelon and pumpkin are provided detailing crop management practices and hybridization steps to produce hybrid seeds commercially.
Scope and importance, principles and concepts of precision horticulture Dr. M. Kumaresan Hort.
This document provides an overview of precision horticulture, including its key concepts, benefits, components, tools, and research areas. Precision horticulture aims to do the right agricultural activities in the right places and times. It recognizes field variability and regulates management accordingly using technologies like GPS, sensors, and GIS to assess spatial and temporal differences. This approach can increase yields and profits while reducing waste and environmental impacts by optimizing input use. The tools and research highlighted show potential for improving production efficiency and quality prediction in horticultural crops. However, realizing these benefits faces challenges in India due to small landholdings and lack of technical expertise.
Sugarcane seed, process, practices, frameworksPhani Mohan K
Sugarcane seed and Trait development is key component on productivity enhancement of both Sucrose and also Biomass. Under present market dynamics yields of Sugar,Ethanol, and Bagasse availability both for cogen and also 2nd, 3rd generation Ethanol are dependent on the Seed which is of primary Importance.
Multitier cropping system for profitability and scalability in vegetable prod...Shashank Shekhar Solankey
Multistoried /multitier cropping system: As the name indicates, under this system two or more crops of different heights are grown simultaneously on a certain piece of land in any certain period of time. Thus land, water, and space are utilized in most efficient and economic way. Multistoried/ multitier cropping system aims at better use of the production components such as soil, water, air, space, radiation and other inputs on sustainable basis (Singh et al., 2014).
The document provides a progress report from an internship at Bhola Paswan Shastri Agricultural College in Purnea, Bihar. It summarizes activities conducted at the college including simulation games, farm visits, and guest lectures. It then details activities conducted at the Krishi Vigyan Kendra in Araria, including soil sampling and analysis, farmer training programs, and crop pest identification. Constraints faced by farmers in the region are identified as lack of quality inputs, mechanization, soil health issues, and marketing and infrastructure problems. The intern concludes they gained knowledge on crop production practices, local resources, and challenges in technology transfer.
This document provides information on chilli breeding in India. It discusses the botanical details of chilli and its importance as a crop rich in nutrients and used widely in curries. It presents data on the area and production of chilli in India from 2010-2015. It then outlines some common chilli breeding methods and objectives such as developing early maturity, high yield, and stress resistance. The document concludes by describing several popular chilli varieties developed in India, including Arka Lohit, Arka Sweta, Arka Harita, and Arka Suphal, as well as some chilli hybrids like TNAU Hybrid Chilli CO 1, Arka Meghana, Pusa Jwala, and
System of wheat Intensification: A resource conservation and agro-ecological method of wheat cultivation
Presented by: Ram B. Khadka
Location: Regional Agricultural Research Station,
Khajura, Banke, Nepal
Date: 2013
This presentation provides information on green gram (Vigna radiata):
- It is a legume crop originally from India that is drought resistant and suitable for dryland farming. It is often intercropped with crops like cotton.
- Green gram is high in protein, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and various vitamins and minerals. It has 126 kJ of energy per 100g when sprouted.
- Popular varieties include VRM 2, CoGG 7, and Pusa Badshah. Green gram requires well-drained soil, a well-distributed rainfall or irrigation, and fertilizer application of 12.5-25 kg N, 25-50 kg P2O5, and 12.5
This document provides information on aonla (Emblica officinalis) cultivation. Aonla is a tropical fruit native to Asia, rich in vitamin C. It is used to make products like murabba, chutney, sauce, candy and more. The best climate for growth is 25-35°C with sandy loam soil of pH 9.5 or less. Common varieties include Banarsi, NA-5, NA-9, NA-10, Francis, NA-4, NA-6, NA-7 and Chakiya. Aonla is propagated through patch budding, seeds, or T-budding and planted from July-August at 8x8m spacing.
