Review the work of John Snow regarding the cholera epidemic in Soho.docx
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Review the work of John Snow regarding the cholera epidemic in Soho/London England in 1854. Answer the following questions: Describe the geographical chart he used to map the outbreak of cholera in London and Soho England. What body system is affected by cholera and why is it such a dangerous disease? Is cholera still a dangerous disease today? If so why? If not, why? Why did other doctors dispute John Snow’s beliefs about cholera? What did other scientists believe caused cholera? How did Snow narrow his research to the “broad street” pump as the source of contamination? g. What specifically was determined to be the cause of the cholera outbreak? What are similarities and differences in the way a public health professional would follow a disease outbreak in the 21st. century compared to the way Snow followed cholera? Create a 400-600 word document and upload to BlackBoard. .
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Running head JOHN SNOW ON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 1.docx
Running head: JOHN SNOW ON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 1
JOHN SNOW ON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 3
John Snow on Communicable Diseases
Brenda Rouse
HCA415: Community & Public Health (HCK1711A)
Instructor: Kristin Akerele
April 3, 2017
John Snow on Communicable Diseases
John Snow was a skilled physician, born in 1813, and made a significant contribution to the appropriate use of chloroform in the then society, and a significant discovery on the control of the spread of cholera in London, where he ended up being a doctor after acquiring his M.D degree. Notably, as a teenager, he began an apprenticeship program in medicine under a famous doctor in New Castle. Although he went ahead to make progress in medicine by himself, he had acquired significant insight in practice from his interaction with the doctor. His research on communicable diseases that earned him quite the reputation as he had to grapple with the challenge of getting people to buy into his idea and adopt ways that would effectively reduce the rate of transmission of the disease.
Research Barriers
Unlike the modern society, research in the earlier centuries was not entirely funded by the government, and only those who were very interested in making significant milestones in the health sector would dare conduct the different study. For example, there had been limited efforts by the government to find the possible causes of diarrhea, which had left thousands dead in Europe in the early nineteenth century. Nonetheless, lack of such support did not deter John Snow from focusing on an issue that he felt were of importance to the society. Further, there was limited technology to analyze the different aspects of patients such as their blood components to ascertain the existence of anomalies that could have been the cause of diseases. Consequently, the conditions of research were so poor that only the resilient health researchers could end up with tangible evidence of the possibility of pathogens being the cause of infections.
How John Snow Overcame the Barriers
With limited funding to the study of the communicable disease, John Snow had to ensure that he spent his resources wisely and only where necessary. Following the second outbreak of cholera in London in the year 1848, Snow made the inference that there were limited chances that the disease spread from the gas resulting from sewers and waste disposal sites (Brody, Rip, Vinten-Johansen, Paneth, & Rachman, 2000). Previous research had indicated such sights as producing gasses through which the disease was transmitted. Consequently, Snow employed analytical skills purely in the early stages of his research. He made deductions based on the information he gathered from the patients, and the observations he made of the patients who came to him for treatment. Since the availability of resources was the primary research barrier to his work, he made use of what he had to come up with possible solutions to the outbre ...
Epidemiology cholera, ebola, hiv aids
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to control health problems. This document discusses epidemiology and provides details on cholera, including its history and causes. It describes how John Snow used epidemiology to discover that cholera is spread through contaminated water by tracing a cholera outbreak in London back to a contaminated water pump. It also discusses the "miasma theory" of disease transmission via air that was previously widely accepted, as well as the scientists who first discovered the cholera bacteria and advocated for improved sanitation to prevent disease.
In your own opinion, why do you think many public health professio.pdf
In your own opinion, why do you think many public health professionals regard John Snow as
the father of epidemiology? Provide three reasons to support your position
In your own opinion, why do you think many public health professionals regard John Snow as
the father of epidemiology? Provide three reasons to support your position
Solution
In my opinion, many public health professionals regard John Snow as the father of epidemiology
because of the following three reasons:
· The epidemics were rampant on the planet since generations together. While certain
inventions indeed helped in curbing with few of these, John Snow rather brought this concern
more into the lime-light not just by alarming the Public about the epidemics but also clarifying
the misconception that not all diseases could form the roots into the ‘Miasma Theory’ or even by
the physical touch. As a matter of fact, he exposed the faulty notions of this theory by informing
that Cholera was a water-borne disease and not air-borne. Now since he broke the traditional
conceptions of the people who believed the causes of epidemics to be ‘Bad air’ or ‘Miasma’, he
was rather the first physician who introduced the World to ‘Modern Epidemiology’ by
debunking the old theories. However, although John’s contribution to the investigation and
findings of the massive outbreak of cholera near London in 1854 A.D was significant, it took
time for the Public to believe in his theory until in the year 1885, when finally the evidence of
cholera’s bacteria proved to the world that this was a water-borne disease. But it was only
unfortunate for John Snow for not being alive to witness the same.
