Research evolution on implementation and adoption behaviour of information systems

Research evolution on implementation and adoption behaviour of
Information Systems by Senior Managers in Commercial Organisations
over the last 40 years
Lena Fraua*
a
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia

Research evolution on implementation and adoption behaviour of
Information Systems by Senior Managers in Commercial Organisations
over the last 40 years
This work is aimed to review the literature over the last 40 years by leading
management theorist to contrast their thoughts and ideas with respect to the
implementation and adoption behaviour of Information Systems by Senior
Managers in Commercial Organisations. Furthermore, evolution of such theories
with development of the information systems. During the last decades, information
systems implementation and adoption processes have drawn attention of managers
and researchers due to undeniable significance in success and optimization
performance of business units.
Validity of theories still staying true are attributed to correspondence to
information system theory development compared to theories which were limited
to the information system solution being adopted at the time of the original
research. Research into this paper has considered the work or leading management
theorists including has sought to utilise a range of academic establishments and
geographic biases on which to draw its conclusions. Lastly, a comprehensive
model illustrating a set of variables and corresponding rolls of each on information
systems implementation and adoption is proposed.
This paper is expected to pave the ways for future research into the implementation
and adoption of Information Systems by Senior Managers to focus on deriving
future theories which are corresponding to advances in information system
development and create long term valuable information systems implementation
and adoption standards.
Keywords: Information Systems, implementation and adoption, top management
support, organizational factor
Introduction
The globalisation of business and management has made top managers to keep their
organizations updated for survival by developing new plans, making strategic decisions,
and manifest new technologies. Such vital changes are based on implementation and

adoption of information systems (IS). Information systems are identified as networks
including software, hardware, and communications generated for development,
collection, and distribution of information in a unit(Joseph Valacich and Christoph
Schneider 2010) and, as a consequence, it supports decision making, cooperation,
depiction, control, and evaluation in a unit(Kenneth C. Laudon, Jane P. Laudon, and
Ahmed A. Elragal 2012).
Markets are modernized and formed in a universal structure where key players are
to internationalize the operations. Price and quality used to be the main determinants of
competition, although, other factors such as flexibility and responsiveness are added to
current markets. These factors happen to be gained through decentralization of operations
by global outsourcing of schedules(Yusuf, Gunasekaran, and Abthorpe 2004). Such
requirements impose a challenge on business units to earn an integrated and coordinated
supply chain which may be attained by modern communication methods e.g. electronic
data interchange, internet, and data transfer networks.
As of today, it sounds to be near impossible not to deal with data handling a
business, therefore, implementation and adoption of IS are counted as a necessary action
to improve efficiency and competitiveness of a firm whose impacts would be completely
perceived if evolution of implementation and adoption of ISs are well investigated, so,
analysis of models and theories, whether they have failed or succeeded, sound to be
inevitable parts of system optimization for top managers. Top managers are expected to
optimize strategic, organizational, and technical procedures using available tools such as
technologies, strategies, and connections.
Given the dearth of prior research on engagement of various factors on IS
implementation, innovation, and adoption might have contributions to future research
and shed a light on a more successful method for such procedures. In this paper,

theories and models on IS adoption and implementation are reviewed and its’ evolution
is shown taking determinants and restrictions into account. Lastly, based on reviews and
findings, a comprehensive model for IS implementation is proposed.
Materials and Methods
In recent years, IS implementation in small business systems has been extensively
studied. Small business systems are known for simple and centralized configurations with
chief executive officers (CEOs)(E. Lefebvre and Lefebvre 1992), as owners, who mainly
determines IS adoption via strategical decisions(L. A. Lefebvre, Harvey, and Lefebvre
1991). Furthermore, generalists are more likely to be hired in small business systems than
specialists(Gable 1996), because operational instructions are not organized. Less
bureaucratic processes, rare usage of management methods,short-term planning, lower
organizational inertia, and simpler interpersonal and political connections could be named
as some of small business systems’ characteristics(Thong 2001). In such systems,
decision-making looks to be more intuitive rather than based on theories. IS
implementation in these systems were theorized regarding the source-based theory of the
firm(Wernerfelt 1995) which has been identified as a robust hypothesis to probe firms. In
this theory firms are considered as a set of abilities and resources containing tangible and
intangible benefits e.g. knowledge, functionality, organizational procedures, and
information assisting the firm to successfully manifest plans and improve productivity.
Welsh and White(Welsh and White 1981) proposed a framework of resource imitations
in small business systems which states small business systems are exemplified in the
situation identified as resource poverty where they work under functionality limits, tight
deadlines, and economical restrictions. Not only is IS implementation in small business
systems more likely to fail due to resource poverty, but resource poverty was also
observed to lower the computerization rate, therefore, small business systems have to

innovate for competitiveness which is mainly conducted using information technology
(IT) to secure ranks, heighten profitability, earn competitive edges, raise sales turnover,
and create markets(Poutsma and Walravens 1989;Massey 1986;Lincoln, Business, and
1987).
Top management support was reported to be of great importance in IS
implementation whether in small business systems or large units(Cerveny and Sanders
1986). IS implementation progress in was observed to happen in the presence of adequate
budget, time, experience, abilities and user developers are oriented toward enthusiasm
and sustainability of implementation attempts(Kwon and research 1987). Considering
leadership role, top managers can prepare adequate volume of required resources in
addition to perform similar to a modifying factor developing a cooperative environment
for IS implementation(Lucas 1981). Top managers are given the power to impact other
sections of the system and are the basis to lower organizational barriers to implement
IS(P. Keen 1980). IS projects were seen to be more sensitive to management in small
business systems in which CEO makes strategical decisions and tackles IT to corporate
goals and strategies(Jarvenpaa and Ives 1991a), thus, a supportive CEO would commit
rare resources and adopt a long term plan to the advantages of IS implementation.
Apart from top management support, external resources in small business systems
were shown to be of great significance too in Attewell’s(Attewell 1992) diffusion model
in which IT vendors and consultants are known as knowledge supporters who ease
knowledge barrier and assist IS implementation. Due to lack of knowledge for a
progressive IS implementation these systems try to put off inhouse IS implementation.
This obstacle could be eliminated by mediating components and, subsequently, IS
adoption will be facilitated. Top management support is necessary to provide the required
resources for IS implementation, although, the system is eventually implemented by

external experts(Thong, Yap, and Raman 1994). A common flaw in small business
systems is lack of enough computer experts and a defective vision of computers(Gable
1991;DeLone 1981;DeLone 1988)additionally, training and recruiting internal IS experts
in such systems are challenging because of low number of career advancement prospect
and qualified IS experts. Therefore, one may conclude IS implementation in small
business systems might be problematic(Thong, Yap, and Raman 1994). Computer
consultants were found to affect IS implementation(Gable 1991;Kole 1983) and
supported by empirical documents(Soh, Yap, and Raman 1992) of constructive impacts
of consultant on IS efficiency. Consultants are supposed to supply suggestions to assist
IS implementation in business through involvement in in information requirement
analysis, hardware and software updates, and managing of IS implementation.
The adjustment of a technological innovation could be imagined as a three-step
process of initiation, adoption, and implementation(Pierce and Delbecq 1977). Initiation
step is to collect and assess data followed by adoption step where a decision is made on
technological innovation adoption. Lastly, implementation step is to conduct the
technological innovation in the system. One of the most crucial and promising
technological innovation in recent decades is computer-based information systems (IS).
IS creates occasions for businesses enhancing the effectiveness, competitiveness, and
productivity(B Ives and GP Learmonth 1984). Advantages of IS are accessible for all
business units by lowering costs, and stronger user-friendly computers with more
efficient software libraries. Implementation and adoption steps have been studied both
theoretically and empirically(A DeLone 1992;Thong 1999;Cragg and quarterly 1993).
Moreover, procedure of executive decisions on IS adoption showed attitude, subjective
norms, discerned control emerged to play a key role in IS adoption(Harrison, Mykytyn,
and Riemenschneider 1997).

IS innovation is defined as new methods to develop, implement and maintain IS
in an organizational context(Swanson 1994) and it is supposed to enhance efficiency and
quality of IS development where the products-ISs are identified as a set of software and
hardware that are able to digital information saving, processing, and communication
assisting organizational goals(Mustonen-Ollila and Lyytinen 2003). IS process
innovations are considered as a set of normative rules and resources standing at hand or
attained into environment prior to development(Giddens 1986). Innovations in IS mostly
lie in data access, communications, and computing which was suggested as one of the
factors determines the American economy progress(Jonscher 1983). IS process
innovations form formalized and may be transferred via organizational channels. External
sources may adopt innovations, while, internal sources will transfer innovations through
learning and formalizing best techniques. On the one hand, such innovations are
responsible for modifications in the technological core of the development activity
including updates in computer systems, one the other hand, administrative or managerial
innovations such as project management techniques and participation. Driving force for
these modifications is technological innovation in computing platforms, organizational
experiences tackling new computing potential(Mustonen-Ollila and Lyytinen 2003).
Adoption might be recognized as a decision, which is made by decision makers who are
in charge of power and resources, to hire an IS process innovation(Rogers and Everett,
n.d.). Mustonen-Ollila and Lyytinen(Mustonen-Ollila and Lyytinen 2003) categorized IS
process innovations into four classes depending on scope, target, and alignment of
managerial and technological innovations. The first class is baseline technology
innovations compromised of technology related platforms such as software packages,
programming, data systems. The second class is known as project management and
control processes including are project management instructions or organizational