CMS Source
1. Cajanus scarabaeoides
2. Cajanus cajanifolius
3. Cajanus platycarpus
4. Cajanus lineatus
5. Cajanus sericeus
This document provides an overview of hybrid pigeonpea seed production technology and its validation on farms. It discusses the major components of hybrid technology including male sterility systems, stable fertility restoration, and cost-effective mass pollination methods. It also summarizes key commercial hybrids released in India, their traits, and yield advantages over traditional varieties. The document concludes that hybrid seed production is profitable but requires validation
The document discusses various biotechnological interventions for improving fruit crops. It begins with an introduction to fruit production and its economic importance. It then discusses limitations of traditional breeding methods and how biotechnology can help overcome these limitations. Various biotechnological techniques for fruit crop improvement are described, including genetic engineering techniques like transgenics, cisgenics, and genome editing using CRISPR-Cas. Molecular marker techniques like marker-assisted selection are also discussed. Examples of using these techniques in crops like apple, pear, and papaya are provided.
The document discusses oilseed crops intercropping in India. It provides background on major oilseed crops grown in the country like soybean, groundnut, mustard, sesame, etc. Intercropping systems studied include castor-based, groundnut-based, and sesame-based intercrops. The advantages of intercropping include yield stability, efficient resource use, and higher total productivity per unit land area. Research findings show castor-groundnut and castor-clusterbean intercropping systems providing higher castor equivalent yields, land equivalent ratios, and economic returns compared to sole castor.
This document outlines the seed generation system for producing different classes of seeds. It discusses 6 classes - nucleus seed, breeder seed (stage I and II), foundation seed (stage I and II), registered seed, certified seed (stage I and II), and truthful labelled seed. The classes represent successive generations of seed production, with nucleus seed being the initial generation and certified seed being the final generation made available to farmers. The document also provides details on genetic and physical purity standards for each class and how they are stored and tagged.
Chekurmanis (Souropus androgynus L.) is a perennial shrub native to South and Southeast Asia that is used as a leafy vegetable. It grows well in hot, humid conditions from sea level to 1200 meters elevation. The plant is propagated through stem cuttings and about 100,000 cuttings are needed to plant one hectare. Leaves, tender shoots, and fruits are eaten raw or cooked in soups, salads, curries, and more. Regular harvesting of leaves and shoots every 2 weeks produces maximum yields of 30-50 tonnes per hectare annually. Chekurmanis is nutritious but raw leaves may cause side effects due to their pipevarine
This document provides an overview of Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) presented by Debasis Das. Some key points:
- ZBNF is an alternative to conventional agriculture that does not use chemical fertilizers or pesticides and aims to be expense-free. It relies on natural techniques like beejamrut, jeevamrut, mulching and natural pest control.
- The four pillars of ZBNF are beejamrut, jeevamrut, effective microorganisms and mulching. Beejamrut and jeevamrut provide nutrients to seeds and soil and encourage beneficial microbes.
- Studies show ZBNF increases soil nutrients
this slide includes recent approaches to evaluate cropping system.
It includes system profitability,relative production efficiency,land use efficienct(LUE),Calculation of LUE,energy efficiency,specific energy,Rotational intensity,Cropping intensity,Multiple cropping index(MCI),Land equivalent ratio (LER),Relative yields total (RYT),Crop equivalent yields (CEY),Relative Spread Index
Capsicum is a cool season crop suitable for protected cultivation in greenhouses. It has high yields of 100-120 t/ha compared to open field yields of 20-40 t/ha. Hybrid varieties with thick fleshy fruits like Indira, Mahabharat and Orobelle are well-suited for greenhouse production. Seedlings are raised in nursery beds and transplanted to growing beds in greenhouses at a spacing of 45x30 cm. Drip irrigation and fertigation are provided. Pruning and training plants on twine supports maintains 4-6 fruiting branches per plant. Harvesting starts at 60 days and continues until plants cease bearing at 180-270 days. Yields of 10-12 kg/
Presentation mechanization of horticulture in IndiaSuresh Mandhar
The mechanization of Indian horticulture and agriculture is urgently required in India. The machines required for end to end mechanization of horticulture in India are presented here. The presentation is for benefits of farmers and agricultural machinery manufacturers. For further help email to suresh.mandhar@gmail.com or phone +919480637505 , +919886385295
The document discusses crop ideotypes and ideotype breeding. It defines an ideotype as an ideal or model plant type designed for a specific environment to maximize yield. Ideotype breeding aims to enhance genetic yield potential through manipulation of individual plant traits. Examples of ideotypes are provided for various crops like wheat, rice, maize, barley and cotton that focus on traits like plant height, tillering ability, leaf characteristics and resistance to stresses. Factors influencing ideotypes and the steps in ideotype breeding are also outlined. Practical achievements highlighted ideotype breeding's role in the green revolution by developing semi-dwarf varieties responsive to fertilizers.
