Maximilien Robespierre was a French lawyer and revolutionary leader during the French Revolution. He was a dominant figure during the Reign of Terror from 1793-1794, largely controlling the Committee of Public Safety and advocating for the execution of enemies of the revolution. Robespierre believed the people of France were fundamentally good and capable of advancing the nation. However, his opponents saw him as a bloodthirsty dictator. Robespierre was executed in 1794, bringing an end to the Reign of Terror.
Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794) was a French lawyer and politician who became one of the most influential figures of the French Revolution. He was educated in Paris and became a lawyer like his father. Robespierre became known for his attacks on the monarchy and advocacy for democratic reforms. After the fall of the monarchy in 1792, he was elected to the National Convention where he helped abolish the monarchy and establish a French Republic. As a member of the Committee of Public Safety, Robespierre became the dominant force during the Reign of Terror, which eliminated those seen as enemies of the revolution. However, his growing autocracy became unpopular and he was arrested
Robespierre was influential during the French Revolution. He was known as "The Incorruptible" and voted in favor of executing King Louis XVI. Robespierre then largely dominated the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror period, overseeing thousands of executions. However, Robespierre's law allowing executions on simple suspicion led the people to question his rule. After being accused of dictatorship, the Convention ordered Robespierre's arrest. When troops came to capture him, Robespierre tried to kill himself but only shattered his jaw. He was then guillotined without trial the next day.
The French Revolution began with the meeting of the Estates General in 1789. The Third Estate, representing commoners, demanded equal representation which the King refused. In response, members of the Third Estate formed the National Assembly and took the Tennis Court Oath on June 20th, 1789 to create a new constitution. On August 26th, 1789 the Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man, establishing France as a constitutional monarchy. The storming of the Bastille on July 14th, 1789 marked the start of the Revolution.
Louis XIV ruled France from 1643 to 1715, the longest reign in European history. He centralized power and established absolute monarchy. Louis XV ruled from 1715 to 1774, during which France lost power and influence. Louis XVI ruled from 1774 until 1792 when the French Revolution erupted. He was suspended from power in 1792 and executed by guillotine in 1793 during the height of the Revolution.
The french-revolution-1215886858269958-9-140121020723-phpapp02Thabo Thubisi
The French Revolution was more radical than the American Revolution and sought to completely overhaul French society and government. It began in 1789 as the Third Estate formed the National Assembly in opposition to the existing estates system. This led to the storming of the Bastille prison and the gradual establishment of a constitutional monarchy. However, the monarchy was eventually abolished and a republic declared, ushering in the most radical phase marked by executions and the Reign of Terror under Robespierre. After his fall, a more moderate conservative period followed under the Directory government until Napoleon came to power.
The document summarizes the revitalization of Washington Street in Boston from the late 20th century to present day. It describes how the elevated Orange Line was removed in 1985, opening up the area for redevelopment. A task force was formed in 1995 that worked with the city to create a plan to rezone the area and attract new development through improved transportation including the Silver Line bus system. Since then over 1,900 new housing units and retail have been built, transforming the area from one in decline to a densely populated transitoriented neighborhood through public-private partnerships.
France abolishes monarchy and becomes republic (french revolution) KhushiVerma274203
France abolishes the monarchy and becomes a republic. Louis XVI had signed the constitution but was growing unpopular due to secret negotiations with Austria and Prussia against the interests of the people. As the economic difficulties of war increased discontent, radical political clubs like the Jacobins gained influence. Robespierre became the leader of the Jacobins and helped establish a repressive Reign of Terror, overseeing the execution of Louis XVI and thousands of others deemed enemies of the republic. Robespierre's authoritarian policies eventually led to his own downfall and execution in 1794, ending the Reign of Terror.
The document summarizes key events in the French Revolution from 1789 to 1794. It describes the Declaration of the Rights of Man which established equality but excluded women. Olympe de Gouges then published a Declaration of the Rights of Woman demanding equal rights. As the revolution continued, different factions emerged in the Legislative Assembly, and war broke out with other European nations. The monarchy was abolished and Louis XVI was executed, leading to the Reign of Terror under Robespierre where thousands were executed for being enemies of the revolution until his own arrest and execution in 1794.
Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794) was a French lawyer and politician who became one of the most influential figures of the French Revolution. He was educated in Paris and became a lawyer like his father. Robespierre became known for his attacks on the monarchy and advocacy for democratic reforms. After the fall of the monarchy in 1792, he was elected to the National Convention where he helped abolish the monarchy and establish a French Republic. As a member of the Committee of Public Safety, Robespierre became the dominant force during the Reign of Terror, which eliminated those seen as enemies of the revolution. However, his growing autocracy became unpopular and he was arrested
Robespierre was influential during the French Revolution. He was known as "The Incorruptible" and voted in favor of executing King Louis XVI. Robespierre then largely dominated the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror period, overseeing thousands of executions. However, Robespierre's law allowing executions on simple suspicion led the people to question his rule. After being accused of dictatorship, the Convention ordered Robespierre's arrest. When troops came to capture him, Robespierre tried to kill himself but only shattered his jaw. He was then guillotined without trial the next day.