coordination. Notational systems and factors, which assist to depict the development
product proportionality to the environment are classified in the third class as description
techniques, examples are data Flow Diagrams and complete methodologies.
Development tools stand in the fourth class and cover productivity techniques for systems
development and software handling.
Literatures published over the last forty years on leading management theories
were reviewed. Those theories were compared to implementation and adoption behaviour
of Information Systems development and, subsequently, credibility of such theories were
then assessed based on the results. articles in which top management support (TMS) is
found to show a relation with Information Systems are categorized and reviewed in this
work. In order to show evolution versus time, reviewed works were divided to four
categories with respect to publication decade ranging from 70’s to 2000’s and more
recent. Fig.4 depicts methodology hired in this research where selected articles were
assessed regarding their findings, sampling and limitations.
Figure 1 near here
Results
Hambrick and Mason (Hambrick and Mason 1984a) in 1984 tried to develop an upper
echelons perspective based on available publications. Their work was aimed to show
values in macro organizational research highlighting the dominant coalition of the
organization especially its top managers. Strategies and efficiencies were considered as
reflection of values and cognitive bases of crucial rolls in the system. These connections
were assumed to be empirically detectable. And excellent illustration is manager’s service
in an industry and indecision to diversify from the industry which is usually recorded by
business press. This work, however, does not represents a prospective validated by

systematic tests due to lack of a multidisciplinary model to probe relations among
individuals, organizations and their competitive environments. In other words, As the
authors claim this work looks into macro view in an asymmetrical way simplifying
psychological aspects of top managers. It yet prepares three advantages by upper echelons
prospective examination. Not only does enable researcher to predict outcomes better
compared to current theories, but it also helps managers to select upper level executives.
Lastly, it assists theorists working on competitor’s moves and countermoves prediction.
The view of model generated in this paper is that top executives matter which is studied
by Lieberson and O’Conor’s as top executives in large organizations reflecting empirical
evidences of the inertial organization, although, it was not observed to be a conclusive
criterion to distinguish impressions of chief executive type. Moreover, data analysis and
dependent variables were combined so that the leadership variable would never play a
major role. A variance of 44 percent for “Stewadrship” variable in profitability of major
films reported by Mahoney and Weiner trying to solve mentioned underestimations in
Lieberson and O’Conor’s approach. In order to modify Lieberson and O’Conor’s study,
Hambrick and Mason developed a new model in which upper echelon characteristics
reflecting the conditions imposed on the organization, where strategy and environment
impacts are taken into account. Additionally, upper echelon characteristics are to set
strategic choices and, subsequently, organizational performance. One may claim more
detailed probability relations are assumed in this model. On the one hand, upper echelon
characteristics and certain situational conditions are combined so that strategic choices
could be predicted only by information on both. On the other hand, upper echelon
characteristics and strategic choices together will set the performance level. More
importantly, propositions are generated not only based on former publications, but

predictions are also done to enhance theory building. Propositions are to replicate
empirical investigation into upper echelon, as well.
A couple of months later, Maidique and Zirger (Case et al. 1984) studied success
probability in product innovation for America electronics. In that paper, the first phase of
U.S. industrial innovation, started in 1982, was investigated. Data was collected through
an open- ended survey of 158 new products in addition to 118 original products. Success
probability was found to raise with following parameters listed as: high level of
management support for products in development and launch processes, high contribution
margin to firm, R&D procedure optimization, proficiency in marketing and enough
resources to selling, utilization of strengths of developing business units, introduction into
the market early, lastly, coordination and planning of new procedures. The impact of
technological capability is, however, neglected. Considering such parameters, a model
for new product procedure was proposed which assumes an elucidation of new production
procedures in the electronics as a change-producing inherently blocked at transfer points
due to disinclination to change. Customer interaction, marketing and sales emphasis,
R&D optimization, and coordination and planning were found to be directly in contact
with overcoming external and internal organizational gaps. Management support and
margin contribution may narrow internal gaps and both internal and external gaps,
respectively. Management support plays an important role removing internal gaps
through dramatic changes to accommodate a new outcome. Furthermore, margin
contribution is a vigorous lever which persuades key constituencies to free resources and,
consequently, give raise to success probability of a new product. Moreover, explicatory
value of this model is to anticipate a greater success probability by building new products
on current technological and market strength.

A few research resources in the 70’s and 80’s concentrated on adoption and
initiation stages was aimed to discern raising the number of innovations adopted by an
organization through changes in structural features and variables building pro-innovation
organizational behaviors and attitudes. Leonard_Barton and Deschamps (Leonard-Barton
and Deschamps 1988) , in contrast to previous literatures, probed the interactions between
perceived managerial behavior and employee features to enhance innovation utilization
and, thus, declared managers are not assume to affect the extent to which innovation
adoption and utilization are conducted by their subordinates. Their proposed model is
summarized as investigation of the task of end-user’s individual elements to moderate the
relation of perceived managerial behaviors on the innovation to their individual adoption
decisions after assassination of environmental parameters. In this manner, however,
managerial and individual parameters are assumed to impose direct effects on innovation
utilization, in addition to possible interaction with another to influence use. The heart of
individual innovation adoption presented model is built on suppositions about the
dynamics of the procedure of innovation diffusion within an organization. Herein, a
sophisticated innovation execution is assumed as a procedure of internal diffusion by
users, and that is the first supposition. Potential existence for management attitudes to
intercede in individual decisions for innovation adoption causes innovation diffusion to
vary from the extension of individually adopted innovation (Rogers Everett M 2010) and
here is where the second supposition arises. Third supposition says potential users may
show different reactions including various discernment in requirements, management
intent, impact explanation of the behaviour, capabilities to employ the innovation, and
more importantly ways to remind management deeds to rationalize adoption decision.

Moderation task of Individual features in end-users’ innovation adoption decision
is examined by applying some hypotheses. The first hypothesis presumes individual
understandings are able to make adoption decision not depending on innate features of
the innovation. As a consequence, one may conclude employee’s knowledge exceeds
managers’ induction.
furthermore, individual features may impact the extent to which somebody is
probable to attempt or adopt innovations. The second hypothesis includes several subsets
discussed below. Positive relations are observed between management supports and use
/ views and innovation utilization for less creative individuals, exhibiting low interest to
significance of innovation, as well as for employees not showing a great care to the
subjective value of the job. Perceived management supports and views are also found to
be positively proportional to people representing low task and technology-related skills
and weak performance.
Many researches were allocated to figure out the capability of America business
to innovate including management, operations, services and outcomes in the 80’s.
Innovation adoptions were proved to be proportional to the social composition of top
managers by Bantel and Jackson(Bantel and Jackson 1989). 199 banks were chosen and
top managers were studied regarding academic degree, tenure, and age in addition to
group size, bank location, and size. It was inferred a well managers team with a high
diversity in knowledge and functionality leads to a more innovative bank. The
proportionality between top managers and organizational outcomes is generally evaluated
through two approaches. The first approach is direct evaluation of psychological features
decision makers and impacts on outcomes, whereas, in the second approach demographic
features e.g. education and age are assumed to affect cognitive capabilities, views and
expertise. If unit of analysis is chosen to be top managers, demographic approach

outweighs in functionality, psychological interests are not fully corresponding within this
approach (D. C. Hambrick and Mason 1984). This work uses the second approach to
investigate and does not represent any new models. There’s been an argue on definition
of innovation, although, in this research innovation is taken as the number of innovation
term including services, programs and products firms has generated or adopted. Variables
and statistical parameters of this study’s sampling is shown in table 1.
As a conclusion one may be able to announce no matters which approach is
employed innovation is observed to be more proportional to top managers group
composition rather than with either organization place or size. This study proves
innovation predictive not equally depends on top managers group composition
characteristics, although, education level and functional diversity and educational level
seem to be the most impressive.
Table 1 near here
In late 80’s computer was introduced to management science, yet, there was lack
of a comprehensive research to reflect user acceptance of computers. Davis (Davis 1989)
designed new scales aimed to measure perceived ease of use and usefulness on which
user acceptance is based on. 152 users and 4 application programs were sampled with
refined and streamlined measurements leading to two six-item scales whose reliabilities
are of 0.94 and 0.98 for ease of use and usefulness, respectively. Data was theoretically
probed from different views such as diffusion of innovations, self- efficiency theory,
marketing, expectancy theory, human- computer interaction, and behavioural decision
theory assessing the importance of use of ease and usefulness to the operational system.
Initial scale items were developed based on definitions, were then pretested in a small
case study and some items were removed. The rest, ten for each of the two groups, was
examined to extract reliability and validity in one study, including two systems and 112

users. The second study was generated via smoothing and cleaning the scales and, finally,
set to contain two systems and 40 users. Discriminant and convergent in both studies were
validated via multitrait- multimethod concepts. Moreover, factorial validity exhibited a
pattern of factor loads verifying a structure of the two implements, with usefulness items
loads strongly on one factor, ease of use items loads strongly on the other factor, and
small cross-factor loads. The first study showed reliability of 0.91 and 0.97 for ease of
use and usefulness, respectively. Ease of use and usefulness reliability were also found
to be 0.94 and 0.98 in study 2, respectively. Such values reflect the psychometric power
of the new scales. Perceived usefulness measurements were observed to be greatly
correlated with self- reported usage and self- predicted usage with reliabilities of 0.63 and
0.85, respectively. Perceived ease of use showed correlation with current and future usage
too, reliability values were reported to be lower though, 0.45 and 0.59 for current and
future usage, respectively. Such great correlations, specifically the usefulness, look
superior to other correlations between subjective scales and self- reported use reported
before (Swanson 1987; Baroudi, Olson, and Ives 1986;Barki and Huff 1985;Ginzberg
1981;De Sanctis 1983). Regarding regression results one may want to declare perceived
ease of use seems to be a stochastic antecedent to perceived usefulness, as opposed to a
direct, parallel parameter of system usage. User acceptance provides inferences for future
research on this topic. The key finding is usefulness was dramatically and, more strongly
compared to ease of use, related to usage.
Executive support is referred to be the main tool for utilizing the advantages of
information technology (IT). In 1991, Jarvenpaa and Ives (Jarvenpaa and Ives 1991)
offered alternative models to explore the best type of executive support to ease utilization
of information technology. The first model assumes A chief executive officer’s (CEO)
robust individual participation in IT management is associated with a firm being