· Further, before the formal discovery of the cholera bacteria responsible for the disease, in
the year 1849, John Snow also published his paper to defy the common notions of the people
about the reasons of this epidemic, in the paper titled, \"On the Mode of Communication of
Cholera\". This also goes to show to the world as to how much sure was John Snow about his
primary discovery that he actually converted his claims into a formalized research paper.
However, this paper did not even get a proper grip in the medical field back then.
· On Sep 6, 1853 when there was another outbreak of Cholera, John Snow persistently
collected the evidences of the sources of the contaminated water, in spite of his previous
contributions not receiving enough acceptance in the society and concluded that the Broad Street
Pump water was responsible for being the carrier of this disease. Today, this Broad Street Pump
also holds an important landmark in the medical history. This strong determination to prove the
world that Cholera as an epidemic is a water-borne disease and despite of strong resistance from
the Public, constantly striving to work in the arena, itself showed the public health professionals,
why John Snow be indeed regarded as the father of epidemiology. His comparisons of
hypothesis in a systematic way and the manner in w.
History of cholera
Cholera is an acute diarrheal disease caused by the bacteria Vibrio cholerae that can lead to severe dehydration and death if untreated. There have been 7 recorded pandemics of cholera since the early 1800s. John Snow's study of a cholera outbreak in London in 1854 helped establish contaminated water as a mode of transmission and led to major public health reforms. While Filippo Pacini first isolated V. cholerae in 1854, Robert Koch's work in 1883 established it as the definitive cause. Rehydration with oral rehydration salts is now the primary treatment recommended by health organizations to prevent dehydration from cholera.
John snow cholera outbreak
Take this 5-question quiz to see how much you know about John Snow’s historic investigation of cholera in 1854.
King Cholera
1) Cholera was a deadly infectious disease that originated in India and spread to England in the 1830s, killing over 30,000 people.
2) In 1854, Dr. John Snow identified the source of a cholera outbreak in London as a water pump on Broad Street after mapping cases of the disease. Removing the pump handle stopped the outbreak.
3) Snow's discovery helped prove that cholera was spread through contaminated water, not air, though his germ theory of disease was not widely accepted until later.
John Snow
John Snow was a British physician in the 19th century who is considered one of the founders of epidemiology. He traced a 1854 cholera outbreak in Soho, London to a contaminated water pump on Broad Street. Removing the pump handle ended the outbreak. Snow pioneered the use of anesthesia and studied chloroform and ether. He was one of the first to reject the miasma theory of disease transmission, and through mapping cases was able to show the water pump was spreading cholera through contaminated water, decades before the germ theory was accepted. Snow's work is considered a founding event of epidemiology and public health.
The Ghost Map Patricia Hill
The document summarizes Steven Johnson's book "The Ghost Map" which tells the story of the 1854 cholera outbreak in London. It describes how Dr. John Snow used an early map to track deaths around a contaminated water pump, helping prove his theory that cholera was spread through water and disproving prevailing theories that it was spread through air. The outbreak led to advances in public health policy and modernized sewage systems and disease prevention. The document provides biographical details on the author Steven Johnson and analyzes the book's structure, thesis, sources, and evidence presented in chapters on London's sanitation problems and Snow's research tracing the outbreak to a specific water pump.