The French Revolution began with the meeting of the Estates General in 1789. The Third Estate, representing commoners, demanded equal representation which the King refused. In response, members of the Third Estate formed the National Assembly and took the Tennis Court Oath on June 20th, 1789 to create a new constitution. On August 26th, 1789 the Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man, establishing France as a constitutional monarchy. The storming of the Bastille on July 14th, 1789 marked the start of the Revolution.
Louis XIV ruled France from 1643 to 1715, the longest reign in European history. He centralized power and established absolute monarchy. Louis XV ruled from 1715 to 1774, during which France lost power and influence. Louis XVI ruled from 1774 until 1792 when the French Revolution erupted. He was suspended from power in 1792 and executed by guillotine in 1793 during the height of the Revolution.
The french-revolution-1215886858269958-9-140121020723-phpapp02Thabo Thubisi
The French Revolution was more radical than the American Revolution and sought to completely overhaul French society and government. It began in 1789 as the Third Estate formed the National Assembly in opposition to the existing estates system. This led to the storming of the Bastille prison and the gradual establishment of a constitutional monarchy. However, the monarchy was eventually abolished and a republic declared, ushering in the most radical phase marked by executions and the Reign of Terror under Robespierre. After his fall, a more moderate conservative period followed under the Directory government until Napoleon came to power.
The document summarizes the revitalization of Washington Street in Boston from the late 20th century to present day. It describes how the elevated Orange Line was removed in 1985, opening up the area for redevelopment. A task force was formed in 1995 that worked with the city to create a plan to rezone the area and attract new development through improved transportation including the Silver Line bus system. Since then over 1,900 new housing units and retail have been built, transforming the area from one in decline to a densely populated transitoriented neighborhood through public-private partnerships.
France abolishes monarchy and becomes republic (french revolution) KhushiVerma274203
France abolishes the monarchy and becomes a republic. Louis XVI had signed the constitution but was growing unpopular due to secret negotiations with Austria and Prussia against the interests of the people. As the economic difficulties of war increased discontent, radical political clubs like the Jacobins gained influence. Robespierre became the leader of the Jacobins and helped establish a repressive Reign of Terror, overseeing the execution of Louis XVI and thousands of others deemed enemies of the republic. Robespierre's authoritarian policies eventually led to his own downfall and execution in 1794, ending the Reign of Terror.
The document summarizes key events in the French Revolution from 1789 to 1794. It describes the Declaration of the Rights of Man which established equality but excluded women. Olympe de Gouges then published a Declaration of the Rights of Woman demanding equal rights. As the revolution continued, different factions emerged in the Legislative Assembly, and war broke out with other European nations. The monarchy was abolished and Louis XVI was executed, leading to the Reign of Terror under Robespierre where thousands were executed for being enemies of the revolution until his own arrest and execution in 1794.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a French philosopher born in 1712 who developed important political and educational theories. He believed that humans in a state of nature are good but are corrupted by society. His major works examined the origins of inequality and proposed the social contract as the basis of legitimate political authority. He argued that the goal of education should be to allow students to develop naturally according to their interests. Rousseau faced criticism and exile for his controversial ideas and died in 1778.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a French philosopher born in 1712 who developed important political and educational theories. He believed that humans in a state of nature are good but are corrupted by society. His major works examined the origins of inequality and proposed the social contract as the basis of legitimate political authority. He argued that the goal of education should be to allow students to develop naturally according to their interests. Rousseau faced criticism and exile for his controversial ideas and died in 1778.
The document summarizes information on four notable women from history: Olympe de Gouges, Madame Roland, Madame de Staël, and Teresa Cabarrús. Olympe de Gouges was a French writer and political activist during the French Revolution who advocated for women's rights. She was executed for her writings opposing the revolutionary government. Madame Roland was another influential figure during the Revolution whose salon brought together opposition leaders. She too was executed after the fall of the Girondins. Madame de Staël was a famous Swiss-French writer whose liberal views put her at odds with Napoleon. Teresa Cabarrús was a Spanish woman who married into the French revolutionary government and worked to protect Girondin
The royal family tried to escape France but was caught. This led to the creation of a new constitution and Legislative Assembly with power shared between the king and assembly. Internal divisions grew between moderate and radical groups as the war went badly. Radicals took control in Paris, declared a republic and executed the king and queen. The Reign of Terror followed under Robespierre until his own fall from power. The government transitioned to the Directory and then the Consulate before Napoleon declared himself Emperor.