Efficient crops and cropping systems in dry land agricultureSurendra Parvataneni
This document discusses efficient crops and cropping systems for dryland agriculture in India. It begins with an introduction to dryland farming and terminology. The main constraints in dryland farming are inadequate and erratic rainfall. Crop selection depends on length of growing period, genetic crop characteristics, and soil moisture availability. Common crops recommended are sorghum, pulses, groundnuts, and cotton. Cropping systems that can be used include mono-cropping, intercropping, relay cropping, and sequence cropping depending on rainfall and soil moisture storage capacity. Different regions of India are suitable for different cropping systems based on these factors.
The document discusses seed production methods for several vegetable crops including spinach, beet leaf, beet root, amaranths, and fenugreek.
For spinach, seed production requires selecting plants without extreme male characteristics that bolt early. Spinach is cross-pollinated by wind and a population of at least 120 plants is needed. Beet leaf and beet root have similar production methods, isolating the seed fields and removing off-types through roguing. Amaranths are harvested when leaves yellow, with a seed yield of 200-300kg/ha. Standards for isolation distances, off-types, and seeds are provided for certification of the vegetable crop seeds.
Insect orders bearing predators and parasitoids used in pest control and thei...Nikhil Kumar
IDENTIFICATION OF INSECT PARASITOIDS
A parasitoid is an insect living on or in the body of another insect, called the host from which it gets protection and food during its immature stage and the adults are free living.
In a typical case, eggs are laid on or in the body of the host, the larvae feed on the body contents of the host, pupate either inside or on the host body and emerge as adults.
The hosts are not killed immediately. Most of the parasitoids belong to Hymenoptera (90%) and Diptera (10%).
type of parasitism
Superparasitism:-
When more than one adult of the same species attack the host.
Eg:-Trichospilus pupivara -opisina arenosella
Multiparasitism:-
More than one species attack the host
Eg:-Bethylids and braconids - o.arenosella
Hyperparasitism:-
When a parasitiod is attacked by another parasitiod.
Eg:- Aphid - Aphidius -asaphess
Most insect parasitoid are waps and flies
Most of parasitoides belong to -hymenoptera and diptera
1.Hymenoptera
The ovipositor originates and protrudes ventrally from the abdomen and is used to insert eggs into their hosts. There are three super families.
a) Super Family : ICHNEUMONOIDEA
* Possess long and filiform antennae
* Wings are veined
Example - Family : ICHNEUMONIDAE
Family : BRACONIDAE
b) Super Family : CHALCIDOIDEA
* Mostly smallest parasitoids and gregarious
* Antennae geniculate
* Abdomen very short or globular with very slender propodeum
* Wings without veins
example-Family : CHALCIDIDAE
Family : TRICHOGRAMMATIDAE
Family : EULOPHIDAE
c) Super family : BETHYLOIDEA
* Smaller than Icheneumonoidea and larger than Chalcidoidea
example- Family : BETHYLIDAE
* Eg. Parasierola (= Goniozus) nephantidis, a larval parasitoid on O. arenosella
2) Order : DIPTERA
Family : TACHINIDAE
* Eg. Sturmiopsis inferens, a larval parasitoid on sugarcane shoot borer, Chilo infuscatellus
* Large bristle flies
* Eggs may be macrotype or microtype
* Macrotype eggs are laid directly on the host's body usually attached to the neck region by a glutinous secretion
* Eg. Spoggosia bezziana on O. arenosella
* Microtype eggs are laid on the host plant and the host larvae feeding on the plant tissue ingest them
Predators
predators kill and feed on several to many individual prey during their lifetimes.
