Research project. Attraction to others through the influence of red.

Running Head: ATTRACTION TO OTHER PEOPLE THROUGH THE COLOUR RED USING
INTERCHANGING CLOTHING AND BACKGROUND
The attraction to other people through the influence of the colour red
David Seckington
University Centre at Blackburn College

Attractionand the colourred 2
Abstract
Background
The use of colour within society and social interaction provides a stage for personal and
highly individual forms of self-expression, manipulating how we wish others to see or
perceive us. This fascination with colour is possibly an evolutionary behavioural observation
that drives innate responses involving reproduction or the assessment of physical threat.
(Roberts, Owen & Havlicek, 2010). Elliot and Niesta (2008) when exploring red effect of
males viewing females found that there was a significant attraction to red scoring more
highly than any other colour.
Aims
This research explored the effect of the colour red as well as three other colours upon the
strength of attraction by participants of both genders. Unlike previous research such as
Elliot and Niesta all sexual orientation will participate whilst viewing images of either a male
or female model wearing four different coloured tops with the digital image bordered by
the same four colours.
Sample
A total of 66 participants of both genders and all sexual orientation took part filling in a
questionnaire whilst viewing a book of sixteen images.
Method
These images were of a model of the gender of choice of the participant. The book that was
viewed involved four images of a model wearing four different coloured tops against a
background of four different colours.
Results
The results through the application of SPSS, Chi square and ANOVA analysis suggest that red
plays a part in selection although within no specific aspect whether it may be clothing worn,
background image or both together.
Conclusion
The results can conclude that red is not the single most definitive colour that provides
attraction. Ratings regarding the male image of blue top with blue border were significant
and comparable with red. This conclusion has similar findings to that of Elliot and Niesta
(2008) suggesting colour is context dependant. The personal choice of the individual and
situation presented plays a strong deciding factor.
Key Words: Colour, red, attraction, attribution, behaviour.

The attraction to other people through the influence of the colour red
The use of colour within a social context provides the individual not only the ability
to express their personality and individuality but also convey visual messages through the
use of colour to others and how we wish others to view and perceive us. Bold bright colours
may convey a fun loving bright and bubbly personality whilst dark colours may convey a
more reserved character. Elliot and Niesta (2008) further suggests that our behavioural and
decision making process regarding the aspects of attraction and signalling to others through
the influence of colour, may be deep rooted in anthropology and attribution theory.
Research results conducted by Elliot and Niesta have shown similarities between human and
non-human primate responses to the colour red regarding levels of attraction.
Red is a sexual indicator for men viewing women whether it is an image of a female
wearing red or the image of a woman that is bordered by red. Men perceive the image of
the’ lady in red’ as more sexually receptive which in turn increases male attention towards
her. Males are commonly regarded as the instigators of sexually orientated signalling to
initiate attention but research has indicated that females are also aware of colour attraction
and use this signal as well as other means such as body posturing, eye contact and verbal
flirtation in conjunction with clothing colour to attract male attention (Elliot & Pazda, 2012).
The colour red is a vibrant colour which plays a strong role within society regarding romance
and sexuality such as the use of red lipstick, red roses and cards on Valentine’s Day whilst in
a sporting context the colour red is used to convey status, success and strength (Elliot &
Niesta, 2008).
Research conducted by Little and Hill (2007) suggests the attribution effects of red in
relation to visual signalling towards others is a much more dominant colour than blue.
Findings have indicated that females are more sensitive to the dominant signalling
properties of red although conversely males can link the dominance of red with aggression
and competitiveness. Females may judge colour dominance regarding male quality and the
selection of a partner whereas males will judge red as a trigger for potential conflict with
other males. Research results indicate that the visual influence of red is special in sexual
selection and attraction regarding the signalling of dominance to others more so than other
colours.
The impact of colour within our daily lives affects us in ways we do not realise
ourselves at specific moments in time. Research has indicated red to have a negative impact
upon psychological functioning reducing motivation, increasing avoidance behaviour and
impairing performance in relation to IQ scores. Because red is associated with the danger of
failure in achievement contexts, care must be taken in how red is used within the
environment and how this may affect individuals who view and perceive this strong
influential colour (Elliot, Maier, Moller, Arlen, Friedman & Meinhardt, 2007).
Our perception of others is very heavily guided by the colours that the person wears
in conjunction with their own body language. Kyle and Mahler (1996) studied the effects of
colour regarding a person attending a job interview. One hundred and thirty six students