The French Revolution began in 1789 and overthrew the French monarchy and established a republic. It was caused by social inequality, tax burden on the lower class, influence of Enlightenment ideas, and financial crisis from wars. Key events included the storming of the Bastille prison in Paris in 1789 and the execution of King Louis XVI in 1793. The revolution went through different governmental forms including a constitutional monarchy, republic, and dictatorship under Napoleon. It profoundly changed French society and government and had widespread impact across Europe.
The French Revolution occurred from 1789-1799 and transformed France from an absolute monarchy to a republic based on ideals of liberty, equality, and citizenship. Key events included the storming of the Bastille prison by revolutionaries in 1789, the establishment of a constitutional monarchy with the Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789, the overthrow of the monarchy and execution of King Louis XVI in 1793, and the rise and fall of Maximilien Robespierre's radical Jacobin faction in 1794 which ended the period known as the Reign of Terror.
The Enlightenment spread ideas that knowledge and reason could improve society through movements like the Reformation, which launched a new form of Christianity called Protestantism. In the colonies, the Enlightenment increased interest in science. Figures like Thomas Hobbes and John Locke impacted the Enlightenment through their political philosophies. Other thinkers mentioned include Baron de Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Cesare Beccaria.
The document discusses the key events of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1799. It describes the three estates system in France before the revolution and the inequality faced by the third estate. The storming of the Bastille by Parisians in 1789 marked an important turning point. The National Assembly abolished feudalism and declared the rights of man. However, the revolution grew increasingly radical under the Jacobins, leading to the Reign of Terror and mass executions under Robespierre. Eventually, Napoleon Bonaparte came to power in 1799, bringing the revolution to an end.
The document provides an overview of the key events and causes leading up to the French Revolution. It discusses the socioeconomic inequalities and oppressive policies under the Ancien Régime that led to growing discontent among commoners. Major developments included the meeting of the Estates-General in 1789, the storming of the Bastille, and the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man in the early years of the revolution. The document also outlines the three stages of the revolution from 1789 to Napoleon's rise to power in 1804.
23.2 - The French Revolution Brings Reform and TerrorDan Ewert
The French Revolution brought widespread reforms but also a period of terror. The National Assembly abolished feudalism and adopted a Declaration of Rights of Man in 1789 that established principles of equality and liberty. However, in the following years the Revolution grew increasingly radical as the monarchy was overthrown, the king and queen were executed, and a Reign of Terror began where tens of thousands were executed under Robespierre's Committee of Public Safety.
The document summarizes the social and political conditions in France prior to the French Revolution. It describes the stratified society divided into three estates, with the clergy and nobility making up the first two estates and enjoying privileges like tax exemptions. The third estate, comprising peasants, artisans, and the middle class, bore the burden of taxation. Rising population and food prices led to hardship for the poor. Philosophers like Locke, Montesquieu and Rousseau influenced ideas of equality and separation of powers. When King Louis XVI called the Estates General in 1789 to approve new taxes, tensions erupted between the privileged estates and the third estate seeking greater political representation and reforms.
The document provides background information on key events and figures of the French Revolution:
- La Marseillaise was composed in 1792 as the revolution was underway and France was at war with absolute monarchies.
- Major events included the storming of the Bastille in 1789, the abolition of feudalism and establishment of human rights, and the execution of King Louis XVI in 1793 after he conspired against the revolution.
- Figures mentioned include Robespierre, who led the radical Jacobin faction during the Reign of Terror but was later overthrown and guillotined along with his supporters.
The document provides an overview of the French Revolution and some of the key revolutionary thinkers that influenced it. It discusses the financial crisis and unrest in France that led to the revolution. It describes events like the storming of the Bastille, the establishment of the National Assembly, and the execution of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. It also profiles philosophers like Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, and Kant who promoted ideas of democracy, rationalism, and idealism that influenced the revolution.
Ch 23 2 Revolution Brings Reform And TerrorJohn Hext
1) After the storming of the Bastille, the National Assembly abolished feudalism and adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789, modeling it after the American Declaration of Independence.
2) During the Reign of Terror from 1793-1794, radical Jacobins led by Robespierre took control and began executing around 40,000 people throughout France for any perceived lack of radicalism.
3) Robespierre's increasing radicalism and godlessness made him unpopular, and members of the Convention arrested and executed him in 1794 to end the Reign of Terror.
The French Revolution began in 1789 with the meeting of the Estates General and ended in 1799 with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. French society was divided into three estates, with the clergy, nobility comprising the first two estates and holding privileges, and the commoners as the third estate bearing the tax burden. Economic troubles, Enlightenment ideas, and resentment towards the aristocracy and monarchy contributed to the revolution. Major events included the storming of the Bastille, establishment of the National Assembly, and execution of Louis XVI, leading to widespread violence and terror during the revolutionary government's rule. The revolution profoundly impacted modern political thought by promoting concepts of nationalism, democracy, and individual rights.