Many species of amphibians, birds, mammals, and reptiles prey extensively on insects.
Predatory beetles, flies, lacewings, true bugs (Order Hemiptera), and wasps feed on various pest insects or mites.
Most spiders feed entirely on insects.
Predatory mites that feed primarily on pest spider mites include Amblyseius spp., Neoseiulus spp., and the western predatory mite, Galendromus occidentalis
System of wheat Intensification: A resource conservation and agro-ecological method of wheat cultivation
Presented by: Ram B. Khadka
Location: Regional Agricultural Research Station,
Khajura, Banke, Nepal
Date: 2013
This presentation provides information on green gram (Vigna radiata):
- It is a legume crop originally from India that is drought resistant and suitable for dryland farming. It is often intercropped with crops like cotton.
- Green gram is high in protein, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and various vitamins and minerals. It has 126 kJ of energy per 100g when sprouted.
- Popular varieties include VRM 2, CoGG 7, and Pusa Badshah. Green gram requires well-drained soil, a well-distributed rainfall or irrigation, and fertilizer application of 12.5-25 kg N, 25-50 kg P2O5, and 12.5
This document provides information on aonla (Emblica officinalis) cultivation. Aonla is a tropical fruit native to Asia, rich in vitamin C. It is used to make products like murabba, chutney, sauce, candy and more. The best climate for growth is 25-35°C with sandy loam soil of pH 9.5 or less. Common varieties include Banarsi, NA-5, NA-9, NA-10, Francis, NA-4, NA-6, NA-7 and Chakiya. Aonla is propagated through patch budding, seeds, or T-budding and planted from July-August at 8x8m spacing.
CMS Source
1. Cajanus scarabaeoides
2. Cajanus cajanifolius
3. Cajanus platycarpus
4. Cajanus lineatus
5. Cajanus sericeus
This document provides an overview of hybrid pigeonpea seed production technology and its validation on farms. It discusses the major components of hybrid technology including male sterility systems, stable fertility restoration, and cost-effective mass pollination methods. It also summarizes key commercial hybrids released in India, their traits, and yield advantages over traditional varieties. The document concludes that hybrid seed production is profitable but requires validation
The document discusses various biotechnological interventions for improving fruit crops. It begins with an introduction to fruit production and its economic importance. It then discusses limitations of traditional breeding methods and how biotechnology can help overcome these limitations. Various biotechnological techniques for fruit crop improvement are described, including genetic engineering techniques like transgenics, cisgenics, and genome editing using CRISPR-Cas. Molecular marker techniques like marker-assisted selection are also discussed. Examples of using these techniques in crops like apple, pear, and papaya are provided.
The document discusses oilseed crops intercropping in India. It provides background on major oilseed crops grown in the country like soybean, groundnut, mustard, sesame, etc. Intercropping systems studied include castor-based, groundnut-based, and sesame-based intercrops. The advantages of intercropping include yield stability, efficient resource use, and higher total productivity per unit land area. Research findings show castor-groundnut and castor-clusterbean intercropping systems providing higher castor equivalent yields, land equivalent ratios, and economic returns compared to sole castor.
This document outlines the seed generation system for producing different classes of seeds. It discusses 6 classes - nucleus seed, breeder seed (stage I and II), foundation seed (stage I and II), registered seed, certified seed (stage I and II), and truthful labelled seed. The classes represent successive generations of seed production, with nucleus seed being the initial generation and certified seed being the final generation made available to farmers. The document also provides details on genetic and physical purity standards for each class and how they are stored and tagged.