were shown a C.V. and a photograph of women either with blond, red or brunette hair and
either wearing or not wearing makeup. The study concluded that visual cues guided our
response regarding our opinion of that person. The model was awarded a higher salary
when viewed with brunette hair and not wearing makeup and shows that colour can
actually cause others to judge us and our ability, possibly creating a foundation for bias and
stereotyping.
Previous Studies
Elliot and Niesta (2008) conducted research regarding the effects of the colour red
and how it makes males feel towards women. The study explored the responses and
strength of attraction they felt when they were presented with a series of images of a
woman under a variety of different coloured conditions. In one experiment the image was
presented to participants with coloured borders and a questionnaire that explored the level
of attraction. Questions were asked such as ‘how pretty do you find this girl?’ The
experiment contrasted the colours of grey, green and blue against red. Another experiment
involved the image of a woman which had been digitally enhanced in so far that the image
was exactly the same, only the colour of the top had been changed by means of a computer
programme application. Again questions were asked to ascertain levels of attraction such as
‘imagine that you are going on a date with this person and have $100 in your wallet, how
much of your money you would be willing to spend on your date?’ The results and
conclusion reached by Elliot and Niesta (2008) found that under whatever colour condition
was presented to the male participants either the image border in red or the digital
enhanced image of the model wearing a red top, the colour red was scored more highly
than any other colour presented to the participants. The images were rated as more
sexually desirable with the male participants expressing a preference to date the female in
the image that was either wearing red or the image bordered by the colour red.
Roberts, Owen and Havlicek (2010) criticise this study by Elliot and Niesta (2008) suggesting
that this and other studies alike do not distinguish between colour induced changes in
person perception by others and the effects colour can have upon behaviour and mood
shifts.
Roberts et al conducted research regarding the attributions of attraction employing
a natural approach towards the images viewed by the participants. In experiment number
one rather than retaining exactly the same image of a model and then changing the colour
of the top worn through the use of a computer and digital enhancement (Elliot& Niesta,
2008) used a series of images taking six digital photographs of the same model but wearing
six different coloured tops all plain and of the same brand. The model was asked whilst
being photographed in each top to adopt a neutral stance and facial expression whilst
looking directly towards the camera with their hands by their sides. The photography of the
model using this procedure allowed for very subtle changes in clothing, hair positions and
slight changes of facial expression. Roberts et al, discovered that the colour of the clothing
does affect the levels of attraction experienced by the participant but also extends to the

judgement of males by either males or female participants as well as male perception of
women. The conclusion reached by this study showed that although much of the attention
in previous research has been directed towards the colour red and its effects, there is now
evidence to show that colour effects are not just limited to just red but also the perception
of the colour by not only the viewer but also the person wearing. More research is needed
not only regarding both wearer and viewer perception in relation to the context and
perception of colour but also colour combinations.
The results of Roberts et al (2010) also supports the study by Elliot and Niesta (2008)
who also found that clothing colour effects levels of attraction. Roberts et al, agrees with
the Elliot and Niesta study suggesting that some of the responses shown by participants may
have a basis of evolutionary trait that drives innate instincts of reproduction but in order to
test this theory then cross cultural testing needs to be carried out to understand if the
attraction to the colour red is specific to certain cultures in particular the psychological
effects on clothing wearers rather than the people viewing them.
Elliot, Tracy, Pazda and Beall (2012) added and expanded upon studies and the
hypothesis of attraction to the colour red by researching across cultures to investigate the
potential of a shared and universal effect. Elliot et al, suggests that research within this field
of psychology has been very limited to European and American culture and needs further
investigation to determine if red is a physiologically based attraction that is innate. Elliot et
al, conducted research involving forty two males from the isolated village of Toussianna in
Burkino Faso. This culture has an association with the colour red believing it to bring bad
luck and their perception of red has had no societal conditioning regarding aspects of
romance compared with western society. In fact the colour red within this culture holds a
deep level of mistrust believing that it could bring illness and is ultimately representative of
death.
The experiment involved all forty two males viewing a black and white photograph of a
West African woman which had a coloured border of either blue or red. They were then
asked a series of questions regarding strength and levels of attraction they felt towards the
image without making any reference to any sexual context. The next set of questions
directed towards the participants were regarding levels of attraction of a sexual nature with
the participants being asked to point to a series of five circles graduating in size from left to
right side which represented and scored on a scale of ‘not at all’ to ‘a little’ through to
‘somewhat’ and ‘quite a bit’ concluding with ‘very much’. The results concluded that within
the attraction scores red was rated higher than blue however the questions having a sexual
context, red did not score as highly with the participants not reporting an increased desire
to have sex with the women in the image nor did they report that she appeared to be
interested in sex. The results indicate that the attraction to red is specific to the ways that a
particular culture chooses to express itself and its own perception of that particular colour.
Elliot et al, further suggests that this study is the first step towards gathering evidence of the
universal effect of the colour red and that it contributes to the literature available
suggesting that red has an effect across cultures.

