The document outlines the contents of a presentation on instructional design. It includes 19 slides with visual metaphors representing key concepts in instructional design like its history, definition, use of systematic approaches and models, and connections to learning theories and educational technology. For each concept, a slide provides the visual metaphor and a following slide explains the concept and metaphor. The presentation aims to explain instructional design concepts through meaningful visual representations.

1. Reading Quiz
“Instructional Design”
Ashley Hungerford
503 - 4174

2. Table of Contents
• SLIDE 1- Title Slide
• SLIDE 2- Table of Contents
• SLIDE 3 - A visual metaphor about the history of ID
• SLIDE 4 - A brief statement about the history of Instructional Design (ID), a brief explanation of the visual metaphor.
• SLIDE 5 - A visual metaphor about the definition of ID
• SLIDE 6 - A definition of ID, a brief explanation of the visual metaphor.
• SLIDE 7 - A visual metaphor for the notion of “systematic.”
• SLIDE 8 - A definition of "systematic" and a statement about why ID implements a systematic approach, and a brief
explanation of the visual metaphor.
• SLIDE 9 - A visual metaphor for the notion of guiding “models”
• SLIDE 10 -Why an instructional designer might use an ID model, and a brief explanation of the visual metaphor.
• SLIDE 11 - A visual metaphor for the notion of “constructivism”
• SLIDE 12 - An explanation of the philosophical perspective of constructivism, and a brief explanation of the visual
metaphor.
• SLIDE 13 - A visual metaphor for the notion of “empiricism”
• SLIDE 14 - A brief explanation of the philosophical perspective of empiricism, and a brief explanation of the visual
metaphor.
• SLIDE 15- A visual metaphor for the notion of “behaviorism”
• SLIDE 16 - A brief explanation of the learning theory of behaviorism, and a brief explanation of the visual metaphor.
• SLIDE 17 - A visual metaphor for the notion of “information processing theory”
• SLIDE 18 - A brief explanation of the learning theory of information processing theory, and a brief explanation of the visual
metaphor.
• SLIDE 19 - A visual metaphor for the notion of “educational technology”
• SLIDE 20 - How ID relates to educational technology.
• SLIDES 21 - APA-style citations

4. The History of ID
The Constitution Metaphor
• I chose to represent the history of ID with the
U.S. constitution because I consider this
document to be an ever changing collection
of ideas. As the world changes, psychology
and research advance, world events take
place, and technology takes the forefront in
our culture, the constitution changes with it.
Just as the basic principals of ID still exist
today, the basic principles of the founding
fathers still exists in the constitution today.
Although many changes have been made to
the constitution, amendments added and
subtracted, the purpose or goal of the
document is the same. The history of ID was
all about growth and change and the
constitution is no different. The technology
boom caused major changes in instructional
design and the speed of growth caused those
changes to happen very quickly; the same can
be said about the constitution, which is still
trying to catch up with technology.
A summary of the history of ID
• The history of ID is believed to have begun around World
War 2. It began as a military training program by
psychologists, and later developed into an educational
resource. Over the decades it underwent many changes,
and additions. New concepts in education, research, world
events, and psychology created many of these changes.
The overall format of instructional design that we
currently have was a built gradually; it started with simply
defining objectives, then testing criterion, and eventually
elements of analysis and evaluation were given their place
in the design. Eventually, these designs took the shape of
models, and in the 1970’s a systematic approach to
instructional design flourished. The idea of using a
systematic approach spread across many different career
fields and types of businesses, and it continued to grow
through several decades. Ultimately the biggest change or
addition to instructional design was the technology boom
of the 1990’s. Technology and instructional design have a
natural connection. Technology eventually had such an
impact on the field of instructional design that it got its
own “spin-off” now known as instructional media. The
field of instructional design is fluid in nature, and will likely
always change (Reiser, 2001).
http://americanrtl.org/files/images/preamble.jpg