successful in IT utilization. This assumption was moderately supported anticipating a
CEO's individual participation in IT management is accompanied with a firm's successful
IT utilization with a variance of 16 percent. The pool of CEOs participated was pretty
small IT-related operations though., e.g. monthly in banking.
In the second model, authors presumed A CEO's high involvement in IT is
accompanied with a firm being promising in IT utilization. This assumption was more
strongly backed up expecting involvement is accompanied with a firm's progressive
successful IT utilization with a variance of 0.32. therefore, in might be concluded CEO's
psychological condition about IT seems to be a more accurate approach to expect the
firm's successful IT utilization compared to a CEO's individual participation in IT
management. These two models are built on hypothesis reported in previous publications.
The third model is, however, based on the organizational behaviour and psychology
researches on participation and involvement. In the third model, it is imagined a CEO's
high involvement in IT accompanied with a firm being successful in IT utilization,
depends on CEO's participation, organization's industry conditions, and the CEO's
background. It is partially maintained. A general test of the parameters in Model 3
assuming successful IT utilization as a setting variable showed the variance in the setting
variable is justified by executive involvement among all the variables regarded.
Innovation of competitive benefits in universal markets is of great interest for
large business organizations. Innovation is usually treated as a competitive benefit
reflecting strategic modifications and thus is recognized as a part of firm’s strategy,
subsequently, manager’s duty. It was earlier reported technician(Fennell 1984) and
staff(Moch and Morse 1977) bear progress in influencing innovations, top managers,
however, had not been well studied .Hoffman and Hegarty(Huffman and Hegarty 1993)
studied impacts, social cultures and executive features, of top management on

innovations. Executive features were found to impact on strategic changes(Hambrick
1981) and who champion (Ettlie, Bridges, and O’Keefe 1984)innovations. Culture
changes the strategic innovation procedures for systems due to cultural and national
differences in innovative activity pace(Shane 1992) , standards accompanied with
innovation(Hofstede and Bond 1984), and strategy equation modes(Schneider 1989).
Figure 2 near here
In strategic innovation, top management is defined as an influence process which
either adopts or promotes strategic innovations and reactions (Howell and Higgins 1990)
(Bigoness and Perreault 1981). Reviewing organization theory and structural
management, it may be concluded managerial influence depends on environmental,
managerial and organizational conditions. Executive supporters employ procedures and
influence schemes which might go through changes depending on innovation type. Not
only are organizational procedures different from one innovation type to another, but
choices of top managers’ feature corresponding to the firm’s strategic and innovation
sound to be the most potential parameter to impose impressions. The key finding of their
paper is to state the impact of social culture on relation between top management and
innovation influence. Attributes, merits, and behaviours shared by the population in an
area are reflected as social or national culture (Adler, Doktor, and Redding 1986). Due to
dramatic changes in the eastern Europe and raising competition from Asia, in the time of
this publication, their work was concentrated on dominant western cultures including
Nordic, Germanic, European Latin, and Anglo cultures known by progressive economics
which resulted in controlling of industrialization level. Personality- cantered investigation
has proved culture to change in managerial traits (Clark 1990), and earlier, Hofstede
(Hofstede and Bond 1984) reported types of cultures to be distinguishable through
masculinity, individualism, uncertainty avoidance, and power distance.

Willingness of people to admit centralized authority and status differences in their
country system shows power distance. The higher power distance is; the more centralized
power would be. Level of feeling threatened by unsure conditions and rejecting them
reflects Uncertainty avoidance of a society, therefore, a great value of uncertainty
avoidance simply means people are to find seek stability and security. Self-concept of a
person as an independent variable compared to members of a system/society is recognized
as individualism, consequently, looser structures where users are to protect themselves,
are preferred in individualistic societies. Lastly, domination of masculine beliefs to
feminine ones is defined as masculinity. Members are observed to be aesthetics and value
cooperation in a feminine culture, whereas, value things and being assertive are signs of
a masculine culture. Mentioned criteria for four western cultures are listed in table 2.
Cultures yield differences in innovation decision processes due to values which are
impacted by various innovative plans, states of decision making. Innovations in Market
and sales as well as strategy also emerge to depend on cultural variables.
Table 2
On the other hand, executive features were announced to be able to explain top
managers’ effects on innovations (Kanter 1984). Variations in top managers’ effects on
both administrative (A DM) and product/market (PM) innovations are fully justified after
paratialling out organizational and environmental parameters, so, one may declare
executive features attributed to ADM and PM innovations justify top managers’ effects.
Among executive features, skillfulness and access to resources are of great importance
(Maidique 1986). Access to resources play a crucial role in innovation through financial
and human resources control, decision power, specifically in strategic decisions, and
dependency of rivals (Hage and Dewar 1973;Pfeffer 1981;Maidique 1986b). Moreover,
cultural variables, discussed above, alter the relation between executive features and top

managers’ effect on innovation. As an example, general management skill determines
innovations of PM and AMD in Nordic and European Latin cultures, whereas, PM and
AMD innovations tend to depend on marketing and finance skills in Anglo cultures
(Horovitz and Webb 2015). AMD innovation was reported to be set by production skills
within Germanic culture (Bettignies and Evans 1971). To sum up, authors probed
relations between innovation, culture, and strategy focusing on the procedures pointing
to adoption via innovation effect studies in which executive features, industry, size and
geography were taken into account.
Information technology (IT) projects are not necessarily always successful. One
common failure reason already reported is IT project which looks to take on life on its
own, keep catching resources while not obtaining the ultimate goal. Not only do such
projects happen to be failing, but they might also enfeeble a firm’s highly competitive
opportunity wasting time and money (Kindel 1992;Zorkoczy and Hirschheim 1987). Keil
managed to describe IT projects failure by escalation occurrence and effective
parameters(Keil 1995). Brockner defined escalation as an incessant inherence in contrast
to negative data on previous resources associated with a low feasibility of ultimate goal
(Brockner 1992). Project escalation is found to be a function of organizational factors,
social factors, psychological factors, and project factors(Barry M. StawJerry Ross 1987)
based on which a model is generated to investigate IT project failure. Escalation is more
probable to occur with an extreme payoff, a long investment, and issues look to be
temporary difficulties.
Parameters which make managers believe situations are going to progress, in
contrast to problems, are psychological factors(Brockner 1992) including success
frequency, information processing, personal responsibility, cognitive and psychological
biases. The more personal responsibility and former successful experiences are; the more

probable project is to escalation. Social factors form by ambitious completion with rival
groups, external basis, and norms for stability(Ross and Staw 1993). Escalation
possibility goes up with competition exists between the decision-makers and another
social group, as well as external stakeholders’ confirmation of success. Political and
structural environment, such as political assistance, and possibility of institutionalization
with target and values of the system, set organizational factors. It is noteworthy to say
institutionalization and political assistance increase escalation probability. The case study
in this work was a computing company named Compusys generating an operational
system named CONFIG to assist sales sections to develop configurations prior to price
quoting with no errors. Data collection is conducted through interview, observations, and
documents, totally more than 650 data sets, including a variety of positions such as
managers, developers, and sellers. Escalation is proved to occur in CONFIG project due
to infusion of excess financial resources as well as loosing alternative profits. There are
two limitations in this work’s approach though, uncertainty on decision makers mindset
and concern generalizability.
Advances in computer systems altered business transactions between
organizations where a huge volume of data including orders, bills, and notices. Preserving
paper-based documents are costly, slow, and subjected to mistakes. In addition to internal
data transfer, the same issues are proposed in interfirm operations for which
interorganizational systems (IOS) was developed to electronically connect business
units(Applegate, McFarlan, and McKenney 1999). A very important subset of IOS is
Electronic data interchange (EDI) which provides a configured structure of
communication for data transfer. Advert of electronic data interchange (EDI) in the 90’s
introduced several advantages to systems including superior customer service,
environmentally friendly, lower cost, and quick turnaround, even though, EDI was

observed not to be easily implemented for firms. Premkumar et.al. probed how innovation
features, inclusively relative benefit , compatibility, charges, communicability, and
complexity, impact traits of EDI diffusion in systems(Premkumar, Ramamurthy, and
Nilakanta 1994) through data collection from 201 firms applying EDI in the America.
Diffusion was captured investigating implementation success, adaptation, internal and
external diffusion regarding previous publications(Cooper and Zmud 1990; DeLone and
McLean 1992; Boland and Hirschheim 1987). Multivariate regression examinations
showed charges, relative benefit, and technical compatibility play crucial roles to adjust
adaptation, Whereas, external and internal diffusion were found to be determined by
technical compatibility as well as duration, and relative benefit as well as duration,
respectively. Implementation success in EDI emerge to depend on charges, technical and
organizational compatibility.
Progress of an organization is well known to depend on commitment to an IS
development project, in other words, low commitment may cease progress. Newman and
Sabherwal proposed a principal perception factors of commitment via a longitudinal
study of a 17- year IS project(Newman and Sabherwal 1996). Within IS concept, Staw
defined the mindset keeping persons and systems in a line of behaviour as
commitment(Barry M. StawJerry Ross 1987) which is made of psychological stimulus
persuading a person to conduct an operation as well as structural restrictions convincing
the existence of a behaviour(Salancik 1977)(Kiesler 1971). The first commitment factor
is project factors which are target characteristics of a project such as profit and cost. Form
this point of view, commitment to an IS development is more probable with achievement
of large profits. The second factor is psychological, explained earlier, when top managers
of an IS project keep supporting system due to self- justify. The environment including
rivals and groups around top managers also affects to stop or continue an IS project. Such