Purpose and hypothesis
This research project aims to explore the attraction to others through the visual
influence of the colour red by the use of a questionnaire and two books of digital images,
one using imagery of a male model and one book of images of a female model. The models
will be wearing four colour varieties of plain coloured tops one of which will be red; the
others are yellow, blue and green. These images will be placed upon alternate coloured
backgrounds of red, blue, yellow and green which the participant will view and score
regarding their level and strength of attraction to that image.
This study will not only cover both genders but all sexual orientation. Previous
research such as Elliot and Niesta (2008) has concentrated primarily upon one gender such
as male response to female images or female response to male images with very little
research regarding variations in sexual orientation.
The results of this research expects that all genders and sexual orientation will be
attracted to the colour red through the imagery presented either by the red top worn by the
model, the red background or the combination of both the colour of the red top and red
background together.
Through the application of SPSS upon the scores provided by the participants by the
viewing of images of either a male or female model and the completion of a questionnaire
in relation to this, the hypothesis that red is an attractant to others will be explored.
H1: All genders and sexual orientation will be attracted to the image of the model through
the influence of the colour red.
Method
Participants
A total of 66 participants took part within this research, 36 males, and 30 females
with a mean age of 37, age range 20 to 68 years. Participants relationship status involved 30
persons married (4.48%), 7 were divorced (10%), 26 were single (38%) and 3 in a long term
relationship (4.5%).
Regarding participant sexuality, 46 individuals were heterosexual (68.7%), 7 homosexual
(10.4%), 2 lesbian (3%), 5 participants were bi-sexual (7.5%) whilst 6 male participants chose
not to answer the question regarding their sexual orientation. The primary criteria for
inclusion regarding participation within this research study are that questionnaire
respondents are above the age of 20 years old. This age range was chosen to ensure
maturity of the respondents. The youngest participant was 20 years of age whilst the oldest
was 68 years of age.
Each participant was recruited by the primary researcher of this study. They were
physically approached and asked if they would like to participate after they had been
provided with all the information relating too and reasons behind performing this research

as well as providing all ethical information and considerations. By recruiting participants in
this manner it was possible to accurately assess the suitability of potential participants and
to ultimately maintain accurate levels of research data.
Design
The questionnaire was piloted with 4 males, mean age 22.5 (range 20-25 years) and
4 females mean age 23.75 (range 23-26 years) all of whom were heterosexual and students
of University Centre at Blackburn College. The purpose of the pilot study was to test the
appropriate function, content and flow of both the questionnaire and the book of images
that was used simultaneously within this study when gathering data. The pilot study also
afforded the researcher the time and opportunity to refine the physical and verbal approach
towards the recruitment of potential participants.
The study is an un-related design; variables within this study involve the participant’s
response to the contents of the book of images. Participants involve all genders and sexual
orientation that will score within the questionnaire provided, their strength of attraction
regarding the colour red towards a series of images of a gender model image of their chose
that is wearing different coloured tops placed upon and bordered by different colours. The
independent variable (I.V.) will be the book of images viewed by the participant. This is the
variable that has been manipulated within this research study and what we shall assume to
have a direct effect upon the scores provided by the respondent within the results of the
questionnaire i.e. the dependant variable (D.V.).
Materials
This research study involved two components, a questionnaire and a book of images.
When an individual agreed to participate they were first presented with a questionnaire and
information pack containing six pieces of paper then a book containing images of either a
male or female wearing different coloured tops.
Questionnaire
Page one consisted of information relating to the aims of the study, what the participant can
expect and the reasoning behind this particular study. This first page also stated that the
participant may withdraw from the study at any time of their choosing without explanation
and that participation is completely voluntary, any data provided by the participant will be
withdrawn from the study. Contact information of the primary researcher and research
study’s supervisor was also provided clearly so that any concerns or withdrawal from the
study may be voiced by the participant. The second page contained a consent form asking
four questions to confirm that the participant has read and understands the first page
information sheet, they know and understand that they may withdraw from the study at
any time, they have received contact information of the researcher and study supervisor
and that they have had the opportunity to ask questions. This sheet was then signed and
dated by both researcher and participant.

The questionnaire section then begins on page three asking for certain demographic
information. Questions asked the participant’s age, gender, relationship status i.e. married,
divorced and sexual status. Contained within this section is an answer box entitled ‘choose
not to answer’ which allows the participant privacy, respect and dignity regarding this
process. The final section on page three asks the respondent to tick which book of images
did they view regarding gender either male or female images viewed.
Page four asks the participant to begin looking at the first section within the book of images
and to progress through each section, scoring an image within each section A, B, C, and D
that they feel the most attracted too. The scoring scale began at 1, not at all attracted
through to 5, moderately attracted concluding at number 9, definitely attracted.
Underneath this scale the participant was asked to circle in each section the image they
were most attracted too and place a score in relation to the scale that best describes their
strength of attraction, this page concluded with a question that asked the participant to
choose one image number from all the choices out of all the sections that they were most
attracted too.
Page five employed the use of a five point Likert scale that scored statements. The
scale began with strongly disagree, disagree, undecided, agree concluding with strongly
agree. The statements that the participant was asked to score ranged from, ‘I feel attracted
to the person in the image’, ‘I would like this person if I got to know them’, ‘I would consider
going on a date with this person’, ‘If I went on a date with this person for a meal I would pay
the whole bill’, ‘I would not feel uncomfortable being stuck in a lift with this person’ and
concluding with the statement ‘If I had £100 in my pocket during a date with this person I
would spend over half that amount on them’.
Page six and the final page of the questionnaire pack involved information that gave
a de-brief for the participant explaining the reasons behind this research and some web
addresses of previous research within the area of colour attraction, the page concludes with
a reminder for the participant that they may withdraw from the study and that if they feel
aggrieved in any way that they may contact the research supervisor at the e-mail address
provided to voice their concerns.
Book of Images.
The book of images began with the first page thanking the person for taking part
within this research project, it also reminded the participant that they may withdraw from
the study at any time and whilst looking at the book please could they refrain from writing
within the image book and to only write upon the questionnaire. The book contained four
sections which the participant viewed in turn providing scores according to a scale provided
within the questionnaire. Table number 1 (Page 9) shows a matrix regarding how each
section was laid out in relation to the coloured tops worn by both the male and female
model.