6. What is ID
The Bridge Metaphor
• I chose this picture of a bridge as a metaphor for
instructional design, because I see a bridge as a
carefully planned, well executed design, that
requires structure and creativity, beauty and
function. The building of a bridge requires research,
reflection, and a systematic application of design
principles. The bridge is also a metaphor for the
journey that takes place in a design. A bridge, much
like a design, is an intermediary it is the middle of
the journey. A bridge will take you from your
starting point (the initial idea) to your ending point
(the final product). If the bridge is poorly designed
you will never reach the end point, just as you will
never teach a concept with poorly designed
instructional material. A bridge is carefully designed
using tools and materials (design models) that best
suit its function (various industries). Each bridge is
unique, just as each design is unique. Most
importantly, bridges are regularly tested for safety
and are constantly being reinforced and repaired as
necessary.; instructional design is no different. It is
an ongoing process that requires constant
evaluation and reparation.
Definition of ID
• “The term instructional technology refers
to the systematic and reflective process of
translating principals of learning and
instruction into plans for instructional
materials, activities, information
resources, and evaluation (Smith & Ragan,
2005).”
• To me Instructional design is an ongoing
process, a cycle if you will, of planning,
testing, and revision with the ultimate
goal of educating and instructing an
audience of learners through a series of
products or resources.
http://ftp2.bentley.com/dist/collateral/docs/be_inspired/2012/finalist_hi_res/InnovationinBridges-Armando.jpg

8. Systematic
Hogwarts Train Station Metaphor
• I choose the Hogwarts Train Station as a metaphor
for something that is systematic. I choose this
metaphor because when I read that systems are the
engines that drive ID; I thought about how the train
drove industry. The train station is set up on a series
of systems, based on specific designs and each input
leads to the next output. Train stations, like ISD
grew out of a necessity and changed the structure
of our society. If it weren’t for the efficiency needed
to maintain the function of a train we wouldn’t have
time zones.
• Train stations use maps to tell people what train will
take them where, schedules to tell them when to be
there, and signs to show them how to find their
train. They follow a system that keeps them
operating, keeps them efficient, and allows them to
have success in their function. I chose the Hogwarts
train station specifically because of the element of
surprise, invention, creativity, and well “magic”.
Sometimes I feel that even the most systematic
design process requires invention, creativity, and
even a little magic to make it successful.
Definition of Systematic, and Why
ID Implements It?
• “The basic engine of ISD models is the systems
approach: viewing human organizations and
activities as systems in which inputs, outputs,
processes (throughputs), and feedback and
control elements are the salient features
(Molenda 2003).”
• In my opinion systematic, as it relates to
instructional design is about helping create an
organized and efficient tool for designers, a
series of basic steps to follow to ensure the
proper outcome. The generalized steps can
become more complex and differentiated
depending on the goals for instruction. This
systematic approach is carried out by using
various models, which outline the steps to be
followed, each major step includes an
evaluation of the process and an opportunity to
make changes to the instruction based on
success or failure of instructional materials to
carry out their function.
http://www.travel.ezinemark.com

10. Models
Cellular Respiration Metaphor
• To me models are like the process of cellular
respiration. To begin with, models are not wholly linear,
just as the process of cellular respiration is not wholly
linear. Both consist of several stages all relying on one
another to function, they are almost cyclical in nature
and never ending. Cellular respiration has 4 primary
stages, and many steps that take place under each
stage. ADDIE and similar models are structured in much
the same way, major stages each consisting of multiple
steps. Cellular respiration is working towards an end
product, much like models. The first stage of cellular
respiration (glycolysis) is all about getting ready for the
final product, the design is very intricate and requires a
great deal of change along the way. The next two
phases are sending messages throughout the cell telling
them what needs to happen to get to the end result,
much like the instruction phase in ADDIE. The final stage
in the electron transport chain is just like evaluation.
The ETC evaluates what it has been given, and works to
get as much success out of the product as it can. In an
ideal cell the ATP produced would be 38, but many cells
under-produce at about 30 ATP, not unlike many
instructional design programs. Poorly functioning cells,
and poorly functioning ID materials produce sub par
end results.
Why are ID Models Useful?
• ID models are useful as guidelines or
principles to guide design. They provide a
framework for the designer, a template on
which to build upon. ID models are tools to
provide structure, much a like a the template
I am using to create this PowerPoint provides
structure. I can be as creative with color,
backgrounds, animations etc.. as I choose. As
Smith and Ragan suggest the model is only
the framework, and no one model is
inherently better than the others. They
recommend understanding the principles
that guide design. “A solid foundation in
theory, models, and design principles”
provides the knowledge needed to select
and alter certain elements from a variety of
ID models. They recommend using this
model to develop a mental framework that
will guide the process of “building your own
model,” (Smith & Ragan, 2005).
http://bioweb.cs.earlham.edu/9-12/cellularrespiration/IMAGES/citriccell.JPG