impact is recognized as social factor of commitment. The last commitment factor is
structural factors referring the contextual situations on an IS project such as
administrative inertia, political support, economical and technical motivations, and
institutionalization degree. It is worth adding a few other structural determinants
impacting commitment to an IS project has been mentioned in previous journals e.g.
system's value chain and products information intensity(Johnston and Carrico 1988), top
managers’ perception on IT(Vitale, Michael R., Blake Ives 1986), and practicality of the
IS function(Sabherwal and King 1992). Project factors emerged to dominant in the initial
steps of the project, later steps were mostly affected by other factors though. These
findings are, however, limited to only one specific case study, and interview dates were
not able to be adjusted to coincide with the real decisions in system.
West and Anderson defined innovation suitable organization adoptions to
improve efficiency within changes and surrounding world(West and Anderson 1996) and
investigated the relation between team innovation and group and organizational
determinants. Top managers control innovation in an organization setting strategy and
organizational efficiency(Hambrick and Mason 1984). The model suggested by West and
Anderson is shown in Fig.3. in which innovation determinants are categorized.
Heterogeneity is reported to be proportional with innovation(McGrath 1984) as well as
group size(Guzzo 1988), even though, there is an optimized size for a group less and more
than which would bear lack of diversity(Bantel and Jackson 1989) and inefficient
interaction, exchange, and participation(Poulton and West 1993), respectively. in
contrast, this research found no impacts made by group size on innovation. The other
determinant is tenure that makes the team less creative over time by raising
homogeneity(Katz 1982). Personality features of members forms the whole team
innovation assuming the initial point of innovation procedure is creative

individuals(Burningham and West 1995). The last two group characteristics affecting
innovation are tasks and complexity rising innovation expectation form members(Tschan
and Cranach 1996). Organizational resources and size were proved to innovation in this
work. Participation and task orientation illustrate number of innovation developed by top
managers and administrative efficiency, respectively. all in all, individual innovation is
the critical determinant in the first stage, innovation of the second stage is set by
generation and application of ideas via supports and participation. To emphasise, the
longer top managers are in charge, the more probable a team would be restricted to
account staff needs caused by organizational changes. Determinants of innovation in each
process is depicted in Fig.3. and discussed in more details in references.
An alternative model for systems development suggested later was client/server
systems (CSS) where a combined communication system, operating computation,
presentation and analysis, is generated clients and servers along with the underlying
conduction system and interprocess communication systems(Sinha 1992). CSS
essentially substitutes or combines legacy applications with systems offering superior
user interfaces and user- transparent data processing ability, its outcomes did not exhibit
any specific pattern though. Based on surveys client/server architectures has increased
from 27% to 43% in the time of 1993 to 1994(A Plewa, Jeffrey. A Pliskin 1995), at the
same time, 9% of CSS development projects moved proportional to estimated time and
finances(Hufnagel and Ellen 1994).
Figure 3 near here
CSS implementation enables organizations to enhance computerized applications
such as learning, usage, system fulfillment, and effects on job and life quality(Guimaraes
and Igbaria 1997). In order to investigate the effect of CSS on end-users task Guimaraes
and Igbaria proposed a model(Guimaraes and Igbaria 1997) in which usage and end-user

fulfillment impressing IS effect on individual jobs, although, their model is mainly
focused on human aspects of CSS. Notably, these two factors were reported to be
determined by several independent factors, themselves, listed in table 3(Byrd
1992;Benbasat and Dexter 1982;Sviokla 1990). It was concluded, CSS development
methods play a crucial role, although, managers need to take human issues of CSS, both
for development and application, into account. Furthermore, the functionality of the CSS
end-user interfaces relies on end-user requirements and, subsequently, end-user’s
involvement. Management support was also found to be important due to managers’
interest to provide CSS users necessities. These findings cover, however, neither internet
concepts influence nor objective and direct measures.
Table 3 near here
A dramatic growth in microcomputers and end-user computing (ECU) rendered a
drastic progress in IS(Davis 1989;A DeLone 1992;Guimaraes and Igbaria 1997;Rivard
and Huff 1988) and made researchers try to predict changes. Igbaria managed to present
a structural equation model for personal computing acceptance determinants(Igbaria et
al. 1997). Within small firms, computer utilization raised by 270% in 5 years, ranging
from 1985-1990(Raymond and Bergeron 1992). The main difference between small firms
and large firms is small firms may not afford to hire computer experts which causes them
to be in risks and issues regarding computerization(Nooteboom 1988). Previous
theoretical studies are drawn upon theory of reasoned action (TRA)(Fishbein and Ajzen
1977) and technology acceptance model (TAM)(Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw 1989),
Igbaria took a different approach combining these two models(Igbaria et al. 1997) to
realize personal computing acceptance (PCA) determinants, though. Such a model is
schematically depicted in Fig.4 in which affecting parameters are categorized to
intraorganizational and extraorganizational accompanied with some hypothesis listed in

Table 4. Sampling for this study was done over 726 small firms located in New Zealand
using a questionnaire survey.
Figure 4 near here
Table 4 near here
Based on Igbaria’s approach, it turned out TAM model looks more promising for
small firms, and despite large firms, perceived ease of use was observed to be of greater
influence rather than perceived usefulness. Internal training compared to internal support
emerged to show a constructive impact on use, while, external support as well as
management support were also recognized as the most important exogenous factors.
Markoczy(Markóczy 1997) questioned Hambrick’s and Mason’s(Hambrick and Mason
1984) theory declaring external individual features are, in a scene, replacement for
individuals‘ cognitive bases. Hambrick and Mason considered knowledge ushering
individual decision making while knowledge, itself, is a subset of beliefs including
“justified true beliefs”(Audi, Robert 1999). National cultural background, age,
hierarchical position, and practical background were counted as external individual
features showing empirical and theoretical evidences. Managers with analogous cultural
and practical backgrounds are assumed to represent analogous beliefs. Additionally, the
more similar managers are in hierarchical position and age, the closer their beliefs would
be. Such hypothesises were examined on 91 Hungarian, British, American, and
Australian managers hired in Hungary in international factories. Beliefs were recorded
extracting casual maps followed by discrepancies and analogies recognition. Age,
practical and cultural background emerged to be proportional to individual beliefs, in
contrast, hierarchical position showed no relation to individual beliefs.
IT gives rise to a promising increase in efficiency for a long period of time, the
anticipated substantial growth in productivity emerged to move slowly though(Roach

1992), therefore, a comprehensive study is needed to investigate the proportionality
between investment in IT and growth in productivity. Innovation diffusion studies as well
as technology acceptance theories are aimed to elucidate acceptance behaviour using
TAM and TRA models in which intentions are assumed as a dependent factor due to
relation between intention and future usage behaviour. Agarwal and Prasad (Ritu Agarwal
and Prasad 1997) became motivated to concentrate on individuals’ insights about the
attributes of the goal technology as descriptive and predictive factors for acceptance
behaviour by inquiries about comparison between insights on current usage and future
usage as well as effect of discerned voluntariness in technology acceptance.
Voluntariness is taken as the extent to which likely adopters identify the adoption decision
to be optional. World wide web was chosen to be examined as IT innovation in Agarwal’s
work(Ritu Agarwal and Prasad 1997). Compatibility turned out to play an important role
for current usage, whereas, future usage intentions were observed to depend on relative
benefit and result demonstrability. Discerned voluntariness, however, was found to
impact on current usage and future use intentions differently. It is observed to be of crucial
importance in current usage, although, future usage intentions were not impressed by it.
In other words, Discerned voluntariness affects the initial usage of a system, managers
would, however, keep a project going regarding clear profits. Despite promising results,
a few limitations was imposed on this work. data was collected from an educational
institution, where trialability insights and ease of use might be affected by accessibility
to technology and resources. Moreover, some innovation features were not found to be
important due to low readability values.
The other concern was executive beliefs impacts on strategic decision making and,
subsequently, organization performance(Priem 1994;Narayanan, Vadake K. 1990).
Chattopadhyay (Chattopadhyay et al. 1999) compared the effect of executives’ skills and

responsibilities on executive beliefs versus social impacts on executive beliefs.
Functional conditioning influences on executive beliefs were mentioned, whether
justified or declined, in previous studies(Walsh 1988)(Dearborn and Simon 1958)(Beyer
et al. 1997), although, Houghton(Houghton and Neubaum 1994) is the only one who
clearly probed the relation between executive beliefs and functional conditioning. Social
effects on executive beliefs are mainly based on socialization(Van Maanen, John Eastin.;
Schein 1977), network theory(Krackhardt and Porter 1985;Krackhardt and Kilduff 1990),
organizational communication(Jablin and Putnam 2001;McGrath 1984), social
information processing(FULK et al. 1987;Salancik and Pfeffer 1978), and social
control(Nemeth and Staw 1989) articles. The suggested model, approaching the issue by
previous theoretical model and experimental data, assumes functional position possibly
impacts executive beliefs through ongoing organizational problems in a functional area.
executives’ functional background is imagined to affect executive beliefs through
subjection over time to problems, in a manner that, the longer time is spent on a functional
field, the more persistent executive beliefs would become. The sampling began with a
data collection of 71 companies from 1989 Compustat II industry-segment data set
followed by a random selection of 20 units among those companies. Functional
conditioning, regardless of form its form, was found to negligibly affect upper-echelon
executive beliefs, in contrast to social influence which was proved to be more crucial and
showed a moderate impact. Such social influences were observed to seem flexible
depending on age, tenure, and functional background of the team. In a sense, results
earned by Chaddopadhyay(Beyer et al. 1997) exhibit a more sophisticated pattern for
influence on executive beliefs compared to earlier models.
Variables that determine progress in strategic and innovation implementation of
IT caught attention (Feeny and Leslie P. Willcocks 1998;Mata, Fuerst, and Barney