Table 1. Tops worn by model in relation to coloured image border within each section
SECTION 1. Yellow-
image border.
2. Red- image
border.
3. Green- image
border.
4. Blue- image
border.
A Blue top. (A1). Red top. (A2). Green top. (A3). Yellow top. (A4).
B Yellow top. (B1). Blue top. (B2). Red top. (B3). Green top. (B4).
C Green top. (C1). Yellow top. (C2). Blue top. (C3). Red top. (C4).
D Red top. (D1). Green top. (D2). Yellow top. (D3). Blue top. (D4).
The tops worn by the models within the book of images were four, crew neck t-shirts
brought at the Blackburn retail outlet of Primark. Size large and were marketed and sold as
red, blue, yellow and green. The models during photography was asked to adopt a neutral
but natural facial and body position (Roberts, Owen & Havlicek, 2010) whilst stood in front
of a neutral coloured background. A digital image was taken of them using a Pentax Optio
V15, 8.0 mega pixel digital camera. The images were taken in picture frame style and
checked for consistency and regularity before being printed to the size of six inches by three
inches. The photographs were then fixed centrally on coloured A4 paper. To ensure
consistency and accuracy of centralising the photo on the coloured A4 paper an ‘L’ shaped
template was made. The book of images was then constructed according to table 1 as
above.
Procedure
Ethical procedures regarding the withdrawal of informed consent to use imagery
were adhered to. Informed consent to take digital images of both the male and female
models was acquired during the construction of the book of images which involved both the
male and female participants being photographed wearing exactly the same size and style of
t-shirt but in four different colours i.e. red, blue, green and yellow. Both of the models were
fully briefed regarding the nature and purpose of the research study and also the
questionnaire that was to be used in conjunction with the book of images and the
participant criteria of this study as regards sexual orientation, prior to signing the consent
forms. The models had both signed the consent forms and were made fully aware of their
right to withdraw from the study, unfortunately both parties contacted the researcher
several days after images were taken and processed stating that they wish to withdraw their
images from the research.
In accordance with University Centre at Blackburn College code of research ethical
practice, all images were withdrawn. All images that were held upon the digital camera
were deleted and all photographs were disposed of by passing them through a crosscut
shredder, confidentiality and anonymity was maintained.
New models were acquired by asking the tutors and students of the BSc. (Hons) Applied
Psychology degree course at University Centre Blackburn College who wished to volunteer

and participate by being photographed. One male and one female were selected and
photographs taken adhering to all ethical procedures.
Research population regarding participation criteria was assessed and acquired by
physically approaching and verbally asking if they would be willing to participate within this
area of research. The participant’s age was asked to ensure criteria was met i.e. respondents
to be 20 years of age and above. The researcher identified himself as a student of
psychology with and was in final year study at University Centre Blackburn College whilst
then proceeding to explain the rational of the study. The contents of both the questionnaire
and book of images was explained as well as timescale to complete the questionnaire being
approximately ten minutes with all procedures relating to consent and the right to withdraw
with contact information and a debriefing form provided for the participant to take away.
Potential participants were assured that any and all information provided demographic or
otherwise would be treated with the utmost respect, if the person agreed to participate
privacy was afforded for the individual during completion of the questionnaire. Collection,
handling and storage of completed questionnaires and also signed consent forms was done
separately to maintain anonymity and confidentiality. Data generated through the
questionnaire answers provided by the participants was then collated through SPSS using
ANOVA, Chi square and t-test formula (appendix 1).
Results
Demographic information
Demographic information relating to the following SPSS, Chi-square and Anova output
tables are as follows. Regarding female images viewed there was 29 participants. 23 males
mean age 34.3 (range 20-59 years) and 6 females mean age 30.1 (range 20-41 years). 10
single males, 11 married males, 2 divorced males. Whilst regarding sexuality 22 of this group
was heterosexual, 1 bi-sexual. Female relationship status involved 3 single, 1 married, 1
divorced and 1 in a relationship. Of these females 2 lesbian, 2 bisexual, 1 heterosexual and 1
chose not to answer.
Male images viewed comprised of 37 participants. 24 females mean age 42.2 (range
24-68 years) and 13 males mean age 37.4 (range 22-46 years). Female relationship status
was 16 married, 2 divorced, 4 single and 2 in a relationship and all heterosexual. Regarding
male participants 8 single, 2 divorced, 1 separated and 2 married. Sexuality of this group
was, 7 homosexual, 5 chose not to answer and 1 bi-sexual.
Picture preference (Chi-square analysis)
Chi- square results of female images viewed in figure 2 indicate that the red effect is
comparable with other colours but when red either in clothing, background or both are
calculated together then the effect is much greater as seen in figure 3. Conversely when
compared to male images viewed Chi-square figure 4 indicates a higher score for both red
clothing and red background than the female ratings but when red effect such as clothing,
background or both are placed together then the ratings become comparable. This similarity

