education

1. SOCIOLOGY:
Name: Arsalan Waseem Baig
Assignment: Sociology
Topics:
 Juvenile Delinquency
 Social movement
 Social groups and type of social groups
 Steps of social researches
University of Karachi

2. Juvenile Delinquency:
The problem of juvenile delinquency is becoming more complicated and universal, and crime
prevention programmed are either unequipped to deal with the present realities or do not
exist. Many developing countries have done little or nothing to deal with these problems, and
international programmed are obviously insufficient. Developed countries are engaged in
activities aimed at juvenile crime prevention, but the overall effect of these programmes is
rather weak because the mechanisms in place are often inadequate to address the existing
situation.
What is Juvenile Crime:
In its simplest definition, crime is any specific act prohibited by law for which society has
provided a formally sanctioned punishment. This also can include the failure of a person to
perform an act specifically required by law.
Types of offenses or crimes, whether committed by adults or juveniles, are classified by the
seriousness of the offenses as follows: a felony is the most serious offense, punishable by a
sentence to a state institution (youth authority facility or adult prison). Felonies generally
include violent crimes, sex offenses, and many types of drugs and property violations.
A misdemeanor is a less serious offense for which the offender may be sentenced to probation,
county detention (in a juvenile facility or jail), a fine, or some combination of the three.
Misdemeanors generally include crimes such as assault and battery, petty theft, and public
drunkenness. A fraction is the least serious offense and generally is punishable by a fine. Many
motor vehicle violations are considered infraction. Juveniles, like adults, can be charge with a
felony, a misdemeanor, or an infraction. However, as we will discuss later, juveniles can also be
charged with offenses that are unique to youth.
Meaning of Juvenile Delinquency:
Juvenile delinquency, also known as juvenile offending, or youth crime, is participation in illegal
behavior by minors (juveniles) (individuals younger than the statutory age of
majority).1[2] Most legal systems prescribe specific procedures for dealing with juveniles, such
as juvenile detention centers, and courts. A juvenile delinquent is a person who is typically
under the age of 18 and commits an act that otherwise would have been charged as a crime if
they were an adult. Depending on the type and severity of the offense committed, it is possible
for persons under 18 to be charged and tried as adults.
In recent years, the average age for first arrest has dropped significantly, and younger boys and
girls are committing crimes. Between 60-80% percent of adolescents and pre-adolescents
engage in some form of juvenile offense. These can range from status offenses (such as
underage smoking), to property crimes and violent crimes. The percent of teens who offend is

3. so high that it would seem to be a cause for worry. However, juvenile offending can be
considered normative adolescent behavior. This is because most teens tend to offend by
committing non-violent crimes, only once or a few times, and only during adolescence. It is
when adolescents offend repeatedly or violently that their offending is likely to continue
beyond adolescence, and become increasingly violent. It is also likely that if this is the case,
they began offending and displaying antisocial behavior even before reaching adolescence.
To criminologist, juvenile delinquency encompasses all public wrongs committed by young
people between the ages of 12 and 20. Sociologist view the concept more broadly, believing
that it covers a multitude of different violations of legal and social norms, from minor offences
to serious crimes, committed by juveniles. In an attempt to explain the theoretical
underpinnings of delinquency, sociologists associate the specifics of youth behavior with the
home, family, neighborhood, peers and many other variables that together or separately
influence the formation of young people’s social environment.
Historical background of juvenile delinquency:
Delinquency was available throughout all the time. In ancient Britain, even seven years old boys
were tried, convicted and punished as adults. There was no special treatment for them, a
hanging was a hanging. In Norway, for example, a thirteen century penal code specifies that
adult might lose both hands if stealing, children only one’. However, United States of America is
one of the pioneer countries on juvenile justice. Social reformers started to create special
facilities for troubled juveniles in the late nineteenth century. Though Illinois introduced a
separate system of criminal justice in 1899, much had changed by 1909 when Judge Julian Mack
famously proposed in a Harvard Law Review article that a juvenile offender should be treated
“as a wise and merciful father handles his own child” (Scott and Laurence, 2008:16). Yet the
provision of special court and treatment was soon replicated throughout the country and
spread aboard in Britain (1908), France (1912), Spain (1918), and The Netherlands (1921).
Today most of the states of the United Nations have a separate court system for the children
accused of an offence. They have the right to treatment that takes full account of their age,
circumstance and their needs. The courts generally handle two types of juvenile offender: The
delinquent child who has committed an act that is a crime for adult under state law. On the
other hand, status offenders are considered unruly and uncontrolled beyond their legal
guardian (Siegel and Welsh, 2008).
A multitude factors exist that contribute to the understanding of what leads to engage in
delinquent behavior. It is also true certainly social factors like poverty, illiteracy, broken homes;
lack of employment, peer pressure, lack of parental guidance can be the best root causes to
explain juvenile delinquency in Bangladesh.
In Bangladesh no separate juvenile justice law exists. The 1974 Children Act is the main law
concerning children in Bangladesh, but it deals both with children in need of protection/care as
well as children in conflict with the law on one hand, other laws, such as the Penal Code, the
Code of Criminal Procedure, the Suppression of Violence against Women and Children Act, on