1995;Sambamurthy and Zmud 1994). In late 90’s, IT assimilation was considered as a
crucial result in the attempt of firms to control the potential of Its in business and
decisions. Such a concept elucidates how much IT is implemented in a business as well
as efficiency compared to opponents. Armstrong (Armstrong and Sambamurthy 1999)
studied IT assimilation relation to system size, complexity of IT infrastructures, and
quality of senior leadership. Management group is composed of the Chief Operating
Officer (COO), the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), the Chief Financial Officer(CFO),
and some other rolls in business or functional fields. Senior leadership is attributed to the
top management group volume and the Chief Information Officer (CIO). He proposed a
model based on knowledge-based and resource-based hypothesises of the firm(Conner
and Prahalad 1996;Penrose 1995). Capability to mix IT knowledge and business via a
mosaic of strong ntraorganizational relations is located at the centre of firms’ superior
capability to assimilate IT(Mata, Fuerst, and Barney 1995). Simultaneously, generation
of a vigorous IT infrastructure differentiates firms’ potential for IT implementation(P. G.
W. Keen and W. 1991;Weill and Broadbent 1998). Perceiving his model, IT knowledge
and CIOs’ business turned out to show a critical synergistic proportionality with
participation in firms’ top management group and interactions with other group members.
IT knowledge, IT infrastructure complexity, and CIOs’ business dramatically affect IT
assimilation, whereas, IT assimilation was observed to be independent of senior
executives’ IT knowledge and interaction between CIO and group members. Lastly,
system size exhibited no direct influence on IT assimilation. To sum up, in order to
optimize IT assimilation firms need to have CIOs to develop a high business and IT
knowledge.

Survival of an organization is directly tied to innovative outcome introduction to
market due to quick changes in technology and universal competition(Hitt, Hoskisson,
and Kim 1997). Innovations in organizations is displayed in several structures
(Damanpour 1988;Raffaelli, Glynn, and Tushman 2019)for instance adoption of new
business practices(Mone, McKinley, and Barker 1998), new outcomes generation, and
modern technologies(Mumford 2000). Apart from specific strategies such as research
consortium, acquisitions, and imitation, organizations are required to propose new ideas
of innovation(Bolton 1993;Pavitt 1990;Cohen, Wesley M. Levinthal 1990). Mumford
(Mumford 2000) summarized human resource factors to enhance the possibility of
innovation in an organization categorized to four subsets (see table 5). The major
limitation of Mumford’s paper is his work only predicts probability of innovation and
innovation is not guaranteed.
Table 5 near here
As of today, a business survival relies on combination of skills and organizational
repository of knowledge. IT imparts cost-optimized tools to provide knowledge platforms
via collection, saving, and circulation of organizational knowledge. Not only do IT-
enabled knowledge platforms need to be adopted and deployed to achieve value addition
potential of organizational knowledge, but such platforms have to be also assimilated into
current job procedure in organizations. Purvis (Purvis, Sambamurthy, and Zmud 2001)
et.al. empirically probed the assimilation of knowledge platforms in organizations. They
proposed a model in which assimilation is evaluated by meta-structuring options,
including management championship, knowledge embeddedness, and current
methodology use, and methodology effect, containing current methodology use,
methodology compatibility, and former methodology use. Organization size, project
features, and adoption time are parameters which could be controlled. Implementing such

a model, they indicated the role of incorporating meta-structuring options such as
technology, level of organization, and mediation into the previous publications on
technological innovations. More importantly, senior management championship of a
technological innovation was found to be the most critical factor concentrating more on
technology-use mediation options compared to the technology itself, which opens a
comprehensive cognition of the procedure of a progressive technological innovation.
Despite of valuable achievements, a few limitations were inserted in their work. One may
want to argue potential concerns respondent’s biases and common method variance might
have been caused by the cross-sectional survey used in this work. Furthermore, this study
is concentrated on a single vase product and a single paradigm for knowledge
embeddedness.
Wixom and Watson(Wixom and Watson 2001) similarly studied the critical
parameters determining data warehousing success collecting data through a cross-
sectional survey. A provided repository of data, extracted from resources and cleaned,
generated to assist decision makers is known as a data warehouse or smaller-scale data
mart(Watson and Gray 1997). In this manner, system success relies on implementation
parameters as well as implementation success. implementation parameters, itself, is a
function of resources, group skills, source systems, participation, champion, management
support, and technology, while, implementation success is made of project, technological,
and organizational components which are totally determined by quality of data and
system. Sampling was conducted over top managers and suppliers of 111 organizations
and analyzed via partial least square method. Resources and management supports were
observed to tackle organizational problems existing during implementations, while,
participation, skills, and resources determine accuracy in budget, time and functionality.
Poorly generated technologies and discrepancies in source systems will cause technical

problems which need to be solved by the group. Akkermans and Helden(Akkermans and
van Helden 2002) managed to extract critical success factors Enterprise Resource
Planning (ERP) systems which are highlighted as the most crucial generation in
corporation use of IT in 90’s(Davenport 1998).
ERP systems emerge as sophisticated, large projects requiring several teams and
sources collaborating under certain deadlines and, possibly, crossing unpredicted
problems. So, one may claim a considerable fraction of such systems these will not be as
progressive as supposed to be(Buckhout, Frey, and Nemec 1999). Somers and Nelson
(Somers and Hawaii 2001) provided a comprehensive conclusion on critical success
factors on ERPs through studying 110 ERP systems rated by 52 top managers (See the
ten most effective parameters in table 6.). Nelson’s parameters were confirmed by
Akkermans and such factors were found to be interrelated in a way that altering one
affecting rest whether directly or indirectly. More interestingly, impact direction is
consistent for each one, e.g. all positive or negative, which results in a self-preserving or
cyclic performance. Due to integration of a variety of business functions in ERP systems,
interdepartmental communication and collaboration within the group is expected to be
the critical step for success. Participation and viewpoints of stakeholders such as project
managers, top managers, software vendors, and project champions emerged as the main
reason to driving performance of this core procedure. A sharp transformation from a
vicious performance state to a virtuous one was shown to be plausible via concurrent and
mutually reinforcing modifications in participation and viewpoints of stakeholders which
might revive ERP systems sounding obsolete compared to other industries.
Table 6 near here
Later on, Nah(Nah, Zuckweiler, and Lee-Shang Lau 2003) et.al., however,
introduced the eleven most impressive factors of ERP implementation with some subsets

for each, there’s discrepancy between Nah’s results and Akkermans’ (see table 7). Nah
counted CIOs rated top management support, project champion, ERP teamwork and
members, project management, and change management plan and culture as the most
important factors for ERP implementation success.
Table 7 near here
Financial resource allocation to research and development (R&D) is known as an
elemental investment decision which top managers have to make in a firm. Firm
investments in new outcomes, procedures, or technologies generation are the main
motivation of future competitive pros and efficiency, thus, many researchers have
investigated the parameters linked with increased or decreased firm R&D
spending(Scherer 1984). Barker et.al. (Barker and Mueller 2002a) empirically probed
R&D spending compared to industry competitors differs at firms based on their CEOs’
firms. Sampling was conducted on 1989 and 1990 business week 1000 lists containing
R&D outlays. 172 firms whose CEOs were in charge more than year were chosen. It
turned out CEO’s motivation to decide on long-term investments in R&D determines
success of boards trying to excite R&D allocation and innovation. Stock ownership was
observed to be a driving force rising R&D spending. Additionally, compensation
contracts for older CEOs should not highlight current productivity, while, might provide
a plan of stock grants for the CEO in retirement. This will shrink motivation to minimize
R&D allocation in the years ahead to retirement. On the other hand, results showed boards
have to closely follow the investment decisions of longer-tenured CEOs which may
possibly display their priorities, that could lay in the best interest of the firm and its
shareholders.
At the initial stage of IT utilization in organizations, IT experts were mostly
expected to achieve, implement, and preserve IT investment. The strategic effects of IT

appeared in mid-80s, since then leadership and management of IT were declared to be an
effort shared between IT experts and line managers(Sambamurthy and Zmud 1994;John
C Henderson 1990; P. G. Keen 1991). Role of IT in systems turned critical and, thus,
business managers had to exhibit a robust leadership in regard to its development of IT
in systems which needs a careful concentration on their ability to realize and implement
IT efficiently. IT competence is recognized as a group of IT-related knowledge and
experience which business managers require. Bassellier (Bassellier, Benbasat, and Reich
2003) introduced the term IT competence of business managers contributing to their
purpose to champion IT within systems. In his model, IT knowledge area contains
application, technology, IT management, system development, and access to IT
knowledge, while, IT experience filed is composed of experience in IT projects and
management. IT experience and knowledge were assumed as second determinants
illustrating covariance between the seven first-order determinants. Such determinants
brought new regression of the first determinants on the second order determinants. The
proposed model of the second-order determinants is validated by dimension assessment.
All dimensions emerged to be higher than threshold, ranging from 0.8 to 0.97, except
knowledge of IT management whose dimension is 0.68. A sound measurement tool
assuring psychometric features and adequate degrees of convergent, discriminant, and
nomological validity was generated for IT experience and knowledge. Business
managers’ level of IT experience and knowledge was observed to affect objectives to
champion IT use. Moreover, 34% of answers exhibited targets towards two critical IT
leadership characteristics described in the model: vigorous relations with IT people as
well as supporting and IT enhancement and association in systems. Another crucial
concept is customer relationship management (CRM) which is a compound of people,
technology, and procedures desiring to realize customers of an organization. In a sense,