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Running head JOHN SNOW ON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 1.docx
Running head: JOHN SNOW ON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 1
JOHN SNOW ON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 3
John Snow on Communicable Diseases
Brenda Rouse
HCA415: Community & Public Health (HCK1711A)
Instructor: Kristin Akerele
April 3, 2017
John Snow on Communicable Diseases
John Snow was a skilled physician, born in 1813, and made a significant contribution to the appropriate use of chloroform in the then society, and a significant discovery on the control of the spread of cholera in London, where he ended up being a doctor after acquiring his M.D degree. Notably, as a teenager, he began an apprenticeship program in medicine under a famous doctor in New Castle. Although he went ahead to make progress in medicine by himself, he had acquired significant insight in practice from his interaction with the doctor. His research on communicable diseases that earned him quite the reputation as he had to grapple with the challenge of getting people to buy into his idea and adopt ways that would effectively reduce the rate of transmission of the disease.
Research Barriers
Unlike the modern society, research in the earlier centuries was not entirely funded by the government, and only those who were very interested in making significant milestones in the health sector would dare conduct the different study. For example, there had been limited efforts by the government to find the possible causes of diarrhea, which had left thousands dead in Europe in the early nineteenth century. Nonetheless, lack of such support did not deter John Snow from focusing on an issue that he felt were of importance to the society. Further, there was limited technology to analyze the different aspects of patients such as their blood components to ascertain the existence of anomalies that could have been the cause of diseases. Consequently, the conditions of research were so poor that only the resilient health researchers could end up with tangible evidence of the possibility of pathogens being the cause of infections.
How John Snow Overcame the Barriers
With limited funding to the study of the communicable disease, John Snow had to ensure that he spent his resources wisely and only where necessary. Following the second outbreak of cholera in London in the year 1848, Snow made the inference that there were limited chances that the disease spread from the gas resulting from sewers and waste disposal sites (Brody, Rip, Vinten-Johansen, Paneth, & Rachman, 2000). Previous research had indicated such sights as producing gasses through which the disease was transmitted. Consequently, Snow employed analytical skills purely in the early stages of his research. He made deductions based on the information he gathered from the patients, and the observations he made of the patients who came to him for treatment. Since the availability of resources was the primary research barrier to his work, he made use of what he had to come up with possible solutions to the outbre ...
Epidemiology cholera, ebola, hiv aids
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to control health problems. This document discusses epidemiology and provides details on cholera, including its history and causes. It describes how John Snow used epidemiology to discover that cholera is spread through contaminated water by tracing a cholera outbreak in London back to a contaminated water pump. It also discusses the "miasma theory" of disease transmission via air that was previously widely accepted, as well as the scientists who first discovered the cholera bacteria and advocated for improved sanitation to prevent disease.
In your own opinion, why do you think many public health professio.pdf
In your own opinion, why do you think many public health professionals regard John Snow as
the father of epidemiology? Provide three reasons to support your position
In your own opinion, why do you think many public health professionals regard John Snow as
the father of epidemiology? Provide three reasons to support your position
Solution
In my opinion, many public health professionals regard John Snow as the father of epidemiology
because of the following three reasons:
· The epidemics were rampant on the planet since generations together. While certain
inventions indeed helped in curbing with few of these, John Snow rather brought this concern
more into the lime-light not just by alarming the Public about the epidemics but also clarifying
the misconception that not all diseases could form the roots into the ‘Miasma Theory’ or even by
the physical touch. As a matter of fact, he exposed the faulty notions of this theory by informing
that Cholera was a water-borne disease and not air-borne. Now since he broke the traditional
conceptions of the people who believed the causes of epidemics to be ‘Bad air’ or ‘Miasma’, he
was rather the first physician who introduced the World to ‘Modern Epidemiology’ by
debunking the old theories. However, although John’s contribution to the investigation and
findings of the massive outbreak of cholera near London in 1854 A.D was significant, it took
time for the Public to believe in his theory until in the year 1885, when finally the evidence of
cholera’s bacteria proved to the world that this was a water-borne disease. But it was only
unfortunate for John Snow for not being alive to witness the same.
· Further, before the formal discovery of the cholera bacteria responsible for the disease, in
the year 1849, John Snow also published his paper to defy the common notions of the people
about the reasons of this epidemic, in the paper titled, \"On the Mode of Communication of
Cholera\". This also goes to show to the world as to how much sure was John Snow about his
primary discovery that he actually converted his claims into a formalized research paper.
However, this paper did not even get a proper grip in the medical field back then.