4. the other hand, also contain provisions regarding children in conflict with the law.At present,
there are three specialized juvenile courts established in the country and three specialized
institutions for the detention of child offenders, which have been renamed as the Child
Development Centers among them, two centers for boys are located in Tongi and Jessore and
the girls' centre is in Konabari.
The Development of Juvenile Delinquency:
Nearly all cultures possess a transition phase from childhood into adulthood. As the world
changed, so did the transition into adulthood. Whereas before, in most now industrialized
countries, this transition ranged from brief to almost non-existent, it is now a significant part of
a person's development. It is known now as adolescence. In fact the popular term "teenager"
wasn’t coined until the '50s to describe this new group of people living through adolescence. It
is believed that this new, drawn-out transition from childhood into adulthood that is common
in the western world has left many adolescents in a sort-of limbo where they must seek to
define their identity and place in the world, and delinquency may provide a way to do that.This
is supported by the fact that crime is committed disproportionately by those aged between
fifteen and twenty-five. However, contrary to popular belief it is highly rare for teenagers to
become spontaneously aggressive, antisocial or violent simply with the onset of adolescence.
Also, although there is a high percentage of offending among all teenagers, the majority of
offenses which violate the law are one-time occurrences and most often non-violent. Only
about 5-10% of adolescents commit violent crimes. In the United States, one-third of all of
suspects arrested for violent crimes are under eighteen.
The high rates of juvenile delinquency often receive great attention from the news
media and politicians. The level, amounts, and types of delinquency are used by commentators
as an indicator of the general state of morality and law and order in a country, and
consequently juvenile delinquency can be a source of ‘moral panics’.
Types of Juvenile Delinquency:
Juvenile delinquency, or offending, can be separated into three categories: delinquency, crimes
committed by minors which are dealt with by the juvenile courts and justice system; criminal
behavior, crimes dealt with by the criminal justice system, and status offenses, offenses which
are only classified as such because one is a minor, such as truancy, also dealt with by the
juvenile courts.
According to the developmental research of Moffitt (2006), there are two different types of
offenders that emerge in adolescence. One is the repeat offender, referred to as the life-
course-persistent offender, who begins offending or showing antisocial/aggressive behavior in
adolescence (or even childhood) and continues into adulthood; and the age specific offender,