CRM sounds a comprehensive approach to handle relationships via concentration on
customer control and relation generation. CRM has been expanded from progress in IT
and organizational modifications in customer-centric processes. CRM implementation
could be challenging and needs an inclusive and objective consideration of people,
procedure, and technology. Chen et.al.(Chen and Popovich 2003) found CRM
implementation a function of customer-centric business procedure, cross-functional
integration, technology-driven procedures, and enterprise-wide strategy. IT conducts
structure optimization of a business process by easing modifications to tasks and
generation of creative paths to connect an organization not only to customers, but also to
suppliers and stakeholders(Hammer and Champy 2003). Internet, data warehouse, and
ERP systems and Internet are the most three effective technological factors on CRM
implementation. Customer-centric approach is aimed to rise income, customer attraction
and lower the sale and service expenditures, and, finally, enhance operations. Seybold
defined a five step procedure to turn an organization to a customer-centric one including:
easing business for customers, concentration on the end customer, connection between
front and back office, encourage customer loyalty, and permanent checks and balances
for invariable enhancement. CRM Implementation needs changes to organizational
culture in addition to top management support which is necessary to add innovation and
certain transport of profits(Al‐Mashari and Zairi 2000).
Organizations’ strategies were found to be tied to IS due to fast and complicated
technological changes. IS has grown from a back-desk foundation to an inclusive base of
a business strategy(Earl and David Feeny 2000). Top management support (TMS) has
been proved to play an undeniable role in IS systems progress in many studies. A robust
top management support results in a better conversion efficiency and IS performance
enhancement(Weill 1992), additionally, TMS will impact executive information systems

progress through generation of supportive context for IS systems and vendors undertaking
in a firm(Bajwa, Rai, and Brennan 1998), and as a critical determinant of success of
decision support organizations implementation(Wilson and McDonald 1996). Ragu-
Nathan et al. introduced a two-ranked method to investigate the proportionality between
TMS and IS function. Their model was empirically examined utilizing structural equation
modelling through info gathered via a survey instrument (Fig. 9). Top management
support and commitment were reported to heighten IS success(Choe 1996;Doll 1985),
while IS control not only set control models, but user and IS management control also
result in IS performance(Kirsch 1997;(Raghunathan, Gupta, and Sundararaghavan 1989).
Both current and future portfolio of IS provide measurement generation and fit of
portfolios(Kirsch 1997;Raghunathan, Gupta, and Sundararaghavan 1989). IS structure
assists decentralization, performance and Re-centralization of IS(Applegate, McFarlan,
and McKenney 1999;Raghunathan, Gupta, and Sundararaghavan 1989;Zviran 1990),
while strategic alignment and planning were reported to be determined by IS
integration(J. C. Henderson and Venkatraman 1999;Teo and King 1997).
A group of researchers attempted to probe organizational and environmental
variables assisting firms for IT adoption (Teo and King 1997;Premkumar, Ramamurthy,
and Nilakanta 1994;Grover 1993). Bruque-Ca ́mara et al.(Bruque-Cámara, Vargas-
Sánchez, and Hernández-Ortiz 2004) investigated new parameters illustrating
discrepancies between firms in rate and degree of IT adoption. Their work is, however,
mainly concentrated on variables existing in the system, therefore, one limitation of their
work is to lack analysis of environmental factors. 16 pharmaceutical distribution districts,
due to adequate experience in communication and information technology, in Spain were
sampled and studied using the case-study analysis. It is concluded on the one hand, IT-
complementary impalpable advantage yields constructive impacts on firm performance,

on the other hand, rate and degree of IT adoption appeared to be improved by IT
advantages. Positive signs were bolded in the presence of an honest and fluid internal
connection, managerial supports and innovation of technical employees. Secondly, IT
adoption seemed to link client to the firm in a way that bore more loyal and pleased
customers. Lastly, IT adoption, itself, was proven to depend on firm size, technological
experience, and firm age.
Figure 5 near here
Efficient use and exploration by top managers determine organizational
performance, although, strategic programs are developed with conflicting organizational
structures. Smith and Tushman (Smith and Tushman 2005) proposed an approach of
handling strategic conflicts coupled with paradoxical cognition-senior managers and
teams, expressing paradoxical boarders, distinguish between strategy and structure of
products, as well as their integration. They discussed objective strategic decision making
in the area of conflict is originated from paradoxical cognition-cognitive bodies and
procedures enabling groups to efficiently accept, instead of rejection, conflicts.
Furthermore, such cognitive frames and procedures might happen either with the senior
managers or in the interactions of the top managers group, based on location of integration
of the irregular programs. Their model was, however, extracted under a few limitations.
First of all, their model is developed assuming systems profit from struggling for adoption
and performance at the same time. Secondly, uncertainty about situations in which
systems profit from current products and splitting innovation, because systems might
sometimes gain from splitting out the innovation in the absence of a leverage between the
current outcome and the innovation.
Organizations survival is tied to strategic leadership and innovation due to impacts
on opportunity creation and decision making, respectively(Quinn 1985;Ireland and Hitt

1999). Effects of leadership variables on innovation have been empirically
investigated(Tierney, Farmer, and Graen 1999;J. R. B. Halbesleben et al.
2003;Srinarayan Sharma and Rai 2003). Elenkov et al. (Elenkov, Judge, and Wright
2005) studied the proportionality of strategic leadership trends with executive innovation
impact and the moderating impressions of top management team’s tenure structure and
social culture on such a relationship. Survey data was collected from 290 business units
distributed in six countries including united states, Ukraine, Russia, Austria, Germany,
and United Kingdom. It is noteworthy to say samples were not random which caused a
limitation to generalize conclusions. Strategic leadership manners were observed to
positively associated with executive impacts on innovation, apart from the influence of
size and CEO’s characteristics. Additionally, top management team tenure heterogeneity
was concluded to balance the leadership manner- executive innovation impact
proportionality. Top management team traits determine leadership dynamics within the
unit. Moreover, upper echelons perspective was dug in via analysis of the proportionality
between leadership manners and tenure heterogeneity in the top management team, and
efficient strategic leaders were found to be able to connect the different ideas and
perspective of a various group into an innovative one. Lastly, social culture emerged to
moderate the leadership manner- executive innovation impact for administration, but not
for marketing. Data analysis showed marketing innovations surpass socio-cultural
differences, although, innovations in administration are to some extent accidental on
certain cultural features. A growth in unsuccessful ERP implementation made Kim et
al.(Kim, Lee, and Gosain 2005) study the barriers in ERP implementation and influence
degree of such barriers on successful ERP applications through a survey provided built
on previously reported impediments in ERP articles. Cross-functional coordination,
Organizational direction, Human assets and abilities management, generation of system

and management of project, ERP software structure and characteristics and Change
management were listed as potential barriers for ERP implementation, however, they
inferred change management correlated to user opposition, functional coordination issues
linked to insufficient aid from functional firms and coordination among functional firms,
and management coupled with business procedure modifications as the most crucial
barriers.
Damanpour et al. (Damanpour and Schneider 2006)represented multidimensional
empirical tests on adoption of innovations in organizations as well as possible impacts of
variables within each dimension on adoption phase. Top management team,
environmental, and organizational traits influences on generation, adoption decision, and
innovation application were examined through sampling 1200 public organizations in the
U.S. Organizational context appeared to be the more impressive in prediction of
innovation adoption, all stages, compared to environmental context. Moreover, it
described viewpoints of leaders to innovation affect all stages of innovation adoption
more intensely rather than environmental and demographic features, which draw a
conclusion asserting viewpoint leadership has to be strongly taken into account in
innovation adoption models generation. Finally, data analysis showed impacts of the
precursors on the three adoption stages are not dramatically dissimilar, although,
discrepancies are mostly in terms of the extent rather than the direction. Despite of
excellent achievements of this work, it was limited by some restrictions. Structural
variables, personality features, and innovation viewpoints were not examined in their
work, and technological innovations in business organizations were not studied either.
Data collection was only conducted to a cross-sectional method and questionnaires,
innovation adoption is dynamic though, therefore longitudinal data collection via
observations and interviews would have lessen uncertainty. Additionally, data collection

method was simple source which might be diminished and low correlated. Li et al. (Li et
al. n.d.) investigated the proportionality between the individual traits of CIO and
organizational innovative usage of IT testing personality characteristics as well as CIO’s
demographic features considering the upper echelon theory.
CIO features was found to mainly illustrate proportion of variance in
organizational innovative utilization of IT whether organizational parameters were held
or not, also, upper echelon theory was validated via importance of decision making in
organizations configurations. More interestingly, psychological trend was observed to be
of greater importance compared to demographic features for evaluation of innovative
utilization of IT in systems. Personality parameters exhibited dramatic effects, whereas,
demographic variables, e.g. tenure and age, were seen to be of negligible significance.
Organizational innovative trend was proven to show no drastic connection with CIO’s
evolving features e.g. tenure and age, whereas, it relies on permanent traits including
extraversion and openness, which oppose previous studies(D. M. Burke and Leah L. Light
1981; Hambrick and Mason 1984). CIO conscientiousness was reported as the only factor
showing no dramatic effect on organizational innovative utilization of IT in the proposed
model, which may be justified by measurement of CIO merely as reliability, orderliness,
and vigilance in their work. Apart from small sample size and lack of a longitudinal
research, one may want to challenge generalization of results due to sampling
conductance only in Singapore. The presence of bias and cognition might have affected
responses. Lastly, this work was built on the upper echelon theory which connects top
manager’s features to organization’s strategic decisions with no explanations of
involvement procedure. Similarly, Jeyaraj et al. (Jeyaraj, Rottman, and Lacity 2006)
reviewed diffusion and adoption of IT innovations by organizations as well as individuals.
51 and 48 publications on individual and organizational IT, respectively, from1992 to