The document discusses the divisions in France during the Revolutionary period, with radicals, moderates and conservatives holding different views. Maximilien Robespierre rose to power as head of the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror, overseeing mass executions. Over 40,000 people are estimated to have been killed as a result of the Revolution and Robespierre's rule, mainly peasants. Robespierre's downfall on July 28, 1794 marked the end of the most radical phase.
On July 14, 1789, rumors spread in Paris that the king planned to open fire on citizens. Over 7,000 people gathered and formed a militia, breaking into buildings to find arms. They then stormed the Bastille prison, hoping to find ammunition. In the ensuing fight, the commander was killed and prisoners released. Though a symbolic victory, it marked the beginning of a revolutionary period that ultimately led to the execution of the king in France.
The document provides an overview of the Enlightenment influences on the American and French revolutions as well as subsequent revolutions in Latin America. It discusses key Enlightenment thinkers like Locke, Rousseau, and Voltaire and their ideas of popular sovereignty, individual rights, and social contracts. It then summarizes the American Revolution, the Declaration of Independence, and influential figures. It moves to discuss the causes and events of the French Revolution including the storming of the Bastille. Finally, it covers the Haitian Revolution and independence movements across Latin America influenced by these earlier revolutions.
The French Revolution began in 1788 as King Louis XVI called the Estates-General due to France's bankrupt treasury. This led to conflict between the three estates of French society, and the formation of the National Assembly to represent citizens more equally. On July 14, 1789, the storming of the Bastille fortress by Parisians symbolized the people's growing discontent with the absolute monarchy. The Revolution then spread violence and turmoil across France as radical factions gained influence and instituted the Reign of Terror under Robespierre, sending thousands to the guillotine until his own execution in 1794. The monarchy was abolished, leaving France a democratic republic but still unstable amid conflict with other European nations.
This document provides details about the social and political structure, known as the Old Regime, that existed in France prior to the French Revolution. It describes the three estates that comprised French society - clergy, nobility, and commoners. The document outlines the privileges of the nobility and clergy compared to the majority of commoners. It then discusses the economic crisis and unrest growing in France due to financial troubles and famine. This led to the storming of the Bastille and the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a French philosopher born in 1712 who developed important political and educational theories. He believed that humans in a state of nature are good but are corrupted by society. His major works examined the origins of inequality and proposed the social contract as the basis of legitimate political authority. He argued that the goal of education should be to allow students to develop naturally according to their interests. Rousseau faced criticism and exile for his controversial ideas and died in 1778.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a French philosopher born in 1712 who developed important political and educational theories. He believed that humans in a state of nature are good but are corrupted by society. His major works examined the origins of inequality and proposed the social contract as the basis of legitimate political authority. He argued that the goal of education should be to allow students to develop naturally according to their interests. Rousseau faced criticism and exile for his controversial ideas and died in 1778.
The document summarizes information on four notable women from history: Olympe de Gouges, Madame Roland, Madame de Staël, and Teresa Cabarrús. Olympe de Gouges was a French writer and political activist during the French Revolution who advocated for women's rights. She was executed for her writings opposing the revolutionary government. Madame Roland was another influential figure during the Revolution whose salon brought together opposition leaders. She too was executed after the fall of the Girondins. Madame de Staël was a famous Swiss-French writer whose liberal views put her at odds with Napoleon. Teresa Cabarrús was a Spanish woman who married into the French revolutionary government and worked to protect Girondin
The royal family tried to escape France but was caught. This led to the creation of a new constitution and Legislative Assembly with power shared between the king and assembly. Internal divisions grew between moderate and radical groups as the war went badly. Radicals took control in Paris, declared a republic and executed the king and queen. The Reign of Terror followed under Robespierre until his own fall from power. The government transitioned to the Directory and then the Consulate before Napoleon declared himself Emperor.
The French Revolution began in 1789 and overthrew the French monarchy and established a republic. It was caused by social inequality, tax burden on the lower class, influence of Enlightenment ideas, and financial crisis from wars. Key events included the storming of the Bastille prison in Paris in 1789 and the execution of King Louis XVI in 1793. The revolution went through different governmental forms including a constitutional monarchy, republic, and dictatorship under Napoleon. It profoundly changed French society and government and had widespread impact across Europe.
The French Revolution occurred from 1789-1799 and transformed France from an absolute monarchy to a republic based on ideals of liberty, equality, and citizenship. Key events included the storming of the Bastille prison by revolutionaries in 1789, the establishment of a constitutional monarchy with the Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789, the overthrow of the monarchy and execution of King Louis XVI in 1793, and the rise and fall of Maximilien Robespierre's radical Jacobin faction in 1794 which ended the period known as the Reign of Terror.