5. referred to as the adolescence-limited offender, for whom juvenile offending or delinquency
begins and ends during their period of adolescence. Because most teenagers tend to show
some form of antisocial, aggressive or delinquent behavior during adolescence, it important to
account for these behaviors in childhood, in order to determine whether they will be life-
course-persistent offenders, or adolescents-limited offenders. Although adolescent-limited
offenders tend to drop all criminal activity once they enter adulthood, and show less pathology
than life-course-persistent offenders, they still show more mental health, substance abuse, and
finance problems, both in adolescence and adulthood, than those who were never delinquent.
Social Disorganization:
Current positivist approaches generally focus on the culture. A type of criminological theory
attributing variation in crime and delinquency over time and among territories to the absence
or breakdown of communal institutions (e.g. family, school, church and social groups.) and
communal relationships that traditionally encouraged cooperative relationships among people.
Social Control:
Social control theory proposes that exploiting the process of socialization and social learning
builds self-control and can reduce the inclination to indulge in behavior recognized as
antisocial. The four types of control can help prevent juvenile delinquency are:
Direct: by which punishment is threatened or applied for wrongful behavior, and compliance is
rewarded by parents, family, and authority figures. Internal: by which a youth refrains from
delinquency through the conscience or superego. Indirect: by identification with those who
influence behavior, say because his or her delinquent act might cause pain and disappointment
to parents and others with whom he or she has close relationships. Control through needs
satisfaction, i.e. if all an individual's needs are met, there is no point in criminal activity.
Economic and Social Factors:
Juvenile delinquency is driven by the negative consequences of social and economic
development, in particular economic crisis, political instability, and the weakening of major
institutions. Socio-economic instability is often linked to persistent unemployment and low
incomes among the young, which can increase the livelihood of their involvement in criminal
activity.
Family Factors:
A consistent pattern of family risk factors are associated with the development of delinquent
behavior in young people. These family risk factors include a lack of proper parental
supervision, ongoing parental conflict, neglect and abuse (emotional, psychological or physical).
Parents who demonstrate a lack of respect for the law and social norms are likely to have

6. children who think similarly. Finally, those children that display the weakest attachment to their
parents and families are precisely the same juveniles who engage in inappropriate activities,
including delinquent conduct. Children in disadvantage families that have few opportunities for
legitimate employment and face a higher risk of social exclusion are overrepresented among
offenders.
Social movement:
social movement, a loosely organized but sustained campaign in support of a social goal,
typically either the implementation or the prevention of a change in society’s structure or
values. Although social movements differ in size, they are all essentially collective. That is, they
result from the more or less spontaneous coming together of people whose relationships are
not defined by rules and procedures but who merely share a common outlook on society.
Collective behaviour in crowds, panics, and elementary forms (milling, etc.) are of brief duration
or episodic and are guided largely by impulse. When short-lived impulses give way to long-term
aims, and when sustained association takes the place of situational groupings of people, the
result is a social movement.
Characteristics of social movements:
A movement is not merely a perpetuated crowd, since a crowd does not possess organizational
and motivational mechanisms capable of sustaining membership through periods of inaction
and waiting. Furthermore, crowd mechanisms cannot be used to achieve communication and
coordination of activity over a wide area, such as a nation or continent. A movement is a
mixture of organization and spontaneity. There is usually one or more organizations that give
identity, leadership, and coordination to the movement, but the boundaries of the movement
are never coterminous with the organizations. For example, although organizations such as
California’s Sierra Club are influential in the movement to preserve the natural environment,
anyone who works for the cause and interacts with other workers for this purpose is a member
of the conservationist movement. The famous John Brown was not a member of any major
abolitionist organization, but his martyrdom made him a leader and symbol for the movement,
even though organizational leaders were reluctant to recognize him.
Social movements and social change:
All definitions of social movement reflect the notion that social movements are intrinsically
related to social change. They do not encompass the activities of people as members of stable
social groups with established, unquestioned structures, norms, and values. The behaviour of
members of social movements does not reflect the assumption that the social order will
continue essentially as it is. It reflects, instead, the faith that people collectively can bring about
or prevent social change if they will dedicate themselves to the pursuit of a goal. Uncommitted
observers may regard these goals as illusions, but to the members they are hopes that are quite