and consistency of colour ratings viewed by both genders can also be seen within the mean
scores of ANOVA analysis tables shown in figure 6(female) and figure 9 (males).
The results displayed relating to Chi-square and ANOVA analysis contain
consolidated data relating to age, relationship status and sexuality of the population. This
information is shown in response to the research hypothesis that all genders and sexual
orientation will be attracted to the image of a person through the influence of red.
Female Images Viewed.
Fig. 2. Chi-Square Test. Favourite image.
Observed
N
Expected
N
Residual
Red background
Red clothes
Both
Other colours
Total
7
8
6
8
29
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
-3
.8
-1.3
.8
Test Statistics.
Favourite image
Chi-Square
Df
Asymp. Sig.
.379
3
.944
Fig. 3. Favourite image 2. Female images viewed.
Observed N Expected N Residual
Red
Other Colour
Total
21
8
29
14.5
14.5
6.5
-6.5
Test Statistics.
Favourite image 2
Chi- Square
Df
Asymp. Sig.
5.828
1
.016

Male Images Viewed.
Fig. 4. Chi-Square Test. Favourite image.
Red background
Red clothes
Both
Other colours
Total
4
4
11
18
37
9.3
9.3
9.3
9.3
-5.3
-5.3
1.8
8.8
Test Statistics
Favourite image
Chi-Square
Df
Asymp. Sig.
14.568
3
.002
Fig. 5. Favourite image 2. Male images viewed.
Red
Other
Total
19
18
37
18.5
18.5
.5
-.5
Test Statistics.
Favourite image 2
Chi-Square
Df
Asymp. Sig.
.027
1
.869
Attractive rating (Chi- square analysis)
Viewed male images in figure 4 show both red background (4) and red border (4)
comparable to each other although both red background and red border together is slightly
higher (11).
When all images that include red are added together (19) this figure shows no significant
difference between other colours (18)

Attractive rating (ANOVA analysis)
Anova results indicate no significance between both groups of female and male
images viewed. Female results (fig.8) F (3, 25) .879 sig .465. Male results (fig 11) F (3,
33).831 sig .487. The analysis can suggest that red appears to have an effect upon selection
although not in any specific context.
The results displayed relating to Chi-square and ANOVA analysis contain consolidated data
relating to age, relationship status and sexuality of the population. This information is
shown in response to the research hypothesis that all genders and sexual orientation will be
attracted to the image of a person through the influence of red.
Fig. 6. One way ANOVA. Female images viewed.
N Mean Std.
Deviation
Std. Error Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Red background
Red clothes
Both
Other colours
Total
7
8
6
8
29
14.8571
16.8750
16.8333
14.1250
15.6207
2.26779
5.91457
2.85774
3.68152
4.03037
.85714
2.09112
1.16667
1.30161
.74842
12.7598
11.9303
13.8343
11.0472
14.0876
16.9545
21.8197
19.8323
17.2028
17.1538
There appears to be no significant mean difference between other colours and images
containing red in figure 6.
Fig. 7.
Minimum Maximum
Red background
Red clothes
Both
Other colours
Total
11.00
8.00
12.00
9.00
8.00
18.00
27.00
20.00
20.00
27.00

Fig. 8. ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F SIG.
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
43.387
411.440
454.828
3
25
28
14.462
16.458
.879 .465
Figure 8 of female images viewed indicate no significant difference between mean scores.
Fig. 9. One way ANOVA. Male images viewed.
N Mean Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Red background
Red clothes
Both
Other colours
Total
4
4
11
18
37
18.5000
15.7500
16.3636
15.2222
15.9730
3. 31662
4.34933
4.56668
3.42234
3.85491
1.65831
2.17466
1.37691
.80665
.63374
13.2225
8.8292
13.2957
13.5203
14.6877
23.7775
22.6708
19.4316
16.9241
17.2583
Figure 9 shows no significant difference between the means regarding red background, red
clothes or both together when in comparison with other colours.
Fig. 10.
Minimum Maximum
Red background
Red clothes
Both
Other colours
Total
14.00
10.00
8.00
10.00
8.00
21.00
20.00
23.00
21.00
23.00
Fig. 11. ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F
Sig.
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
37.566
497.407
534.973
3
33
36
12.522
15.073
.831 .487