· On Sep 6, 1853 when there was another outbreak of Cholera, John Snow persistently
collected the evidences of the sources of the contaminated water, in spite of his previous
contributions not receiving enough acceptance in the society and concluded that the Broad Street
Pump water was responsible for being the carrier of this disease. Today, this Broad Street Pump
also holds an important landmark in the medical history. This strong determination to prove the
world that Cholera as an epidemic is a water-borne disease and despite of strong resistance from
the Public, constantly striving to work in the arena, itself showed the public health professionals,
why John Snow be indeed regarded as the father of epidemiology. His comparisons of
hypothesis in a systematic way and the manner in w.
History of cholera
Cholera is an acute diarrheal disease caused by the bacteria Vibrio cholerae that can lead to severe dehydration and death if untreated. There have been 7 recorded pandemics of cholera since the early 1800s. John Snow's study of a cholera outbreak in London in 1854 helped establish contaminated water as a mode of transmission and led to major public health reforms. While Filippo Pacini first isolated V. cholerae in 1854, Robert Koch's work in 1883 established it as the definitive cause. Rehydration with oral rehydration salts is now the primary treatment recommended by health organizations to prevent dehydration from cholera.
John snow cholera outbreak
Take this 5-question quiz to see how much you know about John Snow’s historic investigation of cholera in 1854.
King Cholera
1) Cholera was a deadly infectious disease that originated in India and spread to England in the 1830s, killing over 30,000 people.
2) In 1854, Dr. John Snow identified the source of a cholera outbreak in London as a water pump on Broad Street after mapping cases of the disease. Removing the pump handle stopped the outbreak.
3) Snow's discovery helped prove that cholera was spread through contaminated water, not air, though his germ theory of disease was not widely accepted until later.
John Snow
John Snow was a British physician in the 19th century who is considered one of the founders of epidemiology. He traced a 1854 cholera outbreak in Soho, London to a contaminated water pump on Broad Street. Removing the pump handle ended the outbreak. Snow pioneered the use of anesthesia and studied chloroform and ether. He was one of the first to reject the miasma theory of disease transmission, and through mapping cases was able to show the water pump was spreading cholera through contaminated water, decades before the germ theory was accepted. Snow's work is considered a founding event of epidemiology and public health.
The Ghost Map Patricia Hill
The document summarizes Steven Johnson's book "The Ghost Map" which tells the story of the 1854 cholera outbreak in London. It describes how Dr. John Snow used an early map to track deaths around a contaminated water pump, helping prove his theory that cholera was spread through water and disproving prevailing theories that it was spread through air. The outbreak led to advances in public health policy and modernized sewage systems and disease prevention. The document provides biographical details on the author Steven Johnson and analyzes the book's structure, thesis, sources, and evidence presented in chapters on London's sanitation problems and Snow's research tracing the outbreak to a specific water pump.
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The document provides a detailed history of the development of Germ Theory, from its earliest concepts in ancient Greece to its establishment in the late 19th century. Some key points include: Hippocrates' idea in 500 BC that disease originated from stagnant water; Anton van Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microbes in the 1670s; Ignaz Semmelweis' findings in 1847 linking childbed fever to doctors transferring germs; Louis Pasteur's experiments in the 1860s disproving spontaneous generation and establishing that different microbes have different effects; and Robert Koch's four postulates in the 1880s providing criteria for scientifically proving that a specific microbe causes a specific disease. The work of
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Section 1 Definition of Epidemiology httpswww.cdc.govophs.docx
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https://www.cdc.gov/ophss/csels/dsepd/ss1978/lesson1/section1.html
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Al-Shantaf 1 Samiha Al-Shantaf English 1302 .docx
Al-Shantaf
1
Samiha Al-Shantaf
English 1302
Professor Harris
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many heroes. These cultural ethics and values are reflected in both the actions and in this
case, the discoveries of the scientific heroes. Through centuries, the idea and meaning of a
hero has advanced. In ancient times, a hero was very well defined, such as Beowulf; he was
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today; their lives and cultural circumstances shaped the portrayal of these heroes in their
works and discoveries.