7. capable of realization. Asked about their activities, members of a social movement would not
reply, “I do this because it has always been done” or “It’s just the custom.” They are aware that
their behaviour is influenced by the goal of the movement: to bring about a change in the way
things have “always” been done or sometimes to prevent such a change from coming about.
Types of social movements:
There is no single, standard typology of social movements. As various scholars focus on
different aspects of movements, different schemes of classification emerge. Hence any social
movement may be described in terms of several dimensions.
Many attempts at categorization direct attention to the objective of the movement. The social
institution in or through which social change is to be brought about provides one basis for
categorizing social movements as political, religious, economic, educational, and the like. It may
be argued that all movements tend to be either political or religious in character, depending
upon whether their strategy aims at changing political structures or the moral values of
individuals.
A commonly used but highly subjective distinction is that between “reform” and
“revolutionary” movements. Such a distinction implies that a reform movement advocates a
change that will preserve the existing values but will provide improved means
of implementing them. The revolutionary movement, on the other hand, is regarded as
advocating replacement of existing values. Almost invariably, however, the members of a so-
called revolutionary movement insist that it is they who cherish the true values of the society
and that it is the opponents who define the movement as revolutionary and subversive of basic,
traditional values. Some attempts to characterize movements involve the direction and the rate
of change advocated. Adjectives such as radical, reactionary, moderate, liberal,
and conservative are often used for such purposes. In
this context the designations “revolutionary” and “reform” are often employed in a somewhat
different sense than that described above, with the implication that a revolutionary movement
advocates rapid, precipitous change while a reform movement works for slow, evolutionary
change. The American sociologist Lewis M. Killian advanced still another typology based on the
direction of the change advocated or opposed. A reactionary movement advocates the
restoration of a previous state of social affairs, while a progressive movement argues for a new
social arrangement. A conservative movement opposes the changes proposed by other
movements, or those seeming to develop through cultural drift, and advocates preservation of
existing values and norms.
Killian and the American psychologist Ralph H. Turner argued that it is useful at times to
categorize social movements on the basis of their public definition, the character of the
opposition evoked, and the means of action available to the movement. This scheme is
designed to eliminate the subjective evaluation of goals inherent in such categories as reformist
and revolutionary. A movement that does not appear to threaten the values or interests of any
significant segment of society is publicly defined as respectable. If there is no competing

8. movement advocating the same objective, it is also nonfactional. The respectable nonfactional
movement must contend primarily with the problems of disinterest and token support, but it
has access to legitimate means of promoting its values. A respectable factional movement must
contend with competing movements advocating the same general objective but also has access
to legitimate means of extending its influence. A movement that appears to threaten the values
of powerful and significant interest groups within the society is publicly defined as
revolutionary and encounters violent suppression. As a result, it is denied access to legitimate
means of promoting its program. Another type of movement is defined as neither respectable
nor dangerous but as peculiar; this type, seen as odd but harmless, encounters ridicule and has
limited access to legitimate means.
Social movements may also be categorized on the basis of the general character of their
strategy and tactics; for instance, whether they are legitimate or underground. The popular
distinction between radical and moderate movements reflects this sort of categorization. An
obvious difference between types of movements depends upon their reliance on violent or
nonviolent tactics. But a nonviolent movement may also be defined as revolutionary or radical
because it accepts civil disobedience, rather than legal or parliamentary maneuvering, as a
major feature of its strategy. It should be added that the distinction between violent and
nonviolent movements is a relative one because a movement may shift rapidly from one to the
other as it develops.
The causes of social movements
Both individual psychological states and the characteristics of a society at a particular time may
be considered as causes of social movements.
Psychological factors
Individual factors are psychological states that either convince people to join a movement or so
weaken their commitment to conventional groups that they are willing to risk the groups’
disapproval because of their belief in an unpopular cause. Failure to achieve a
satisfying status and identity within normal membership groups may be such a factor.
The prestige and sense of belonging, which such people may gain as members of a social
movement, may be even more important to them than the values of the movement. Alienation,
feelings of powerlessness, hopelessness, and estrangement from society may predispose
individuals to participation. Some scholars argue, however, that there are different kinds of
alienation. One type leads merely to apathy and resignation. Political alienation, however,
reflects a loss of faith in the political community and predisposes the individual to join a
movement that challenges it.
Deprivation, discontent, and frustration are frequently assumed to be sufficient causes for
initiating or joining a social movement. The relationship is not a simple one, however. There is
little evidence that the most deprived segments of a population are the most likely to