The Enlightenment spread ideas that knowledge and reason could improve society through movements like the Reformation, which launched a new form of Christianity called Protestantism. In the colonies, the Enlightenment increased interest in science. Figures like Thomas Hobbes and John Locke impacted the Enlightenment through their political philosophies. Other thinkers mentioned include Baron de Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Cesare Beccaria.
The document discusses the key events of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1799. It describes the three estates system in France before the revolution and the inequality faced by the third estate. The storming of the Bastille by Parisians in 1789 marked an important turning point. The National Assembly abolished feudalism and declared the rights of man. However, the revolution grew increasingly radical under the Jacobins, leading to the Reign of Terror and mass executions under Robespierre. Eventually, Napoleon Bonaparte came to power in 1799, bringing the revolution to an end.
The document provides an overview of the key events and causes leading up to the French Revolution. It discusses the socioeconomic inequalities and oppressive policies under the Ancien Régime that led to growing discontent among commoners. Major developments included the meeting of the Estates-General in 1789, the storming of the Bastille, and the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man in the early years of the revolution. The document also outlines the three stages of the revolution from 1789 to Napoleon's rise to power in 1804.
23.2 - The French Revolution Brings Reform and TerrorDan Ewert
The French Revolution brought widespread reforms but also a period of terror. The National Assembly abolished feudalism and adopted a Declaration of Rights of Man in 1789 that established principles of equality and liberty. However, in the following years the Revolution grew increasingly radical as the monarchy was overthrown, the king and queen were executed, and a Reign of Terror began where tens of thousands were executed under Robespierre's Committee of Public Safety.
The document summarizes the social and political conditions in France prior to the French Revolution. It describes the stratified society divided into three estates, with the clergy and nobility making up the first two estates and enjoying privileges like tax exemptions. The third estate, comprising peasants, artisans, and the middle class, bore the burden of taxation. Rising population and food prices led to hardship for the poor. Philosophers like Locke, Montesquieu and Rousseau influenced ideas of equality and separation of powers. When King Louis XVI called the Estates General in 1789 to approve new taxes, tensions erupted between the privileged estates and the third estate seeking greater political representation and reforms.
The document provides background information on key events and figures of the French Revolution:
- La Marseillaise was composed in 1792 as the revolution was underway and France was at war with absolute monarchies.
- Major events included the storming of the Bastille in 1789, the abolition of feudalism and establishment of human rights, and the execution of King Louis XVI in 1793 after he conspired against the revolution.
- Figures mentioned include Robespierre, who led the radical Jacobin faction during the Reign of Terror but was later overthrown and guillotined along with his supporters.
The document provides an overview of the French Revolution and some of the key revolutionary thinkers that influenced it. It discusses the financial crisis and unrest in France that led to the revolution. It describes events like the storming of the Bastille, the establishment of the National Assembly, and the execution of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. It also profiles philosophers like Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, and Kant who promoted ideas of democracy, rationalism, and idealism that influenced the revolution.
Ch 23 2 Revolution Brings Reform And TerrorJohn Hext
1) After the storming of the Bastille, the National Assembly abolished feudalism and adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789, modeling it after the American Declaration of Independence.
2) During the Reign of Terror from 1793-1794, radical Jacobins led by Robespierre took control and began executing around 40,000 people throughout France for any perceived lack of radicalism.
3) Robespierre's increasing radicalism and godlessness made him unpopular, and members of the Convention arrested and executed him in 1794 to end the Reign of Terror.
The French Revolution began in 1789 with the meeting of the Estates General and ended in 1799 with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. French society was divided into three estates, with the clergy, nobility comprising the first two estates and holding privileges, and the commoners as the third estate bearing the tax burden. Economic troubles, Enlightenment ideas, and resentment towards the aristocracy and monarchy contributed to the revolution. Major events included the storming of the Bastille, establishment of the National Assembly, and execution of Louis XVI, leading to widespread violence and terror during the revolutionary government's rule. The revolution profoundly impacted modern political thought by promoting concepts of nationalism, democracy, and individual rights.
The document discusses the divisions in France during the Revolutionary period, with radicals, moderates and conservatives holding different views. Maximilien Robespierre rose to power as head of the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror, overseeing mass executions. Over 40,000 people are estimated to have been killed as a result of the Revolution and Robespierre's rule, mainly peasants. Robespierre's downfall on July 28, 1794 marked the end of the most radical phase.
On July 14, 1789, rumors spread in Paris that the king planned to open fire on citizens. Over 7,000 people gathered and formed a militia, breaking into buildings to find arms. They then stormed the Bastille prison, hoping to find ammunition. In the ensuing fight, the commander was killed and prisoners released. Though a symbolic victory, it marked the beginning of a revolutionary period that ultimately led to the execution of the king in France.