Fig.12. Non heterosexual data. Male images viewed.
Total of 13 males, mean age of 34.7 years.
Relationship status- 8 single, 2 divorced, 1 separated, 2 married.
Sexuality- 7 homosexual, 1 bi-sexual, 5 chose not to answer.
All ratings are the total value of that image scored by the participant viewing the image.
Section A.
Images
chosen/rating.
Section B.
Images
chosen/rating.
Section C.
Images
chosen/rating.
Section D.
Images
chosen/rating.
A1- 1 Person/ 2. B1-1 Person/2. C1-1 Person/2. D1-1 Person/2.
A2-8 People/42. B2-6 People/26. C2-7 People/22. D2-3 People/15.
A4-0 People/0. B4-1 Person/5. C4-1 Person/4. D4-9 People/27.
Fig.13. Participants single chosen image/total rating.
A1-0 People/0 B1-0 People/0. C1-0 People/0. D1-0 People/0.
A2-4 People/81. B2-1 Person/ 21. C2-1 Person/21. D2-0 People/0.
A3-1 Person/19. B3-1 Person/18. C3-1 Person/18. D3-0 People/0.
Fig. 15. Non heterosexual data. Female images viewed.
Total of 6 females, mean age of 32 years.
Relationship status- 3 single, 1 married, 1 divorced, 1 in a relationship.
Sexuality- 2 lesbian, 2 bi-sexual, 1 heterosexual, 1 chose not to answer.
Section A.
Images
chosen/rating.
Section B.
Images
chosen/rating
Section C.
Images
chosen/rating.
Section D.
Images
chosen/rating.
A1-2 People/10. B1-2 People/6. C1-1 Person/4. D1-2 Person/10.
A3-0 People/0. B3-1 Person/5. C3-3 People/13. D3-0 People/0.
A4-0 People/0. B4-1 Person/3. C4-0 People/0. D4-4 People/12.
Participants single chosen image/total rating.
A2-5 People/92.
D1-1 Person/20.
Research hypothesis suggests that red will increase the attraction to the image of a model
by either the clothing worn, the image border or together when used in conjunction and
combination with three other colours which are green, yellow and blue. Results indicate
that the attraction to the image of the model does not increase when red is viewed
although red did appear to guide selection but in no specific context. The null-hypothesis is
retained upon this basis due to no significant effect in the population from which samples
were drawn i.e. no mean population difference.

Discussion
Research findings indicate that red appears to guide selection of the viewer although
there appears to be no direct link to red increasing the attractiveness of the person that is
being viewed if they are wearing a red top, image bordered by red or a combination of the
both. This study approached a population as wide and diverse as possible in relation to age,
relationship status and sexual orientation which compared red to three other colours with
the intention of assimilating data across this broad spectrum which previous research
studies have not done.
The knowledge and popularity of red and its possible effects appeared evident whilst
in the process of gathering data through the application of a questionnaire and verbally
approaching potential participants. No verbal cues were provided by the researcher and
information given to the participant through briefing and de-briefing forms were minimal
without risking any breach of ethical issues. Many participants asked the nature of the study
and were aware of the popularity of red the potential effects of attraction and all appeared
interested in the subject. Elliot and Niesta (2008) whilst conducting research into colour
effects asked their participants if they could guess the purpose of their study, several people
asked questions but appeared un-aware of colour manipulation. The four images of the
models, male and female, wearing four different coloured tops were bordered by the same
four colours making sixteen colour combinations. These were placed in random order to
minimise any cueing effects upon participant viewers. The participant was asked to work
through the book of images section by section rather than looking through everything at the
same time in order to reduce any influence upon image choice.
The results of this research project echoes similar findings that colour effects and
popularity is not just applicable to red (Elliot & Niesta, 2008) but also other colours within
this research such as blue top and blue border regarding the male images viewed. This
resulted in the second highest rated choice within the population. An explanation for this
may be attributable to colour dominance, a male image wearing a perceived masculine
colour (Little & Hill, 2007).
The research hypothesis aimed to explore the aspect of whether red would increase
the attractiveness of a male or female image. Rating scores which involved questions linked
to attraction indicate that red does not increase the attractiveness of a person. Questions
that asked participants about their chosen image within each section and their favourite
image scored low although the colour red did appear to guide selection of the participants
across both the male and female images viewed by both genders whilst the image of blue
top and border within the male images was second highest rated. Roberts, Owens &
Havlicek (2010) agrees that other colours in combination may have similar effects to red
when viewed and rated by others; this effect is not just limited to red.
Throughout the choices made by participants that involved the viewing and rating of
images within each section in turn a total of seven were not chosen. Within the male
images that was viewed, the image of the model wearing yellow top with green background