9. participate in social movements. The concept of relative deprivation has been used to explain
the fact that persons who could be much worse off than they are but still feel deprived in
comparison with even more fortunate groups often play a prominent part in social movements.
Social factors:
An important task of the student of social movements is to identify those conditions under
which social movements are most likely to arise. While the existence of
widespread poverty and suffering might seem sufficient to give rise to efforts at reform, it must
be emphasized again that some basis for hope must also exist to stir people to make the effort.
Paradoxically, partial alleviation of conditions of deprivation may provide such a basis, serving
as the impetus for the formation of a social movement just as things seem to be getting better.
The success of other people similarly situated, such as victorious revolutionaries in a
neighboring nation, may be another source of hope.
More general theories of the origin of social movements, such as those of Smelser, Turner, and
Killian, suggest that social change may result in strains or conflicts in one or more crucial
aspects of the social order. Normative strain arises when changing conditions create a situation
in which the established norms no longer lead to the attainment of important, accepted values.
Strain in values arises when the values themselves seem to interfere with the satisfaction of
important needs of a segment of the society. This sort of strain often arises when different
groups, such as immigrants, minorities, or the younger generation, develop values
that conflict with those of more established groups. Even with little change in norms and
values, changes in social structure reflected in the failure of important functionaries
to play their roles adequately may lead to discontent.
The general nature of the belief system existing in the culture of a society affects the likelihood
that social movements will arise and defines the type that will occur. For example, a system
that is essentially fatalistic is less conducive to social movements, particularly those with a
strategy of societal manipulation, than one that emphasizes the perfectibility of human beings
and their control over their own fate.

10. Steps Involvedin the Process of Social Research: Steps:
This article throws light on the eleven important steps involved in the process of social
research.
(1) Formulation of Research Problem.
(2) Review of Related Literature.
(3) Formulation of Hypotheses.
(4) Working Out Research Design.
(5) Defining the Universe of Study.
(6) Determining Sampling Design.
(7) Administering the tools of Data Collection and Others.
Step1# Formulation of Research Problem:
In real terms research begins with a problem which needs solution. Such a perception on the
part of the researcher, first of all, falls within the general area of interest indicating to locate
the problem either in the quest of some intellectual pursuit or for some practical concern, such
as finding out a practical solution to a problem, evaluation of a programmed in the light of new
facts, gathering of relevant facts for social planning or even for policy making.
While selecting a problem for research, the Social Scientists are likely to be influenced by their
own personal values as well as the prevalent social conditions. As scientists differ with regard to
their values and societies differ in respect of their preference of different spheres, the choice of
topics in social research vary widely.
As the general topic fails to provide the ability to examine the relevance of data, adopt the
methods or to organize them, the need for