2003 were reviewed in which 8 dependent and 51 independent parameters and 505
proportionalities linking parameters were identified. Organizational IT adoption
displayed to be mainly a function of external pressure and data source, level of IS unit,
and top management support. Individual IT adoption relies most on top management and
user support, behavioural purpose, discerned usefulness, and computer skills. More
importantly, top management support looked to be the most crucial factor jointing
individual and organizational IT adoption considering independent parameters. In
contrast, regarding an aggregate level, organizational and innovation features were
observed to be the most vital precursors of IT adoption, both individual and
organizational. Top managers are supposed to merge split areas of knowledge together to
bear a progressive business. Mitchell (Mitchell 2006)investigated the proportionality of
project completion and two manager’s integrative abilities including internal knowledge
combination and access to external knowledge. A longitudinal probe was done on 74
firms in the medical areas where integrative ability was recorded from the intention of IT
managers and CIOs. Cox regression analysis showed both internal knowledge
combination and access to external knowledge abilities obviously alleviated the time of
IT- related project delays, and consequently, enhance timely project completion. Within
investigations on IT projects in network systems one topic which has to be considered is
management configuration, because inaccurate conclusions might come up through
information collection confined to one layer of management in a multilevel system.
Failure of ERP projects was reported to be considerable in many firms due to
convolution of ERP systems(Liang et al. 2007). ERP systems affect organizational
procedures, configurations and cultures more dramatically compared to simpler
technologies(SOH, KIEN, and TAY-YAP 2000;Robey, Ross, and Boudreau 2002). An
approach to examine assimilation of enterprise organizations after implementation phase

within organization was offered by Liang et al.(Liang et al. 2007). 100 questionnaires
were dispensed over 14 subsidiaries and 15 offices among Chinese firms applying ERP.
Data was analysed via partial least squares method and exhibited mimetic pressure
constructively influences top managers’ views and, consequently, impacts top managers’
participation in the ERP assimilation procedure and ERP utilization extent. Coercive
pressure was similarly observed to leave constructive impacts top managers’ participation
with no mediation of top managers’ views. It was inferred top managers’ participation
does not necessarily mediate normative pressures on ERP utilization, although, normative
pressure has a direct impact on ERP utilization. Institutional pressures are pf great
importance for IT application, adoption, and contribution to post implementation
assimilation not only in existence of extended procedures but also when outputs are
dynamic and uncertain. Such institutional pressures might be moderated by top managers.
Lam et al. (Lam, Cho, and Qu 2007) investigated the behavioural purposes toward
IT adoption sampling hotels in Hangzhou, China using self-administered questionnaires.
Theory of reasoned action, self- efficiency, and task technology were combined and fit in
their research. Discerned IT views were observed to leave constructive effects on attitude,
subsequently, self-efficiency and personal norm with attitude were linked to behavioural
purposes, among them, self-efficiency emerged to be the most critical parameter
influencing behavioural purposes. Three instructions were suggested for a successful IT
adoption in hotels. First, hotels’ staff has to be properly trained to enhance capabilities of
IT utilization. Second, personal norm impact on behavioural purposes of staff drew a
conclusion declaring responsible people who are known as key roles in system need to be
motivated to catch attention and enthusiasm during the initial phase of IT application.
Finally, staff has to be informed of progress according to IT adoption such that the whole

system would be able to perceive advantages of IT implementation and thus they will
conduct more enthusiastically.
Law et al. (Law and Ngai 2007)elaborated the proportionality between success of
ERP system adoption, productivity of organization, and degree of bossiness process
improvement (BPI) and examined connections between results of such capabilities and
organizational determinants including top management support, strategic purpose, and IT
function by sampling 96 firms.
Empirical results validated the theory stating organization advantages, BPI, and
successful ERP application emerged to be linked; and such proportionalities are a
function of organizational factors.CEO-IT relation confirmed top management support,
in the area of China and Hong Kong, depends on CIO status as well as IT function. CEO-
IT reporting distance was empirically proven to be directly linked to degree of
management support on IT and BPI potentials in a negative way, its interconnection to
outcomes in ERP application and BPI appeared to be indirect though. Only one
operational focus in firms was shown to lower productivity compared to dual strategic
focus, but to exhibit a better productivity rather than an undefined focus. In contrast to
such appreciable findings, their work is limited to perpetual data from the same persons
for all fields. Moreover, regarding user contentment as a substitute of IS progress has
been challenged (Melone 1990). Being under pressure to optimize services and outcomes,
business units had to initiate new leadership methods (Puranam, Singh, and Zollo
2006)(Andriopoulos and Lowe 2000). One applicable leadership method is
transformational leadership defined as enclosing five clear elements idealized impact,
intellectual simulation, charisma, inspirational motivation, and individualized
consideration, and intellectual stimulation. 50 Taiwanese factories in communications
and electronics due to updated outcomes and innovative R&D attempts requirement for

success were studied and CEO’s degree of transformational leadership was recorded via
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire(Bass and Avolio 1997). Results confirmed firm
innovation relies on CEO transformational leadership whether directly or moderately.
Competition and uncertainty, environmental features, and centralization, climate of
support for innovation, and formalization, firm-level traits, emerged to leave moderating
and positive impacts of CEO transformational leadership on firm innovation, although,
empowerment as a firm-level trait was observed to affect firm innovation moderately but
in an opposite direction(Jung, Wu, and Chow 2008).
IS implementation has been reported to be challenging and failure cases have gone
up which lead to resource losses in firms. From theoretical views of metastructuration top
management support (TMS) was categorized and influence of each category on IS
implementation could be distinct(Dong, Neufeld, and Higgins 2009). TMS is categorized
to TMS – vision sharing (TMSV) activities related to fortify lower-level managers
generating an intellect of the core targets and standards for the updated system, TMS –
change management (TMSC) deeds pertained to improve organizational receptivity of an
updated IS, and TMS – resource provision (TMSR) defined as actions connected to
provide main resources including budget, technologies, employees, and user training
programs. Based on data collection form two Canadian schools attempting to reconstruct
their business plans, TMSV and TMSR were found to entice middle manager buy-in, and
to fix required resources to champion implementation accomplishment, respectively,
TMSC was, however, observed to inspire and accommodate users to facilitate knowledge
obstacles and, thus, will reduce resistance. Some static and dynamic effective
factors(Markus and Mark Keil 1994) on implementation were yet neglected in this
categorization(Dong, Neufeld, and Higgins 2009) and hands-off leadership approach
might befall as well(Jarvenpaa and Ives 1991). IT has even diffused to supply chain

management (SCM) identified as a strategic, systematic cooperation of the traditional
economic functions of a certain firm and across units within supply chain, to enhance
productivity of individual units and the supply chain as a whole(Chou, Tan, and Yen
2004). Recently, collaborative SCM named collaborative commerce (C-commerce) has
caught deserved attention(Johnson and Whang 2009). A group of electronically-enabled
collaborative activities between an organization, collaborators, customers, employers,
and also leverages the internet to develop and preserve an active business group of
employees, collaborators, customers and providers(Holsapple and Singh 2000). C-
commerce secures firms to automate data transfer via a multi-channel distribution
network, because c-commerce, in contrast to e-commerce, contains exchange of
information and views. Studying 400 Malaysian companies in the field of electrical and
electronics
By a self-administered questionnaire, organizational preparation, external
environment, and information transfer culture were observed to be of great importance
influencing organizational strategies to adopt c-commerce (Chong, Alain Yee-Loong,
Binshan Lin, Keng-Boon Ooi 2009). Among them, Information transfer culture appeared
as the most impressive on c-commerce adoption. Surprisingly, innovation features
happened to exhibit no crucial impact on c-commerce adoption. Although findings are
only validated in Malaysia and considering c-commerce adoption when it occurs at a
certain time in a certain environment and, more importantly, in initial step of adoption
process. Many adopters are likely to be early adopters.
Lin (Lin 2010)conducted sampling over the 1000 largest Taiwanese companies in
manufacturing, financial and service areas to examine possible impacts of top
management support as well as IS quality on ERP system utilization. Productivity of ERP
systems appeared to be proportional to information quality through improvement the

correlation between user information requirements and ERP system products.
Additionally, system quality including authenticity, flexibility, response period,
accessibility, and integration might give rise to user trust on ERP system productivity.
Information quality showed a dramatic indirect impact, but no direct impact, on ERP user
contentment via perceived usefulness. In contrast, TMS exhibited direct and indirect
impacts on ERP system usage, in a way that TMS enlarges user participation and,
consequently, ERP system progress in ERP system usage and perceived usefulness(Ragu-
Nathan et al. 2004). It is noteworthy to add Lin’s findings are limited to empirical data,
relatively small size, and a few effective determinants.
Radio frequency identification (RFID) has begun to be utilized to recognize an
object processing a radio link which is reported to enhance effectiveness and expand
supply chain visibility(Ngai et al. 2007;Wu et al. 2006). Wang et al.(Wang, Wang, and
Yang 2010) examined RFID adoption factors in manufacturing field collecting
information form 133 manufacturing units in Taiwan using logistic regression. RFID
adoption appeared to be independent of TMS, relative benefits, and technology capability,
whereas, collaborators and opponents pressure, compatibility, and firm size were
observed to ease in RFID adoption, despite of information intensity and complexity which
were found to aggravate RFID adoption. Interestingly, information intensity and
complexity were identified as the first and second most dominant parameters impacting
RFID adoption. Conclusion were, however, made based on three restrictions: only one
country, a unique relation between dependent and independent determinants, and
extraction from TOE (technology–organization–environment) approach. Dependency of
IT adoption in small firms to compositions of managerial and demographic features of
TMT was examined(Chuang, Nakatani, and Zhou 2009) using upper echelon theory and
multiple regression analysis. In a small business, TMT sets strategic plans directly affect