(D3) and yellow top with blue background (A4) was not selected. Nor were female images
green top with green border (A3), Yellow top and blue background (A4), red top and blue
background (C4), green top and red background (D2) and yellow top with green background
(D3).
Whilst in the process of viewing and rating images a much higher proportion of
heterosexual males compared to females stated that they were experiencing difficulty
rating a female image if they were not attracted to that image. Only one heterosexual
female expressed difficulty in rating an image she did not find attracted to. Roberts et al.
suggests that females are more influenced by clothing colour regarding visual cues for
judgements of male attractiveness and are also more sensitive to colour within a social
context than men. Females appear to be more acutely aware of clothing colour and do not
use this as a way of rating other females where males who are also aware of colour are
much more reliant upon other visual cues regarding mate selection in women.
Our personal relationship with colour defines and at times guides us regarding our personal
choice and history linked to that colour and its perceived dominance. Elliot and Niesta
(2008) further suggest that colour carries meaning which ultimately impacts upon our
behaviour without our awareness.
Russell & Hill (2007) conducted research into colour dominance which involved the
comparison of colours and shapes. Red and blue circles were used as stimuli with red and
grey scale images of the same size and shape directly underneath. A series of questions
were asked such as ‘which shape do you think may win in a physical contest?’ or ‘which
shape looks the most aggressive?’ and ‘which shape looks the most dominant?’ Results
indicated that red dominated blue but the darker the grey scale image directly underneath
the blue colour image became, blue was gradually rated more dominant than red. Our
response to colour is guided by our own social perception of lightness, darkness and colour
combination. The highest proportion of research population regarding male images viewed
was heterosexual females. Russell and Hill further suggest that females are more sensitive
to the dominant signalling properties of red which may explain the red and blue effect
within the male images viewed and rated.
Early research by Staples (1932) strengthens the discussion of female colour sensitivity
regarding a study conducted that involved 262 infants aged 69 days to 24 months old whose
perception of colour was assessed by observing the amount of times these infants reached
out towards and grasped a colour object. Results concluded that individual differences are
most noticeable between the ages of six and twelve months whilst girls are more responsive
to colour than boys. Being a male image seen by predominantly heterosexual females
viewing a perceived masculine colour may have had a dominant effect upon choice of the
participant. Russell and Hill conclude that red is special in sexual selection and signalling
dominance whilst colour perception and combination may have far reaching implications
regarding social and biological contexts.
There have been suggestions that choice of colour viewed by a participant may be
due to the darker colour being perceived as more dominant than a lighter colour (Little &

Hill, 2007) which may help to explain the reasons why the research image of yellow top and
yellow border (B1) was not chosen. Other research has contradicted this theory of colour
dominating over another in particular a study that involved two colours of red and white.
Roberts, Owen and Havlicek (2010) discovered that during a certain part of their study
which involved a model changing shirt colour from white to red whist being viewed and
rated it was found that red did not increase in scoring. Attraction scores did not increase
and these results as Roberts et al suggests were somewhat unexpected and contradict their
own previous research related to colour and attraction suggesting that this area needs
attention.
This conclusion shows similarities to our own research results across both genders
indicating that although red selection does appear to guide the participant viewer of images
it cannot be categorically defined as the definitive single colour that is dominant throughout
all the other colours within this study. Viewer attitude and knowledge of the subject that
they are participating in and scoring needs to also be accounted for if results are to be
regarded as valid as well as cultural effects and sexuality of the person.
When heterosexual females view and rate other females there appears to be no
definable effect when wearing different colours (Roberts, Owen & Havlicek, 2010) although
an interesting result occurred regarding our research results of lesbian females rating
females can be seen in figure fifteen in the results section entitled non heterosexual data of
female images viewed. Within the questionnaire sections, participants chose the image they
felt the most attracted to. Image red top with red background (A2) scored the highest at
twenty with four people rating this image although two of the images that incorporated red
were not chosen such as red top with blue background (C4) and green top with red
background (D2). This split between tops worn and background may indicate that within
females and in particular lesbian scoring other females that there are similarities
comparable to heterosexual females rating other females although the single chosen image
and scores contradict this theory. Within the questionnaire that asks the participant to
choose one image out of all the other images within the sections, five people chose red top
and red background (A2) with a total score rating of ninety two whilst one person choosing
red top with yellow background (D1) giving a total score of twenty. These scores are in
response to questions that explore level of attraction felt by the viewer of the image. The
combination of red top and red background together may have played a more dominant
role regarding participant image selection together with possible comparable heterosexual
female sensitivity to colour, although further research would be interesting regarding sexual
orientation in comparison to heterosexual selection. The population numbers within this
research that involved a divergent sexual orientation was small, further research could
target a much higher number of lesbian participants.
There appeared some interesting results within the non-heterosexual data regarding
homosexual males rating the male image which may indicate similar combined effects of red
together with red background to that of lesbian rating females. The table that can be seen in
figure 12 shows a high scoring response again for red top and red back ground also blue top