The document provides an overview of the Enlightenment influences on the American and French revolutions as well as subsequent revolutions in Latin America. It discusses key Enlightenment thinkers like Locke, Rousseau, and Voltaire and their ideas of popular sovereignty, individual rights, and social contracts. It then summarizes the American Revolution, the Declaration of Independence, and influential figures. It moves to discuss the causes and events of the French Revolution including the storming of the Bastille. Finally, it covers the Haitian Revolution and independence movements across Latin America influenced by these earlier revolutions.
The French Revolution began in 1788 as King Louis XVI called the Estates-General due to France's bankrupt treasury. This led to conflict between the three estates of French society, and the formation of the National Assembly to represent citizens more equally. On July 14, 1789, the storming of the Bastille fortress by Parisians symbolized the people's growing discontent with the absolute monarchy. The Revolution then spread violence and turmoil across France as radical factions gained influence and instituted the Reign of Terror under Robespierre, sending thousands to the guillotine until his own execution in 1794. The monarchy was abolished, leaving France a democratic republic but still unstable amid conflict with other European nations.
This document provides details about the social and political structure, known as the Old Regime, that existed in France prior to the French Revolution. It describes the three estates that comprised French society - clergy, nobility, and commoners. The document outlines the privileges of the nobility and clergy compared to the majority of commoners. It then discusses the economic crisis and unrest growing in France due to financial troubles and famine. This led to the storming of the Bastille and the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789.
1. Maximilien Robespierre
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Maximilien Robespierre
Robespierre c. 1790, (anonymous), Musée Carnavalet, Paris, France
Deputy and member of the Committee of Public
Safety
In office
27 July 1793 – 27 July 1794
Constituency Paris
President of the National Convention
In office
4 June 1794 – 17 June 1794
In office
22 August 1793 – 5 September 1793
Member of the National Convention
In office
20 September 1792 – 27 July 1794
Member of the National Constituent Assembly
In office
9 July 1789 – 30 September 1791
2. Member of the National Assembly
In office
17 June 1789 – 9 July 1789
Deputy for the Third Estate of the Estates-
General
Constituency of Artois
In office
6 May 1789 – 17 June 1789
Maximilien François Marie Isidore de
Robespierre
Born
6 May 1758
Arras, France
28 July 1794 (aged 36)
Died
Paris, France
Nationality French
Political party Jacobin
Alma mater Lycée Louis-le-Grand
Profession Lawyer and Politician
Deism
Religion
(Cult of the Supreme Being)
Signature
Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre (IPA: swa maʁ i izidɔ ʁ
də ʁ ɔ bɛ spjɛ ʁ ]; 6 May 1758 – 28 July 1794) is one of the best-known and most influential
figures of the French Revolution. He largely dominated the Committee of Public Safety and was
instrumental in the period of the Revolution commonly known as the Reign of Terror, which
ended with his arrest and execution in 1794.
Robespierre was influenced by 18th-century Enlightenment philosophes such as Jean-Jacques
Rousseau and Montesquieu, and he was a capable articulator of the beliefs of the left-wing
bourgeoisie. He was described as being physically unimposing yet immaculate in attire and
personal manners. His supporters called him "The Incorruptible", while his adversaries called
him dictateur sanguinaire (blood-thirsty dictator).
ested that his surname could be a corruption of 'Robert Speirs'.[2] George Henry Lewes, Ernest
Hamel, Jules Michelet, Alphonse de Lamartine and Hilaire Belloc have all cited this theory
although there appears to be little supporting evidence.
His paternal grandfather, Maximilien de Robespierre, established himself in Arras as a lawyer.
His father, Maximilien Barthélémy François de Robespierre, also a lawyer at the Conseil
3. d'Artois, married Jacqueline Marguerite Carrault, the daughter of a brewer, in 1758. Maximilien
was the oldest of 4 children and was conceived out of wedlock - his siblings were Charlotte,
Henriette and Augustin.[3] To hide the fact as best they could, his father and mother had a rushed
wedding (which the grandfather refused to attend). In 1764, Madame de Robespierre died in
childbirth. Her husband left Arras and wandered around Europe until his death in Munich in
1777, leaving the children to be brought up by their maternal grandfather and aunts.