11. Formulation of a specific problem is always felt. This makes the goal of the researcher clear-cut.
It not only guides the researcher in exploration, but also progressively sharpens the focus of
questions by narrowing down the coverage like a pinpoint. For example, if the general topic is
compared with the base of a pyramid, the specific topic may resemble the apex of it.
In any case, formulation of a problem, arising out of theoretical situation or practical concern, is
not an easy task, as it appears to be. In real terms it is a herculean task, so much so that even a
scientist of the stature of Charles Darwin has gone to the length of saying that “Looking back, I
think it was more difficult to see what the problems were than to solve them.”
Step2# Review of Related Literature:
Since an effective research is based on past knowledge, an investigator must always take
advantage of the knowledge which have been preserved or accumulated earlier. It not only
helps the researcher in avoiding duplication and formulating useful hypothesis, but also
provides him with the evidence that he is familiar with what is already known and what is still
unknown and untested in the field.
Review of related literature implies the analysis of the summary of the writings of recognized
authorities and the earlier researches in the particular area. According to J.W. Best practically
all human knowledge can be found in books and libraries. Unlike other animals…man builds
upon the accumulated and recorded knowledge of the past.
In the words of C.V. Good “the keys to the vast store house of published literature may open
doors to sources of significant problems and explanatory hypothesis and provide helpful
orientation for definition of the problem, background for selection of procedure and
comparative data so interpretation of results.”
The essentiality of the review of literature remains in the fact that it provides the researcher
with an indication of the direction, updates information relating to researcher’s own problem,

12. avoids the replication of the study of findings, provides the scope for analogy and formulation
of hypothesis.
The main objectives of review of related literatureare:
(i) To provide theories, ideas, explanations or hypotheses, which are likely to be helpful in the
formulation of research problem?
(ii) To avoid overlapping studies,
(iii) To be a fertile source for formulating hypothesis,
(iv) To suggest the methods of data collection, procedures, to explore the sources of data and
statistical techniques appropriate to the solution of the problem,
(v) To gather comparative data and findings of earlier researches which are of use in the
interpretation of data and analysis of results?
(vi) To enable the investigator to gain expertise in his area of interest, and
(vii) To keep the researcher abreast of the most recent development in his area of activity.
In order to survey the relevant literature, the investigator should follow the
following principles:
(i) At the outset, he should endeavor to obtain an overall view from the general source
comprising those written materials which are more likely to provide the meaning and nature of
the concepts and variables within the theoretical system.
(ii) Thereafter, the researcher should embark upon reviewing the empirical researches
conducted in the concerned field. At this stage we make use the Handbook of Research,
International Abstracts, etc.

13. (iii) The researcher must review the library material in a thorough and systematic manner.
(iv) He should take care to record the references with complete bibliographic data.
The main sources of literature which are of immense use for the researcher are books and text
books; periodicals; encyclopedias; hand books, yearbooks and guides; abstracts; dissertations
and theses; newspapers etc.
Step3# Formulation of Hypotheses:
The next step in the process of research is the formulation of a tentative explanation of the
problem in the form of a proposition wherever feasible. This tentative explanation or
assumption or proposition refers to a conjectural statement of the relation between two or
more variables and its tenability remains to be tested.
For formulating the hypothesis the researcher gathers information from several sources, such
as existing theories, previous reports of research concerning analogous problems, information
from knowledgeable persons, researcher’s own beliefs and insights. However, all studies do not
begin with clearly formulated hypothesis.
Some are hypothesis testing studies and some others are hypothesis formulating studies. The
exploratory studies are called hypothesis formulating studies because such researches end up
with formulation of hypothesis. On the contrary, the hypothesis testing researches begin with
clearly formulated hypothesis.
Notwithstanding the formulation of hypothesis at this level, the investigator needs to state the
operational definitions of the concepts in order to translate the formal definitions, conveying
the nature of the phenomenon, into observable referents.
In developing hypothesis, sociologists attempt to explain or account for the relationship
between two or more variables. A variable is a measurable trait or characteristic that is subject