with blue background was next highest chosen and scored (appendix 7). Two images were
not chosen these were yellow top with blue back ground (D4) and yellow top with green
background (D3). Within the context of homosexual males rating the image of another male
it may be that the blue effect has a comparable effect upon colour choice to that of red and
can have very similar signalling properties (Little & Hill, 2007).The high scoring signalling
properties within the rating of red may also be attributable to dominance and success of
males within a sporting and competitive aspect that homosexual males may respond and be
attracted to (Elliot & Niesta, 2008). The signalling properties of red regarding sporting
activities and competition have shown strong indications that this colour when worn is
successful although blue has been shown to have similar strengths, red is not special and
that some aspect of the visibility of these two colours leads to an advantage for anyone
wearing these colours ( Little & Hill, 2007).
Regarding combative sports the colour red has been shown to have a strong influence upon
the outcome of any bouts for the contender although whether these traits are transferable
across teams and collaborative sports is uncertain (Attrill, Gresty, Hill & Barton, 2008). This
signalling property of red and the strength it may possibly convey through sporting activity
and success is something that we all witness daily and may provide the reason regarding
homosexual males scoring highly against the male image of red top and red background.
Future research could also be carried out to also judge response of colour regarding
homosexuality and any comparisons and differences that could occur across the range of
sexual orientation.
This research study did not account for the participant’s current attitude and
emotional needs at the time of recruitment of the population. Both genders may have been
susceptible and open to starting a relationship and looking for romance. This desire for a
long term relationship or even sexual interaction may have increased the effect upon the
person viewing the images and ultimately the scores provided by them. Conversely the
participant may have broken away from a relationship and found this research subject and
the task of viewing images uncomfortable.
The colour, texture and general health of how a person perceives the skin and face
of another was not considered deeply enough during the planning and implementation of
this research study. Skin texture transmits information relevant to attraction and the
potential of a choice of mate. Research has shown that a male’s judgement of a women’s
facial attractiveness is based upon how smooth the skin appears to be. Healthy skin denotes
a good quality immune system and whilst the face is the main source of social contact and
interaction that is uncovered and observable by others, it is the strength of signal from this
bodily area that is the basis of attraction from others. Red can also increase attraction
within the facial area, a person seen with rosy cheeks on a cold day can be perceived by
others as being healthy and in some cultures as beautiful (Fink, Grammer & Thornhill, 2001).
The redness of skin within the facial region enhances a healthy appearance although this
colouration of skin and the perception of being healthy by others are irrespective of skin
texture (Stephen, Smith, Stirrat & Perrett, 2009).

Future research may involve the study of colour within the various cultures of Great Britain.
This very interesting subject could encompass the subject of their own attitude to colour
and exploring any changes since living within a new country and interacting within a new
culture. English and European culture use colour within descriptive speech such as ‘feeling
blue’ to denote sadness or the term ‘red mist’ to express high levels of frustration and anger
whilst ‘the lady in red’ for sexual attraction.
In summary, these results can conclude and suggest that the colour red can affect all
genders and sexual orientation in subtle ways we do not realise guiding our emotions and
decisions. Red is not the only colour linked to attraction and is dependent upon the
subjective choice and opinion of the viewer.
Acknowledgements: Firstly I wish to thank the two psychology students who volunteered to
have their image taken as part of this project. I would also like to thank my major research
dissertation supervisor James Waterhouse and fellow student Heather Joss for all the help,
support and patience shown. Lastly I wish to thank my wife Susan for being supportive and
understanding.

References.
Attrill, M. J., Gresty, K. A., Hill, R. A., & Barton, R. A. (2008). Red shirt colour is associated
with long term success in English football. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26(6), 577-582.
DOI: 10.1080/026404107001736244.
Elliot, A. J., Maier, M. A., Moller, A. C., Friedman, R., Meinhardt, J. (2007). The red effect on
performance attainment. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 136. (1). 154-168.
DOI:10.1037/0096-3445.136.1.154.
Elliot, A. J., & Niesta, D. (2008). Romantic Red: red enhances men’s attraction to women.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 95. 154-168.
Elliot, A. J., & Pazda, A. D. (2012). Dressed for sex: Red as a female sexual signal in humans.
PLoS ONE 7 (4):e34607. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0034607.
Elliot, A. J., Tracy, J. L., Pazda, A. D., & Beall, A. T. (2012). Red enhances women’s
attractiveness to men: First evidence suggesting universality.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 49. (1) 165-168.
DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2012.07.017.
Fink, B, Grammer, K. & Thornhill, R. (2001). Human (Homo sapiens) Facial attractiveness in
relation to skin texture and colour. Journal of Comparative Psychology.
115. (1). 92-99. DOI:10.1037//0735.7036115.1.92.
Kyle, D. J., & Mahler, H.I.M. (1996). The effects Of hair colour and cosmetic use on
perceptions of a female’s ability. Psychology of Women Quarterly.
20. (3). 447-455. DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1996.tb00311.x.
Little, A. C., & Hill, R. A. (2007). Attribution to red suggests special role in dominance
signalling. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology. 5. 161-168.
DOI:10.1556/JEP.2007.1008.

Roberts, S. C., Owen, R. C., & Havlicek, J. (2010). Distinguishing between perceiver and
wearer effects in clothing colour associated attributions. Evolutionary Psychology.
8. (3). 350-364.
Staples, R. (1932). The responses of infants to colour. Journal of Experimental Psychology.
15 (2) 119-141. DOI: 10.1037/h0071205.
Stephen, I.D., Smith, M. J. L., Stirrat, M.R. & Perrett, D.I. (2009). Facial skin colouration
affects perceived health of human faces. International Journal of Primatology.
30. (6). 845-857. DOI: 10.1007/s10764-009-9380-z.

Appendices.
Contents.
1. Results of SPSS including ANOVA, Chi-square and t-test.
2. Questionnaire pack-
Example 1. Front page information sheet.
Example 2. Consent form.
Example 3. Demographic information sheet.
Example 4. Image selection and rating sheet.
Example 5. Likert scale, questions asking level of attraction to single chosen image.
Example 6. De-brief sheet.
3. Example of male image red top/ red border (A2).
4. Example of male image red top/ green border (B3).
5. Example of male image blue top/ blue border (D4).
6. Example of female image blue top/ red border (B2).
7. Example of female image red top/ yellow border (D1).

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