1. Running head: WORD-RECALL 1
The Effects of Memory on Related and Unrelated Words
Amanda J. Hanks
The Pennsylvania State University, New Kensington
Author Note
Send correspondence to Amanda J. Hanks, Pennsylvania State University, New
Kensington Campus, 3550 Seventh Street Road, RT 780, New Kensington, PA 15068; email:
aqh5269@psu.edu.

2. WORD-RECALL 2
Abstract
The goal of this experiment was to explore how related and unrelated word-recall effected
memory. Thirty male and female Penn State New Kensington undergraduate students
participated in the experiment. It was hypothesized that related words would be more accurately
recalled compared to unrelated words. Related words will form meaningful categories in
memory while unrelated words will not form meaningful categories. To test my hypothesis, I
exposed some participants to a list that contained related words and others to a list that contained
unrelated words. The results supported the hypothesis that related words are more accurately
recalled compared to unrelated words. Implications for related and unrelated word-recall will be
discussed.
Keywords: word-recall, related words, unrelated words, memory

3. WORD-RECALL 3
The Effects of Memory on Related and Unrelated Words
Recall plays a major role in our memory and is a widely used tool to determine how
much capacity we are able to hold as humans (Cowan et al., 2010). Researchers have found a
wide range of knowledge, between memory and recall, by using different types of recall
techniques. For example, one study in Jönsson, Kubik, Sundqvist, Todorov, and Jonsson (2014),
found that recall was better for a shorter period of time than a longer period (longer recall). In
another study, Cowan et al. (2010), found a shorter list of words was easier to recall compared to
a longer list of words. Finally, Ueno and Saito (2013), found that spoken words have a better
recall accuracy than unspoken words. Spoken words are those that are spoken out loud for the
participant to hear, rather than seeing the word on a screen or on a sheet of paper.
Koriat and Melkman (1981), found that related words have more accurate recall than
unrelated words. Unrelated words are more likely to be incorrectly recalled because participants
were unable to group the words together forming a meaningful category. Related words are more
likely to be accurately recalled due to participants having the ability to group words into a
meaningful category. This will allow for a relationship to form between the related words and
their category when recalled.
Related words are recalled less correctly then unrelated words according to Schweickert,
Guentert, and Hersberger (1990). This is due to a smaller memory span for similar words. Since
related words are so similar to one another, the pronunciation of these words are slower than
unrelated words. Humphreys, Murray, and Koh (2014), found when the rate of recall becomes
slow, there becomes a greater chance for the recalled words to be incorrect.

4. WORD-RECALL 4
Spurgeon, Ward, and Matthews (2014), found that when participants were asked to recall
the presented words in any sequence, most often participants responded by recalling the
presented words in a forward serial order. Spurgeon, Ward, and Matthews (2014), believed this
was due to the modest recall advantage towards the beginning of the list known as, the primary
effect.
I hypothesized that related words would be more accurate to recall compared to the
unrelated words because related words form a meaningful category in memory. Unrelated words
do not form a meaningful category. Related is defined as being associated with a specific
category. Recall is defined as the action of remembering a word that was learned. The definition
of unrelated is not linked or not related to a specific category.
Method
Participants
Thirty (30) male and female Penn State New Kensington undergraduate students
participated in the study. Participants received extra credit in their Cognitive Psychology course
in exchange for participation. I did not believe making a restriction on gender was necessary for
this experiment.
Procedure
When entering the classroom participants chose a number, either one or two, out of a
container and collected the packet that matched the number chosen. This randomized the
participants and the questionnaire received and completed. One questionnaire consisted of nine
African animals’ names that included leopard, bushpig, ostrich, cheetah, meerkat, monkey,
polecat, giraffe, and gemsbok. African animal names were used because previous research by

5. WORD-RECALL 5
Bauml and Schlichting (2014), used animal names in order to target information in a category to
help access memories. The second questionnaire consisted of nine random words that included
trumpet, monster, pumpkin, cabinet, summer, hammer, number, camper, and chapter. Each
questionnaire contained two syllable words that were listed in a straight line down the left side of
the paper. After receiving the questionnaire, participants answered a yes or no question that
asked if their first language was English, before proceeding on. This was to ensure that a
language barrier did not affect the number correctly recalled. After the two initial minutes, the
participants had another two minutes to recall on the back sheet of paper the presented words
studied. I chose two minutes to study the presented words and two minutes to recall the words
because of the time constraints for this project. I operated a timer to ensure that the time allowed
to study and recall the presented words was each two minutes.
Materials
The materials that were used involved a questionnaire that each participant completed.
The questionnaire contained no more than nine words. Nine words was an acceptable number to
remember because most individuals can remember about five to nine words at a time (Miller,
1956). Individuals who speak English can normally remember about seven digits, letters, or
words (Cowan et al., 2010).
Measures
The dependent measure in my study was the accuracy of recalled words from memory.
The maximum amount of words that could be recalled was nine. In order to test the hypothesis,
an inferential statistic of an independent group’s t-test was used. The accuracy of recalled words
was scored on a ratio scale due to the possibility of scoring a zero by a participant.

6. WORD-RECALL 6
Results
To test the hypothesis that related words would be more accurate to recall compared to
unrelated words, an independent samples t-test was conducted. Results indicated participants
who recalled related words scored higher (M = 8.67, SD = .72) compared to those who recalled
unrelated words (M = 8.47, SD = .92). Results revealed support for the hypothesis. This showed
there was a significant difference, t (28) = .66, p < .512. The magnitude of the differences in the
mean was small (eta squared = .02).
Discussion
Results revealed that the hypothesis was supported. As found by Koriat and Melkman
(1981), words that were related have more accurate recall than unrelated words. Related word-
recall had a bigger impact on memory due to the participant’s ability to group words into a
meaningful category. However, future research can be conducted to expand the knowledge on
recall of words. Further research could examine the maximum amount of words an individual is
able to retain. This can in turn, can help us understand the maximum amount of words an
individual is able to hold in memory.
Related word-recall can help aid individuals who are studying new vocabulary words,
grouping words from a list into meaningful categories in order to improve word-recall during an
exam. Using word-recall while studying is an efficient way of enhancing a learning environment
for individuals. Word-recall can help expand the amount of knowledge we are inputting into our
brains, to expand our education. Also, grouping vocabulary words into meaningful categories
may increase test scores and overall grades of students.

7. WORD-RECALL 7
Putnam, Ozubko, MacLeod, and Roediger (2014), found that speaking and writing
enhances future recall and recognition. In order to further aid studying new vocabulary, the
studying of vocabulary words can be done through speaking and writing. Studying related words
in vocabulary may enhance memory, but also enhance recall or recognition of the vocabulary
words during an exam. Hopefully speaking or writing related words in a vocabulary list during
studying can raise test scores in students.

8. WORD-RECALL 8
References
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