efficiency and market position of the business. It was inferred group heterogeneity
negatively influences on the degree of IT adoption, while, education and age turned
constructive to degree of IT adoption.
Business intelligence (BI) systems have recently became of interest due to
creation of business analytics and collective performance management (Chapman and
Kihn 2009). BI is considered as an innovation holding the wealth of data compressed in
a business unit and championing the expected transition to a wider management control
system (Gnatovich 2007;Brignall and Ballantine 2004). Elbashir et al. (Elbashir, Collier,
and Sutton 2011) hired a field survey manner over Australian client systems of a single
international vendor supplying BI software to investigate the impacts of organizational
factors pertained to resource generation and knowledge management on assimilation of
BI systems. Organizational absorptive capacity such as integration capability, absorb, and
exertion of update data were found to be of great significance to incorporate BI units for
organizational advantages and to initiate a technological infrastructure. TMS was
observed to indirectly determine efficiency of BI systems depending on operational
managers' absorptive capacity. Such an indirect impact indicates BI system profits
originated from the bottom up as set to the top down which distinguishes BI form
confined strategic MCS creations.
It strategy relation with business strategy has looked to be a potential study of
encountering significance in IS field since 90’(Niederman, Brancheau, and Wetherbe
1991; Y. E. Chan and Reich 2007;Luftman and Zadeh 2011). Alignment of IT and
business strategy has been proven to enhance productivity of an organization(Sabherwal
and Chan 2001;Y.E. Chan, Sabherwal, and Thatcher 2006). Business and IT co-evolution
lead to cleverness and flexibility(Agarwal, Ritu 2002). Signs of alignment behaviour
which is created to ease sustained strategic alignment over time indicates an

organizational manner recognized as a dynamic capability. dynamic capabilities was also
found to perform as a base for strategic alignment(Baker 2012). To boast ranking in
market, a business would have to analyse capabilities(Teece, Pisano, and Shuen 1997)
which is extracted by alignment procedures. Baker (Baker 2012) identified such
procedures as a component of dynamic abilities for strategic alignment. In many cases,
due to ubiquity, technology was observed to have no impacts of competitive benefits,
whereas, organization’s potential to cultivate business and IT alignment plays a key role
in competitive benefits. Moreover, Baker’s results denied path dependency limitations
routines and funding of a firm, instead, dynamic strategic alignment capabilities lessen
path dependency.
Managerial innovations are defined as management, administrative, and
organizational innovations. Damanpour and Aravind (Damanpour and Aravind 2012)
took a unique approach to investigate managerial innovations in China to realize strategy,
structure and procedures of organizations. Organizational funds and managerial efforts
in technical and managerial innovations are suggested to ameliorate business
performance. Due to a direct proportionality between firms’ innovative efficiency and
progress in organizational targets through various sorts of innovations, top managers
should conduct synchronous strategies of innovations. On the one hand adoption of
modern managerial methods emerged not always controlled by institutional restrictions,
on the other hand, managerial decisions and internal structures of organizations might
abate restrictions to achieve legitimacy. Their conclusions lack investigation of
interactive impacts of managerial decisions and institutional legitimacy on managerial
innovation adoption though.
Conservatism to institutional pressure is discussed to improve longevity of a
system by institutional theory. Colwell et al. (Colwell and Joshi 2013) collected data

from 199 Canadian manufacturing companies to examine the impacts of TMS on
institutional pressure and corporate responsibility to the pressure. Institutional pressures
basically exist due to environmental restrictions and such pressures might turn out to
enhance productivity by environmental movement implementation e.g. environmental
reconstruction and pollution inhabitation (Sanjay Sharma and Vredenburg 1998) whose
degree is mainly determined by top management support. To be more exact, information
and quality management as well as environmental skills dramatically affect
environmental performance of a system(Simpson and Samson 2008). Furthermore,
systems might become willing to conduct in an environmentally authoritative way yielded
a constructive economical influence of doing so. One may claim top managers are
required to prepare methods to acquire and execute knowledge and expertise needed to
be involved in environmentally responsible cycles. Such motivations should contain both
environmental surveillance, application and pecuniary stimulus(Gray and Shimshack
2011). Systems which incline to create environmentally friendly relation with the
surrounding world take institutional pressure as an occasion rather than a menace, thus,
such a constructive culture should be set up by top managers(Bansal and Kendall Roth
2000). Colwell’s conclusions are, however, limited to a cross-sectional method,
assimilation of symbolic and genuine environmental replies, and limited data source.
Small and medium-sized enterprises(SMEs) emerged to be able to compete with
large firms using information and communication technologies (ICT)(Swash 1998).
Alshamaila and Papagiannidis (Alshamaila, Papagiannidis, and Li 2013) collected data
conducting semi-structured interviews with 15 SMEs located at north eastern of England
due to abundance of SMEs. The main hypothesis in their work is built on technological,
organizational, and environmental(TOE) frames adoption in cloud computing areas. Firm
size, geo-restriction, industry, innovativeness, experience, TMS, market scope,

uncertainty, compatibility, external computing support, supplier effort and relative
advantage were found to be the most crucial determinants of SME adoption in cloud
services. Despite these findings, competitive pressure did not emerge as an important
factor in adoption of cloud services. Top managers’ decisions in SMEs determines
survival of the firm(Hambrick and Mason 1984),especially, SEMs are excellent examples
of strongly innovative firms. SEMs were studied to probe the proportionality between
frim growth and orientation of top management innovation(Kraiczy, Hack, and
Kellermanns 2015). 1000 German firms in manufacturing fields were chosen and CEO
of each sent a personalised email. Firm innovativeness was hypothesized moderating the
proportionality between firm growth and top managers’ innovation which depicts the
effect of top managers’ traits and strategies on organizational achievements does not look
to be direct, instead, top managers’ innovation orientation constructively impacts firm
innovativeness and, subsequently, positively influences firm growth. Additionally,
amount of sales and employee growth were observed to progress by top managers’
innovation orientation(Narver, Slater, and MacLachlan 2004;Hurley and Hult 1998).
Dramatic impact of top managers’ strategies on organizational outputs lies in extensions
of upper echelon concentrating on the influences of top managers’ strategies including
behavioural integration(Simsek et al. 2005), risk taking(Gilley, K. Matthew, Bruce A.
Walters 2002), entrepreneurial drive (Wood and Michalisin 2010), and advice
searching(Alexiev et al. 2010) on organizational outputs.
Huang (Huang, Ken 2008) attempted to study top managerial support of IT
implementation in a hospital’s cloud computing IT task due to information abundance in
healthcare centres. Stakeholders were conceptualized followed by case definition and
participants’ recognition for data collection via interviews. It turned out initiation of a
method of productive communication which lessens IT anticipation gap and bears a more

effective alignment. Top managers hold a shared view of IT and thus achieve last minute
credence championing the implementation(Huang, Proceedings, and 2008 n.d.),
consequently, it will lead to IT anticipation adoption. Authority and commitment to an IT
task and generation need to be as straight when the healthcare area get more sophisticated
such that IT team would ensure the IT task is accurately assessed. More importantly,
based on stakeholder hypothesis, TMS on implementation emerged to be dynamically
dependent of discerned IT significance, assimilation, IT productivity paradox, flexible IT
personnel trust, data security, project-enabled intangibles, and shared view/risk, although,
these findings lack statistical importance in aspect of these variables.
Similarly, Kulkarni et al.(Uday R. Kulkarni, JoséAntonio Robles-Flores 2017)
explained the impact of top managers as well as mediation tasks of user participation and
analytical decision making orientation on development of a firm’s business intelligence
(BI) capability which is made of two elements BI system capability and information
capability through data collected from employers attending in an intensive corporate
executive seminar on BI strategy coming from India, the united states, Vietnam, Ecuador,
Mexico, and Peru. Top manager may affect BI capability generation by motivating user
to be involved to have a contribution in advancing technology as well as encouraging
evidence-based decision making. In order to do so, top managers have to develop a
climate where appropriate types of users, who follow required procedures, progress which
was shown to be facilitated through BI projects. Furthermore, existence of an involved
user base- a managerial workforce permanently enhancing the system through various
ways such as comments and critics to improve BI capability. This work, although, did not
take maturity of BI practice in units and organizational conditions (targets, group
orientation, firm’s strategic direction, espoused culture, worker empowerment) into
account. Organizational virtue orientation (OVO) was observed to be relevant to top

management team traits (tenure, education, background, age, and gender) through an
empirical investigation of initial public offering (IPO) firms (Evert, Robert E., G. Tyge
Payne, Curt B. Moore 2018) studying firms revealed IPOs in America during the 2009-
2012. TMT tenure showed no tangible direct effect on OVO which may be justified by
longer-tenured managers might be biased to hinder OVO adoption in IPO procedures.
The more skilful managers are, the more willing they would be to generate and conduct
a robust orientation toward organizational virtue which is reported in previous works
too(Wright and Goodstein 2007;Walters, Kroll, and Wright 2007; Barker and Mueller
2002). Organizational virtues and adoption emerged to be almost independent pf gender
variety in IPO firms which might be attributed to sampling in this work containing a small
number of females (Hillman, Shropshire, and Cannella 2007). A huge diversity in
functionality of TMTs might cause ambiguity in the group and will subsequently slow
decision making, therefore, too much variety in functionality might lower OVO across
both document subsets. Not only are these findings limited to certain demo-graphic
proxies but nature of samples could also restrict results.
Figure 6 near here
At this point, we propose a conceptual framework for IS implementation and
adoption adopted from Miles and Huberman’s conceptual framework (Miles et al. 1994)
based on reviewed work plus novelty compared to published articles. In contrast to
previously suggested model, herein, the main and the only parameter determining IS
implementation and adoption is top management support and commitment. Not only are
robust participation, commitment, and leadership of top management team necessary to
succeed in IS implementation and adoption, (Laughlin 1999)(Umble, Haft, and Umble
2003), but other variables like technology, environment and individual might be directed
by top management support and commitment (Oliveira, Tiago 2011). The first step was

Research evolution on implementation and adoption behaviour of information systems

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