14. to change under different conditions. For example, income, religion, occupation and gender can
all be variables in a study.
If one variable is hypothesized to cause or influence another one, social scientists call the first
variable as the independent variable and the second is termed the dependent variable. A
correlation exists when change in one variable coincides with a change in the other.
Correlations are an indication that causality may be present: they do not necessarily indicate
causation.
Step4# Working Out Research Design:
After formulating the research problem, reviewing the related literature and formulating
hypothesis, wherever feasible, the researcher reaches the stage of embarking upon working out
a design of study as he is guided by the maxim that “work must be planned, if it is to lead to
discoveries”. A research design is the general blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data incorporating what the researcher will have to perform from the formulating
the tentative generalizations and their operational definitions to final analysis of data.
By providing answers to various questions and acting as a standard and guidepost, it helps in
carrying out research validly, objectively, accurately and economically and thereby ensures
against its failure. Research designs vary according to the research purposes as well as from the
point of view of realizable working procedure.
As regards the research purposes, broadly speaking, there are four categories:
(i) Exploration,
(ii) Description,
(iii) Diagnosis and
(iv) Experimentation.

15. From the viewpoint of realizable working procedure there are four parts of
research design:
(i) Sampling design, describing the different sampling methods to be used for selection of units
for study,
(ii) Observational design, describing the way in which the observations are to be made,
(iii) Statistical design, dealing with the statistical techniques to be applied in the analysis and
interpretation of data, and
(iv) Operational design, dealing with the specific techniques by which the entire operation of
research is to be carried out. Thus it incorporates all the three designs mentioned above, such
as the sampling, statistical and observational designs.
Step 5# Defining the Universe of Study:
The universe of study comprises all the items or individuals under consideration in any field of
inquiry. In statistical terms, a ‘universe’ or ‘population’ refers to the aggregate of individuals or
units from which a ‘sample’ is drawn and to which the results and analysis are to apply. The
researcher may distinguish between the target population and survey population so as to
clearly define the universe of study. The target population is that population for which the
results of research are required.
On the contrary, the survey population implies those items or individuals which are actually
included in the sampling frame from which the sample is drawn. However, in most sociological
purposes such a distinction is not deemed to be significant. In any case, a complete population
must be very explicitly defined in terms of elements, sampling units, extent and time.
Step 6# Determining Sampling Design:

16. As in practice a complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘universe’ is not possible under
many circumstances, due to the requirement of a great deal of time, money and energy; the
researcher embarks upon deciding the way of a selecting a representative sample which is
popularly known as the sample design. It is a definite plan chalked out prior to actual collection
of data for obtaining a sample from the universe. The sample must be representative and
adequate.
Broadly speaking there are three types of samples, such as:
(i) Probability samples
(ii) Samples based on purposive or subjective or judgment sampling, and
(iii) Samples based on mixed sampling. Probability samples are drawn from the universe
according to some laws of chance, based on scientific technique, in which each unit in the
population has got some definite pre-assigned probability of being selected in the sample.
For a sample based on purposive or subjective or judgment sampling, units are drawn
deliberately or purposely depending upon the objectives of investigation so as include only
those important items which represent the universe truly. Units selected for a mixed sample
are selected partly according to some probability laws and partly according to a fixed sampling
rule which does not insist upon the use of chance. Some of the important types of sampling are:
Simple random sampling. Complex random sampling, Stratified random sampling. Cluster and
area sampling, haphazard or convenience sampling, quota sampling, judgement sampling etc.
Step7# Administering the Tools of Data Collection:
Adequate and appropriate data are required for any standard research work. The data may
differ considerably keeping in view the financial aspect, time and other resources available to
the researcher. The researcher, while collecting data takes into consideration the nature of
investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time and the