Chekurmanis (Souropus androgynus L.) is a perennial shrub native to South and Southeast Asia that is used as a leafy vegetable. It grows well in hot, humid conditions from sea level to 1200 meters elevation. The plant is propagated through stem cuttings and about 100,000 cuttings are needed to plant one hectare. Leaves, tender shoots, and fruits are eaten raw or cooked in soups, salads, curries, and more. Regular harvesting of leaves and shoots every 2 weeks produces maximum yields of 30-50 tonnes per hectare annually. Chekurmanis is nutritious but raw leaves may cause side effects due to their pipevarine
This document provides an overview of Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) presented by Debasis Das. Some key points:
- ZBNF is an alternative to conventional agriculture that does not use chemical fertilizers or pesticides and aims to be expense-free. It relies on natural techniques like beejamrut, jeevamrut, mulching and natural pest control.
- The four pillars of ZBNF are beejamrut, jeevamrut, effective microorganisms and mulching. Beejamrut and jeevamrut provide nutrients to seeds and soil and encourage beneficial microbes.
- Studies show ZBNF increases soil nutrients
this slide includes recent approaches to evaluate cropping system.
It includes system profitability,relative production efficiency,land use efficienct(LUE),Calculation of LUE,energy efficiency,specific energy,Rotational intensity,Cropping intensity,Multiple cropping index(MCI),Land equivalent ratio (LER),Relative yields total (RYT),Crop equivalent yields (CEY),Relative Spread Index
Capsicum is a cool season crop suitable for protected cultivation in greenhouses. It has high yields of 100-120 t/ha compared to open field yields of 20-40 t/ha. Hybrid varieties with thick fleshy fruits like Indira, Mahabharat and Orobelle are well-suited for greenhouse production. Seedlings are raised in nursery beds and transplanted to growing beds in greenhouses at a spacing of 45x30 cm. Drip irrigation and fertigation are provided. Pruning and training plants on twine supports maintains 4-6 fruiting branches per plant. Harvesting starts at 60 days and continues until plants cease bearing at 180-270 days. Yields of 10-12 kg/
Presentation mechanization of horticulture in IndiaSuresh Mandhar
The mechanization of Indian horticulture and agriculture is urgently required in India. The machines required for end to end mechanization of horticulture in India are presented here. The presentation is for benefits of farmers and agricultural machinery manufacturers. For further help email to suresh.mandhar@gmail.com or phone +919480637505 , +919886385295
The document discusses crop ideotypes and ideotype breeding. It defines an ideotype as an ideal or model plant type designed for a specific environment to maximize yield. Ideotype breeding aims to enhance genetic yield potential through manipulation of individual plant traits. Examples of ideotypes are provided for various crops like wheat, rice, maize, barley and cotton that focus on traits like plant height, tillering ability, leaf characteristics and resistance to stresses. Factors influencing ideotypes and the steps in ideotype breeding are also outlined. Practical achievements highlighted ideotype breeding's role in the green revolution by developing semi-dwarf varieties responsive to fertilizers.
Efficient crops and cropping systems in dry land agricultureSurendra Parvataneni
This document discusses efficient crops and cropping systems for dryland agriculture in India. It begins with an introduction to dryland farming and terminology. The main constraints in dryland farming are inadequate and erratic rainfall. Crop selection depends on length of growing period, genetic crop characteristics, and soil moisture availability. Common crops recommended are sorghum, pulses, groundnuts, and cotton. Cropping systems that can be used include mono-cropping, intercropping, relay cropping, and sequence cropping depending on rainfall and soil moisture storage capacity. Different regions of India are suitable for different cropping systems based on these factors.
The document discusses seed production methods for several vegetable crops including spinach, beet leaf, beet root, amaranths, and fenugreek.
For spinach, seed production requires selecting plants without extreme male characteristics that bolt early. Spinach is cross-pollinated by wind and a population of at least 120 plants is needed. Beet leaf and beet root have similar production methods, isolating the seed fields and removing off-types through roguing. Amaranths are harvested when leaves yellow, with a seed yield of 200-300kg/ha. Standards for isolation distances, off-types, and seeds are provided for certification of the vegetable crop seeds.