Maximilien attended the collège (middle school) of Arras when he was eight years old, already
knowing how to read and write.[4] In October of 1769, on the recommendation of the bishop, he
obtained a scholarship at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris. Here he learned to admire the
idealised Roman Republic and the rhetoric of Cicero, Cato and other classic figures. His fellow
pupils included Camille Desmoulins and Stanislas Fréron. He also was exposed to Rousseau
during this time and adopted many of the same principles. Robespierre became more intrigued
by the idea of a virtuous self, a man who stands alone accompanied only by his conscience.[5]
Shortly after his coronation, Louis XVI visited Louis-le-Grand. Robespierre, then 17 years old,
had been chosen out of five hundred pupils to deliver a speech to welcome the king; as a prize-
winning student, the choice had been clear. On the day of the speech, Robespierre and the crowd
waited for the king and queen for several hours in the rain. Upon arrival, the royal couple
remained in their coach for the ceremony and immediately left thereafter.[5] Robespierre would
become one of those who eventually sought the death of the king.[5]
[edit] Early politics
As an adult, and possibly even as a young man, the greatest influence on Robespierre's political
ideas was Jean Jacques Rousseau. Robespierre’s conception of revolutionary virtue and his
program for constructing political sovereignty out of direct democracy came from Rousseau, and
in pursuit of these ideals he eventually became known during the Jacobin Republic as ―the
Incorruptible.‖[6] Robespierre believed that the people of France were fundamentally good and
were therefore capable of advancing the public well-being of the nation.[7]
After having completed his law studies, Robespierre was admitted to the Arras bar. The Bishop
of Arras, Louis François Marc Hilaire de Conzié, appointed him criminal judge in the Diocese of
Arras in March 1782. This appointment, which he soon resigned to avoid pronouncing a sentence
of death, did not prevent his practicing at the bar. He quickly became a successful advocate and
chose in principle to represent the poor. During court hearings he was known to often advocate
the ideals of the Enlightenment and argue for the rights of man: i.e., his clients.[8] Later in his
career, he read widely and also became interested in society in general. He became regarded as
one of the best writers and most popular young men of Arras.
In December 1783, he was elected a member of the academy of Arras, the meetings of which he
attended regularly. In 1784, he obtained a medal from the academy of Metz for his essay on the
question of whether the relatives of a condemned criminal should share his disgrace. He and
Pierre Louis de Lacretelle, an advocate and journalist in Paris, divided the prize. Many of his
subsequent essays were less successful, but Robespierre was compensated for these failures by
his popularity in the literary and musical society at Arras, known as the "Rosatia", of which
4. Lazare Carnot, who would be his colleague on the Committee of Public Safety, was also a
member.
In 1788, he took part in a discussion of how the French provincial government should be elected,
showing clearly and forcefully in his Addresse à la nation artésienne that if the former mode of
election by the members of the provincial estates were again adopted, the new Estates-General
would not represent the people of France. It is possible he addressed this issue so that he could
have a chance to take part in the proceedings and thus change the policies of the monarchy. King
Louis XVI later announced new elections for all provinces, thus allowing Robespierre to run for
the position of deputy for the Third Estate.[5]
Portrait of Robespierre after his election to the Estates General, 1789
Although the leading members of the corporation were elected, Robespierre, their chief
opponent, succeeded in getting elected with them. In the assembly of the bailliage rivalry ran
still higher, but Robespierre had begun to make his mark in politics with the Avis aux habitants
de la campagne (Arras, 1789). With this he secured the support of the country electors and,
although only thirty, comparatively poor and lacking patronage, he was elected fifth deputy of
the Third Estate of Artois to the Estates-General. When Robespierre arrived at Versailles, he was
relatively unknown, but he soon became part of the representative National Assembly which then
transformed into the Constituent Assembly.[5]
While the Constituent Assembly occupied itself with drawing up a constitution, Robespierre
turned from the assembly of provincial lawyers and wealthy bourgeois to the people of Paris. He
was a frequent speaker in the Constituent Assembly; he voiced many ideas for the Declaration of
the Rights of Man and Constitutional Provisions, often with great success.[5] He was eventually
recognized as second only to Pétion de Villeneuve - if second he was - as a leader of the small
body of the extreme left; "the thirty voices" as Mirabeau contemptuously called them.
Robespierre soon became involved with the new Society of the Friends of the Constitution,
known eventually as the Jacobin Club. This had consisted originally of the deputies from
Brittany only. After the Assembly moved to Paris, the Club began to admit various leaders of the
Parisian bourgeoisie to its membership. As time went on, many of the more intelligent artisans
and small shopkeepers became members of the club. Among such men, Robespierre found a
5. sympathetic audience. As the wealthier bourgeois of Paris and right-wing deputies seceded from
the club of 1789, the influence of the old leaders of the Jacobins, such as Barnave, Duport,
Alexandre de Lameth, diminished. When they, alarmed at the progress of the Revolution,
founded the club of the Feuillants in 1791, the left, including Robespierre and his friends,
dominated the Jacobin Club.
On 15 May 1791, Robespierre proposed and carried the motion that no deputy who sat in the
Constituent could sit in the succeeding Assembly, his only successful proposition in this
assembly.[citation needed]
The flight on 20 June, and subsequent arrest at Varennes of Louis XVI and his family resulted in
Robespierre declaring himself at the Jacobin Club to be "ni monarchiste ni républicain" ("neither
monarchist nor republican"). But this was not unusual; very few at this point were avowed
republicans.