17. desired degree of accuracy. That apart his own ability and experience also counts much in the
collection of required data.
Secondary data are collected from books, journals, newspaper, reports of the earlier studies
etc., whereas primary data are to be collected either through experiment or through survey.
For examining the facts through hypothesis, the researcher, takes recourse to experiment for
observing some quantitative measurements.
But, for the purpose of a survey, data may be gathered by observation, personal interviews,
telephonic interviews, mailing of questionnaires and through schedules. For any particular
survey he may administer one or more than one of the above methods, depending on the
nature of study.
Step8# Analysis of Data:
After completion of the collection of data, the researcher embarks upon the analysis of these
data. This involves a number of operations such as establishment of categories, the application
of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation. Thereafter statistical inferences are
drawn.
All these operations are very closely related to one another. At the outset, the researcher
classifies the raw data into some usable categories on the basis of some purposes. At this stage
coding operations is also done so as to transform the categories of data into symbols in order to
make them amenable to be tabulated and counted. The researcher may also induct editing in
order to improve the quality of data for coding.
Thereafter, in the post-coding stage, the classified data are put in the form of tables as a part of
technical procedure either manually or through mechanical devices such as computers.
Computers are generally used in large enquiries for the dual purposes of saving time and for
making the study of large number of variables possible. While analyzing data, the researcher

18. applies various well defined statistical formulae for the computation of percentages,
coefficients, tests of significance, so as to determine with what validity data can indicate any
conclusion.
Step9# Testing of Hypotheses:
Sociological studies do not always generate data that confirm the original hypothesis. In many
instances, a hypothesis is refuted and researchers must reformulate their conclusions. In
behavioral sciences it is not possible to test several hypotheses directly. The social scientist can
only test the research hypotheses by establishing some kind of sample of behavior in order to
observe it directly.
On the basis of these observable incidents, he determines whether or not those are consistent
with the hypothesis so as to deduce their logical consequences. Thus an indirect test of the
proposed hypothesis can only be made.
The research hypothesis is the prediction derived from the theory under test. It provides simply
an inconclusive test. Actually a stronger test of logic is formed when a null hypothesis is
rejected. The null hypothesis is a hypothesis of no difference, the rejection of which results in
the acceptance of the alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis is the operational
statement of the researcher’s research hypothesis. In behavioural science research the
rejection or acceptance of a null hypothesis is based on 0.05 or .01 alpha level of significance.
The statisticians have developed various tests like chi-square test, t-test, F-test for the purpose
of testing the hypothesis. In the studies, where no hypotheses are there to begin with, the
generalizations will serve the basis of formulation of hypothesis which may be tested by
subsequent researcher in future.

19. Step10#Generalization andInterpretation:
After the hypothesis is tested and found valid, it becomes possible on the part of researcher to
reach the stage of generalization, which may be construed to be the real value of research. This
is only possible in case of hypothesis-testing studies. But in the hypothesis formulating studies
where the researcher has no hypothesis to begin with, he may seek to interpret his findings. In
other words, he may seek to explain the findings of his research on the basis of some
theoretical framework, which may probably raise some new questions for further researches.
Step11#Reporting the Research:
Research report is the end product of a research activity which gives an account of a long
journey on the path of finding a new knowledge or modified knowledge. Writing a research
report is a technical task as it requires not only skill on the part of the researcher but also
considerable effort, patience and penetration, an overall approach to the problem, data and
analysis along with grasp over language and greater objectivity, all springing from considerable
thought.
The purposes of research report are:
i. Transmission of knowledge;
ii. Presentation of findings,
iii. Examining the validity of the generalization, and
iv. Inspiration for further research.
The outline of a report comprises:
(i) The preliminaries incorporating the title page, foreword or preface, acknowledgements; list
of tables, charts or illustrations; and table of contents.

20. (ii) Contents of the reports which covers the introductory part of research reports which should
not only contain purpose of the study, statement of the problem, hypothesis and operational
definition of the concepts but also should contain a description of the agency, personnel and
other aspects of research.
This part of research also covers:
(a) The study design;
(b) The universe and the organization of sampling procedures;
(c) Methods, tools and techniques employed for collection of data as well as analysis and
presentation of findings;
(iii) The reference material consisting, the bibliography, appendices, glossary of terms and
index.