Insect orders bearing predators and parasitoids used in pest control and thei...Nikhil Kumar
IDENTIFICATION OF INSECT PARASITOIDS
A parasitoid is an insect living on or in the body of another insect, called the host from which it gets protection and food during its immature stage and the adults are free living.
In a typical case, eggs are laid on or in the body of the host, the larvae feed on the body contents of the host, pupate either inside or on the host body and emerge as adults.
The hosts are not killed immediately. Most of the parasitoids belong to Hymenoptera (90%) and Diptera (10%).
type of parasitism
Superparasitism:-
When more than one adult of the same species attack the host.
Eg:-Trichospilus pupivara -opisina arenosella
Multiparasitism:-
More than one species attack the host
Eg:-Bethylids and braconids - o.arenosella
Hyperparasitism:-
When a parasitiod is attacked by another parasitiod.
Eg:- Aphid - Aphidius -asaphess
Most insect parasitoid are waps and flies
Most of parasitoides belong to -hymenoptera and diptera
1.Hymenoptera
The ovipositor originates and protrudes ventrally from the abdomen and is used to insert eggs into their hosts. There are three super families.
a) Super Family : ICHNEUMONOIDEA
* Possess long and filiform antennae
* Wings are veined
Example - Family : ICHNEUMONIDAE
Family : BRACONIDAE
b) Super Family : CHALCIDOIDEA
* Mostly smallest parasitoids and gregarious
* Antennae geniculate
* Abdomen very short or globular with very slender propodeum
* Wings without veins
example-Family : CHALCIDIDAE
Family : TRICHOGRAMMATIDAE
Family : EULOPHIDAE
c) Super family : BETHYLOIDEA
* Smaller than Icheneumonoidea and larger than Chalcidoidea
example- Family : BETHYLIDAE
* Eg. Parasierola (= Goniozus) nephantidis, a larval parasitoid on O. arenosella
2) Order : DIPTERA
Family : TACHINIDAE
* Eg. Sturmiopsis inferens, a larval parasitoid on sugarcane shoot borer, Chilo infuscatellus
* Large bristle flies
* Eggs may be macrotype or microtype
* Macrotype eggs are laid directly on the host's body usually attached to the neck region by a glutinous secretion
* Eg. Spoggosia bezziana on O. arenosella
* Microtype eggs are laid on the host plant and the host larvae feeding on the plant tissue ingest them
Predators
predators kill and feed on several to many individual prey during their lifetimes.
Many species of amphibians, birds, mammals, and reptiles prey extensively on insects.
Predatory beetles, flies, lacewings, true bugs (Order Hemiptera), and wasps feed on various pest insects or mites.
Most spiders feed entirely on insects.
Predatory mites that feed primarily on pest spider mites include Amblyseius spp., Neoseiulus spp., and the western predatory mite, Galendromus occidentalis
4. പച്ചക്കറികള് ഒരു സംരക്ഷിത ആഹാരമാണ
കാല്സയം,ഇരുമ്പ്,ഫഫാസ്ഫാറസ എന്നീ
ധാതുക്കള ം
ൈീവകങ്ങള് ആയ A,B,C എന്നിവയും അടങ്ങിയ
വിളയാണ പച്ചക്കറികള്
കൂടാ്ത ഫ്പാടീന് ,കാര്ഫബാജഹഫ്ടറ്റ്,നാരുകള്
എന്നിവയും അടങ്ങിയിട്ട ണ്ട്
5. ്പായപൂര്തി ആയ ഒരാള് ഒരു ദിവസം
300്്ാം പച്ചക്കറികള് എങ്കിലും കഴിക്കണം.
അതില് 120 ്്ാം ഇലക്കറികള ം,90 ്്ാം
വീതം കിഴങ്ങുവര്ഗങ്ങള ം,പഴവര്്
പച്ചക്കറികള ം അടങ്ങിയിരിക്കണം.