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growth and development to the Arabic culture in those centuries. Among many of the
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the torchbearer of knowledge, wisdom and civilization (Elgohary). At that time, education
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schools, and 300 libraries loaded with at least one million books. Status and wealth of any
Al-Shantaf
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books he owned. Hospitals at that time were constructed as masterpieces of beauty or else
grand palaces were converted into hospitals. Each hospital had a pharmacy dispensing free
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(Elgohary). That shows how much knowledge and science were appreciated and wanted by
many people.
Al-Zahrawi was an ingenious surgeon whose contributions added many benefits to
surgery and medicine, not known to his ancestors. During his lifetime doctors used to come
from all around the world to learn form his surgical talents. He remained the famous teacher
of surgery because of his prominent encyclopedia work “Al-Tasreef Liman Ajez Aan Al-
Taareef” (The Disposal of Medical Knowledge to those Unable to Get it from the Other
compilations), a thirty volume medical treatise which covered surgery, medicine,
orthopedics, ophthalmology, pharmacology, nutrition, etc (Elgohary). His effort and work has
been .
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Review the SPSS output file which reports the results of the independent t-test to compare the mean price per 6-pack for regular vs. reduced calorie brands of wheat beer. Answer the following questions based on your observations of the SPSS output file:
Is the F-value for Levene's Test for Equality of Variances significant (that is, is the
p
<
.05)? What is the exact significance level? Note: if the Levene's Test for Equality of Variances is significant, then equal variances cannot be assumed.
Which
t-
value should you use now that you know whether or not equal variances can be assumed? What is that
t
-value?
What is the two-tailed significance level for that
t
-value? State the exact significance value. Report the results of the
t
-test as follows:
t
(df value) = ___, and
p
-value.
Is there a statistically significant difference between the price per 6-pack of regular beers versus reduced calorie beers?
T-TEST GROUPS=Reducedcals(0 1)
/MISSING=ANALYSIS
/VARIABLES=price
/CRITERIA=CI(.95).
T-Test
Notes
Output Created
07-JUN-2013 11:20:55
Comments
Input
Data
C:\Users\donn\Documents\GCU Lead fac\Project with Judy for modifying PSY845 to introduce SPSS\drinks database -revised for course applications DH.sav
Active Dataset
DataSet1
File Label
SPSS/PC+
Filter
Weight
Split File
N of Rows in Working Data File
35
Missing Value Handling
Definition of Missing
User defined missing values are treated as missing.
Cases Used
Statistics for each analysis are based on the cases with no missing or out-of-range data for any variable in the analysis.
Syntax
T-TEST GROUPS=Reducedcals(0 1)
/MISSING=ANALYSIS
/VARIABLES=price
/CRITERIA=CI(.95).
Resources
Processor Time
00:00:00.02
Elapsed Time
00:00:00.01
[DataSet1] C:\Users\donn\Documents\GCU Lead fac\Project with Judy for modifying PSY845 to introduce SPSS\drinks database -revised for course applications DH.sav
Group Statistics
Regular or reduced calorie for brand
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Price per 6-pack for brand
Regular
28
3.1154
1.24040
Reduced Calories
7
2.6757
.21870
Group Statistics
Regular or reduced calorie for brand
Std. Error Mean
Price per 6-pack for brand
Regular
.23441
Reduced Calories
.08266
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for Equality of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F
Sig.
t
Price per 6-pack for brand
Equal variances assumed
6.987
.012
.924
Equal variances not assumed
1.769
Independent Samples Test
t-test for Equality of Means
df
Sig. (2-tailed)
Mean Difference
Price per 6-pack for brand
Equal variances assumed
33
.362
.43964
Equal variances not assumed
31.912
.086
.43964
Independent Samples Test
t-test for Equality of Means
Std. Error Difference
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
Lower
Upper
Price per 6-pack for brand
Equal variances assumed
.47576
-.52829
1.40758
Equal variances not assumed
.24856
-.06671
.94600
.