12. Constructivism
Wicked Metaphor
• This metaphor was an easy one for me. After reading
about constructivism, I immediately made the
connection to the story, turned musical theater
masterpiece “Wicked”. The story is about a young
witch, Elphaba, born looking different than everyone
else. Her physical appearance had a direct impact on
her life experiences. Everyone approached her as
though she were wicked because she looked different,
but she was more pure of heart than the “good witch”
Glinda. The constructs of her life experiences helped
her to see good in others, and to recognize those
treated unfairly for their differences. She also had an
uncanny ability to see the bad in people that others
judged as good due to their life constructs. The
philosophy that we perceive information in different
ways based on different experiences is, in my opinion, a
very valid theory; however, I do not believe that all
education must then be experiential., nor do I believe
that there re multiple realities. I believe that having
experiences can broaden our viewpoints, but it isn’t
necessary for learning to take place. I can learn about
the subtleties of the story “Wicked” without ever having
experienced witchcraft, alienation, or physical
abnormalities.
Philosophical Perspective of
Constructivism
• Constructivist theory basically states that we
use our experiences as a filter to our education.
In other words we each see information being
provided differently because we have different
life experiences. In this theory there would be
no one reality, but each individual would have
their own personal reality (Smith & Ragan,
2005). For example, I might hear the story of the
Three Little Pigs and have sympathy for the
wolf, because I have a background knowledge of
animal behavior and I know that the wolf is just
attempting to survive through the biological
imperatives innate to his breed; and yet, he is
known as the Big Bad Wolf carrying with him the
stigma of the negative connotation of his title.
• In a review of the philosophical perspectives of
instructional design, Smith and Ragan share the
possible hazards of the constructivist theory as
having the potential of “slipping into the activity
for activity’s sake mode, (Smith & Ragan,
2005).”
http://images2.fanpop.com/images/photos/6300000/Witchy-Secrets-wicked-6345797-1024-768.jpg

14. Empiricism
A Christmas Story Metaphor
• Ralphie from A Christmas Story, is the
perfect example of empiricism. Ralphie, is a
young boy that wants a red rider bb gun for
Christmas so badly that he focuses an entire
school essay on his desire for the gun.
Throughout the movie he hears from
everyone “you’ll shoot your eye out”, and
yet he knows that if he could just get that
gun he could save his family from bandits
and be a big hero. He eventually gets the gun
and he does in fact shoot his eye. He wasn’t
going to learn that particular lesson without
experiencing it first hand. It wasn’t until he
felt the pain of the bullet that he processed
that he had just shot his eye. He even has an
internal monologue with himself about how
he can’t let anyone know what happened
because they had told them and he hadn’t
truly processed the possible consequences of
shooting that gun.
Philosophical Perspective of
Empiricism
• Empiricist philosophy suggests that
learning happens through sensory based
experience, as opposed to experiences
through a “mental life” (Smith & Ragan,
2005). It also suggests that through these
physical experiences we come to know
only one reality. The empiricist believes
that each life experience adds knowledge,
and that knowledge is objective and needs
to be broken down to its most basic parts.
Much like a small child that burns his hand
on a stove. You can tell him that it is hot
and it will hurt if he touches it, but it isn’t
until he touches it and his sensory
experiences tell him that he is hurt that he
learns the lesson.
http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/entertainment_tv_tvblog/files/2010/12/PX00169_91.jpg