ഒരു വീട്ടിഫലക്ക് ആവശ്യമായ പച്ചക്കറികള്
ഉല്പാദിപ്പിക്കാന് ഫവണ്ടി ഒരാള്ക്ക് ഒരു
്സന്റ് (40 m2) സ്ഥലം ആവശ്യമാണ
6. സ്ഥലതിന് ചുറ്റ ം ഫവലി ്കട്ടണം.
ഒരു വശ്്ത ഫവലി ചിക്കുര്മാനിസ ്കാണ്ട്
ഉണ്ടാക്കാം.
മറ്റ മൂന്നു വശ്ങ്ങളിലും ഫവലിയില് ഫകാവല്
,അമരപ്പയര് , ചതുരപ്പയര് എന്നിവ പടര്തി
വളര്താം.
ഉള്ളിലായി മറ്റ പച്ചക്കറികള് കൃഷി ്ചയ്ാം.
17. ചാക്കില്/ചട്ടിയില് കൃഷി ്ചയ് ന്ന വിധം
ജൈവ വളം(10kg),മണ്ണ്(70kg),മണല് (10kg), ഫറാക്ക്
ഫഫാസഫഫറ്റ്(10kg), വാം (1kg),അഫസാസപിരിലലം (1kg)
എന്നിവ നന്നായി കൂട്ടി കലര്തുക.
ഈ വളക്കൂട്ട് ചക്കിഫലാ /ചട്ടിയിഫലാ മുക്കാല് ഭാ്ം
നിറക്കുക. തവാരണയില് ഉണ്ടാക്കിയ ജതകള് പറിച്ച
നടുകഫയാ /വിതിട്ട് കിളിര്പ്പിക്കുകഫയാ ്ചയ് ക.
ഈ ചാക്കുകള് /ചട്ടികള് ്ടറസിഫലാ/നന്നായി ്വയില്
കിട്ട ന്ന സ്ഥലങ്ങളിഫലാ ജവക്കാം.
രണ്ടാഴ്ചയില് ഒന്നു വീതം ചാണക്വള്ളം ഫനര്പിച്ച്
്ചടികള ്ട ചുവട്ടില് ഒഴിച്ച ്കാടുക്കാം.
ആവശ്യാനുസരണം നനക്കുക. ചുവട്ടില് ്വള്ളം ്കട്ടി
നില്ക്കരുത്.
മാസതില് ഒന്നു വീതം 250 g ബഫയാ-ഓര്്ാനിക് വളം
ചുവട്ടില് ഇട്ട ്കാടുക്കണം.
26. ഒരു ്സന്്(40 ച.മീ)സ്ഥലത് പച്ചക്കറി കൃഷി ്ചയ്ാന്
ഫവണ്ട വിത്,വളം എന്നിവയു്ട കണക്ക്
്ക.
ന.
വിള ജൈവ
വളം
രാസ
വളം
വിത് അകലം കുഴി
അളവ്
1 ്വള്ളരി
വര്്ം
100 kg 600(U)+
500(RP)+
400g(MOP)
20g 2x2 m 50 Cm3
2 വഴുതിന
വര്്ം
100 kg 600+1000+
200g
2g 75 x 75
cm
50 Cm3
3 പയര് 80 kg 250+750+
400g
20g 2 x2 m 50 Cm3
4 ്വണ്ട 50 kg 500+500+
250g
40g 75x 75
cm
50 Cm3
5 ചീര 200 kg 500+1000+
400g
8g 15 x 15
cm
30 Cm3
27. ഇലകളില് തളിക്കുന്ന രാസ വളങ്ങള്
19:19:19(്പാളിഫീഡ് ),മള്ടി ്ക –രണ്ടു വളവും 2
്്ാം വീതം ഒരു ലി. ്വള്ളതില് കലര്തി
ജവകുഫന്നരങ്ങളില് തളിക്കുക
ജൈവ വളങ്ങള്
1.ഫവര്മി വാഷ് 6-10 ഇരട്ടി ്വള്ളം ഫചര്ത്
തളിക്കാം
2.സയുഫടാഫമാണാസ ലായനി 2% വീരയതില്
തളിക്കാം
3.ചാണകവും,പിണ്ണാക്കും കൂടി പുളിപ്പിച്ച് 10
ഇരട്ടി ്വള്ളം ഫചര്ത് തളിക്കാം.