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Section 1 Definition of Epidemiology httpswww.cdc.govophs.docx
Section 1: Definition of Epidemiology
https://www.cdc.gov/ophss/csels/dsepd/ss1978/lesson1/section1.html
Lesson 1: Introduction to Epidemiology
In fact, epidemiology is often described as the basic science of public health, and for good reason. First, epidemiology is a quantitative discipline that relies on a working knowledge of probability, statistics, and sound research methods. Second, epidemiology is a method of causal reasoning based on developing and testing hypotheses grounded in such scientific fields as biology, behavioral sciences, physics, and ergonomics to explain health-related behaviors, states, and events. However, epidemiology is not just a research activity but an integral component of public health, providing the foundation for directing practical and appropriate public health action based on this science and causal reasoning.(2)
A. Distribution
Epidemiology is concerned with the frequency and pattern of health events in a population:
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Al-Shantaf 1 Samiha Al-Shantaf English 1302 .docx
Al-Shantaf
1
Samiha Al-Shantaf
English 1302
Professor Harris
April 20, 2015
Scientific Heroes in Different Cultures
A hero is usually a person who is admired and emulated. For this reason, a hero
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many heroes. These cultural ethics and values are reflected in both the actions and in this
case, the discoveries of the scientific heroes. Through centuries, the idea and meaning of a
hero has advanced. In ancient times, a hero was very well defined, such as Beowulf; he was
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today; their lives and cultural circumstances shaped the portrayal of these heroes in their
works and discoveries.
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growth and development to the Arabic culture in those centuries. Among many of the
scholars who helped in sharing an enlightening path of medical human knowledge is Al-
Zahrawi, who was nicknamed “the chief of all surgeons” by Pietro Argallata. Abulqasim Al-
Zahrawi was born and raised in 936 AD, Cordova in Andalusia, now known as Spain; was
the torchbearer of knowledge, wisdom and civilization (Elgohary). At that time, education
was blooming in Cordova; it had 900 public paths, eighty Schools and twenty-seven High
schools, and 300 libraries loaded with at least one million books. Status and wealth of any
Al-Shantaf
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many people.
Al-Zahrawi was an ingenious surgeon whose contributions added many benefits to
surgery and medicine, not known to his ancestors. During his lifetime doctors used to come
from all around the world to learn form his surgical talents. He remained the famous teacher
of surgery because of his prominent encyclopedia work “Al-Tasreef Liman Ajez Aan Al-
Taareef” (The Disposal of Medical Knowledge to those Unable to Get it from the Other
compilations), a thirty volume medical treatise which covered surgery, medicine,
orthopedics, ophthalmology, pharmacology, nutrition, etc (Elgohary). His effort and work has
been .
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Review the SPSS output file which reports the results of the independent t-test to compare the mean price per 6-pack for regular vs. reduced calorie brands of wheat beer. Answer the following questions based on your observations of the SPSS output file:
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<
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T-TEST GROUPS=Reducedcals(0 1)
/MISSING=ANALYSIS
/VARIABLES=price
/CRITERIA=CI(.95).
T-Test
Notes
Output Created
07-JUN-2013 11:20:55
Comments
Input
Data
C:\Users\donn\Documents\GCU Lead fac\Project with Judy for modifying PSY845 to introduce SPSS\drinks database -revised for course applications DH.sav
Active Dataset
DataSet1
File Label
SPSS/PC+
Filter
Weight
Split File
N of Rows in Working Data File
35
Missing Value Handling
Definition of Missing
User defined missing values are treated as missing.
Cases Used
Statistics for each analysis are based on the cases with no missing or out-of-range data for any variable in the analysis.
Syntax
T-TEST GROUPS=Reducedcals(0 1)
/MISSING=ANALYSIS
/VARIABLES=price
/CRITERIA=CI(.95).
Resources
Processor Time
00:00:00.02
Elapsed Time
00:00:00.01
[DataSet1] C:\Users\donn\Documents\GCU Lead fac\Project with Judy for modifying PSY845 to introduce SPSS\drinks database -revised for course applications DH.sav
Group Statistics
Regular or reduced calorie for brand
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Price per 6-pack for brand
Regular
28
3.1154
1.24040
Reduced Calories
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2.6757
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Reduced Calories
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Sig.
t
Price per 6-pack for brand
Equal variances assumed
6.987
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Equal variances not assumed
1.769
Independent Samples Test
t-test for Equality of Means
df
Sig. (2-tailed)
Mean Difference
Price per 6-pack for brand
Equal variances assumed
33
.362
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Equal variances not assumed
31.912
.086
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t-test for Equality of Means
Std. Error Difference
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Inverted
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descending
order.
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