16. Behaviorism
Abuse Metaphor
• Growing up, my mother was a psychologist and I
often heard her counseling women on the cycle of
abuse. She would say that that women that had
abusive fathers would often marry abusive
husbands because they had been conditioned to
believe that abuse was normal. She would say that
even the abuser was often conditioned to believe
that abusing his wife was his job as the husband. I
remember a particular story she once told me about
a man whose father had abused his mother and had
trained him from youth to keep the women in the
house in line by popping his belt. He had told his son
that regularly popping his belt prior to a beating
would let the woman know that she had stepped
out of line, and for more minor infractions merely
popping the belt without the beating would have
the same effect on the woman’s behavior. The
environment that he had grown up in conditioned
him to be abusive, he was taught to be an abuser
and the women in his family were conditioned to
react to violence.
Theory of Behaviorism
• The behavioral viewpoint postures that
environment influences learning (Smith &
Ragan 2005). This particular theory is often
first associated with Pavlov and his dogs. He
would condition his dogs to salivate when
they heard a bell. Pavlov created an
environment where the dogs were exposed
to a bell every time they were being fed, this
led them to salivate at the sound of the bell.
Future behaviorists emphasized positive and
negative reinforcement as a way to condition
a learner. Many teachers use these theories
to this day, although it is less often
associated with learning information in the
classroom than it is with learning proper
behavior. Perhaps the most prevalent form
of information associated conditioning is the
grading system, you get an A if you show you
learned something you fail if you don’t.
http://siomarsh.files.wordpress.com/2011/10/domestic-violence.jpg

18. Information Processing Theory
Computer Memory Metaphor
• I used the central processing unit of the
computer as the most logical metaphor. The
CPU process information that it is fed
through a series of information transfers.
The short term memory of a computer is fast
and easily accessible but can only store a
certain amount of information (chunks). If
the memory is to be stored for long term use
it must be transferred. Long term storage is
slower to access, but it can hold much more
information. Computer memory is widely
varied and can at times be volatile, just like a
human’s memory. A human’s capacity to
remember information is based on the
construction of that persons brain (cells,
DNA, genetics, and environmental factors).
The same can be said for a computer, the
materials used to build it, the quality, and
the environmental factors all effect
computer memory.
What is the learning theory of
information processing?
• The Learning theory of information
processing states that knowledge is
attained through a series of information
transformations in the brain. The basic
flow of information is as follows:
– The information comes in through the
receptors goes to the working memory.
– Information then flows to the short-term
memory, where it is limited to chunks of
information.
– Finally, important knowledge flows to
long-term memory where the knowledge
can be recalled through certain stimuli.
• The basic principal behind this theory is
that we process information rather than
merely reacting to stimuli.
http://www.wisegeek.org

20. Educational Technology
Evolution Metaphor
• Evolution is the metaphor I chose to
represent the relationship between
educational technology and ID. As I stated in
the paragraph to the right, technology is
evolving, and our instruction needs to evolve
with it or we will loose our grip on reality. I
love how the human looks back and doesn’t
recognize his old self. We as educational
technologists need to evolve in the same
way the cartoon character did, we need to
be able to look back and say wow, who is
that person and how did they ever
accomplish “teaching” with those materials?
The design for the human form changed only
slightly, it was built up from the same mold
as the prehistoric primates, just as the future
of ID will be built upon the same models as
the past. But it will evolve to be more
efficient and more productive in its current
environment.
How does ID relate to educational
technology?
• Instructional design is directly related to
educational technology because education has
taken to the internet, and classrooms have taken
to technology. Education is evolving. Education is
about engaging students in order to help them
learn, and students engage in technology, but they
are too savvy to accept poorly designed learning
materials. Students now are not impressed by
simple websites, they don’t marvel at the idea that
you can take classes online, and they will not be
engaged if they feel underestimated in their
mental or technological ability. The ability to
design instruction in an effective and engaging way
is essential to educational technology. Technology
is evolving and ID is evolving with it. According to
the article by Reiser, ID for media has its own genre
of ID. Technology is changing the way we learn, the
way we teach, and the way we design our
instructional material (both in form and function).
If we as educational technologists don’t recognize
the evolution and change our instructional design
to accommodate we might be left wondering what
happened?
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-GLdxM_SmlE8/UHLeaBsmm1I/AAAAAAAABgw/cZxGpoDZ3P0/s1600/explosm-evolution-t-shirt.jpg

21. Citations
• Molenda, Michael. (2003). The ADDIE Model.
Educational Technology: An Encyclopedia, pp.
1–5.
• Reiser, Robert A. (2001). A History of
Instructional Design and Technology: Part II: A
History of Instructional Design. ETR&D, 49, pp.
57–67.
• Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (2005). Instructional
design (3rd ed.). Hoboken, N.J: J. Wiley & Sons.