28. അടുക്കളഫതാട്ടതില് കൃഷി ്ചയ്ാന് പറ്റിയ
പച്ചക്കറികള്
പടവല വര്ഗ വിളകള് -
പാവല്,പടവലം,ഫകാവല്,കുമ്പളം,പീച്ചി
ങ്ങ
പാവല്-്പിയ,്പീതി,്പിയങ്ക
പടവലം-്കൌമുദി,ഫബബി,ടി.എ.19
്വള്ളരി–മുടിഫക്കാ് ഫലാക്കല്
34. 1000 കി.്്ാം ഉണങ്ങിയ ഫകാഴി
വളം =
100 kg Urea
150 kg Super phosphate
50 kg MOP
750 kg Organic matter
125 kg Calcium carbonate
30 kg Sulphur
12 kg Sodium chloride
10 kg Magnesium sulphate
5 kg Ferrous sulphate
1kg Manganese sulphate
1kg Zinc sulphate
1 kg Other trace elements
47. VAM/ MYCORRHIZAE
്ചടികള ്ട ഫവരിനുള്ളില് കടന്ന്
ബാഹയവും,ആന്തരികവുമായ ഫകാശ്ങ്ങളില് പടര്ന്ന്
പിടിച്ച്മണ്ണിഫലക്ക് വളരുന്ന ചില കുമിള ക്ളയാണ VAM
എന്നു വിളിക്കുന്നത്.ഇവ ഫവരില് വളരുന്നതുമൂലം
്ചടികള്ക്കും കുമിളിനും ്പഫയാൈനം ലഭിക്കുന്നു.(Symbiotic
relationship)
Glomus spp.,Acaulospora sp. എന്നിവയാണ ്പധാന
സപീഷീസുകള് .VAM മൂലമുള്ള ്ുണങ്ങള്
1.കൂടുതല് ഫപാഷകങ്ങള് വലി്ച്ചടുക്കാന്
സഹായിക്കുന്നു. (P,N,K,Ca,Mg)
2. വിളകള ്ട വളര്ച്ചയും,വിളവും
വര്ധിപ്പിക്കുന്നു.
3.ഉണക്കി്ന ്പതിഫരാധിക്കുന്നു.
48. 4.ഫദാഷകരമായ മൂലകങ്ങളില് നിന്നും വിളക്ള
സംരക്ഷിക്കുന്നു.(്ചമ്പ്,ഇരുമ്പ്,നിക്കല്, ഉപ്പ രസം).ഇവ
കൂടുതലുള്ള മണ്ണില് ്ചടികള് നന്നായി വളരാന്
സഹായിക്കുന്നു.
5.അന്നൈം ഉല്പ്പാദിപ്പിക്കുന്നതിനുള്ള കഴിവ്
വര്ധിപ്പിക്കുന്നു, വളര്ച്ചാ ഫഹാര്ഫമാണുകള ്ട
ഉല്പാദനം വഴി വിളകള ്ട വളര്ച്ചയും വിളവും
വര്ധിക്കുന്നു.
6.മി്ത സൂക്ഷ്മാണുക്ക്ള സഹായിക്കുന്നു.
7.മണ്ണി്ന്റ ഘടന ്മച്ച്പ്പടുതുന്നു,ഒരു പരിധി വ്ര
മ്ണ്ണാലിപ്പ് തടയുന്നു.
8.ഫവരുഫരാ്ങ്ങള് തടയുന്നു.
9.ടിഷയു കള്ച്ചര് ജതകള ്ട വളര്ച്ച തവരിത്പ്പടുതുന്നു.