After the massacre on the Champ de Mars on 17 July 1791, in order to be nearer to the Assembly
and the Jacobins, he moved to live in the house of Maurice Duplay, a cabinetmaker residing in
the Rue Saint-Honoré and an ardent admirer of Robespierre. Robespierre lived there (with two
short intervals excepted) until his death. In fact, according to some sources[who?], including his
doctor, Souberbielle, Vilate, a juror on the Revolutionary Tribunal, and his host's youngest
daughter (who would later marry Philippe Le Bas of the Committee of General Security), he
became engaged to the eldest daughter of his host, Éléonore Duplay.[citation needed]
On 30 September, on the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, the people of Paris crowned
Pétion and Robespierre as the two incorruptible patriots in an attempt to honor their purity of
principles, their modest ways of living, and their refusal of bribes.[8]
With the dissolution of the Assembly he returned to Arras for a short visit, where he met with a
triumphant reception. In November he returned to Paris to take the position of Public Prosecutor
of Paris.[9]
[edit] Opposition to war with Austria
6. Terracotta bust of Robespierre by Claude André Deseine, 1792 (Musée de la Révolution
française)
On February 1792, Jacques Pierre Brissot, one of the leaders of the Girondist party in the
Legislative Assembly, urged that France should declare war against Austria. Marat and
Robespierre opposed him, because they feared the possibility of militarism, which might then be
turned to the advantage of the reactionary forces. Robespierre was also convinced the stability of
the internal country was more important; he was suspicious of traitors and counter-
revolutionaries hidden among the people.[10] This opposition from expected allies irritated the
Girondists and political rivalry arose between them.
In April 1792, Robespierre resigned the post of public prosecutor of Versailles, which he had
officially held, but never practiced, since February, and started a journal, Le Défenseur de la
Constitution, in his own defence against the accusations of the Girondist leaders.
Because of his popularity, his reputation for virtue and his influence over the Jacobin Club, the
strongmen of the Commune of Paris were glad to have Robespierre's aid in the face of food riots
and factionalism. On 16 August, Robespierre presented the petition of the Commune to the
Legislative Assembly, demanding the establishment of a revolutionary tribunal and the
summoning of a Convention.
Robespierre has often been reproached with failing to stop the September Massacres.[by whom?]
In September, he was elected first deputy for Paris to the National Convention. Robespierre and
his allies took the benches high at the back of the hall, giving them the label 'the Montagnards';
below them were the 'Manège' of the Girondists and then 'the Plain' of the independents.
At the Convention, the Girondists immediately attacked Robespierre. On 26 September, the
Girondist Marc-David Lasource accused Robespierre of wanting to form a dictatorship. Rumours
spread that Robespierre, Marat and Danton were plotting to establish a triumvirate. On 29
October, Louvet de Couvrai attacked Robespierre in a speech, possibly written by Madame
Roland. On 5 November, Robespierre defended himself and denounced the federalist plans of the
7. Girondists. Robespierre was one of the most popular orators in the Convention and his carefully
prepared speeches often made a deep impression.
[edit] Execution of Louis XVI
In December 1792, personal disputes were overshadowed by the question of the king's trial. In
this instance, Robespierre held the position that the king must be executed, whereas previously
he had opposed the death penalty. The position of Robespierre was that if one man’s life had to
be sacrificed to save the Revolution, there was no alternative: it had to be that of King Louis. In
his speech on 3 December 1792 Robespierre argued that the king, having betrayed the people
when he tried to flee the country, and by being a king in the first place, posed a danger to the
state as a unifying entity to enemies of the republic.
[edit] Destruction of the Girondists
After the King's execution, the influence of Robespierre, Danton, and the pragmatic politicians
increased at the expense of the Girondists. The Girondists refused to have anything more to do
with Danton and because of this the government became more divided. In May 1793,
Desmoulins, at the behest of Robespierre and Danton, published his Histoire des Brissotins, an
elaboration on the earlier article Jean-Pierre Brissot, démasqué, a scathing attack on Brissot and
the Girondists. Maximin Isnard declared that Paris must be destroyed if it came out against the
provincial deputies. Robespierre preached a moral "insurrection against the corrupt deputies" at
the Jacobin Club. On 2 June, a large crowd of armed men from the Commune of Paris came to
the Convention and arrested thirty-two deputies on charges of counter-revolutionary activities.
[edit] Reign of Terror
Main article: Reign of Terror
“ ”
To punish the oppressors of humanity is clemency; to forgive them is barbarity.
— Maximilien Robespierre, 1794[11]
After the fall of the monarchy, France faced more food riots, large popular insurrections and
accusations of treasonous acts by those previously considered patriots. A stable government was
needed to quell the chaos.[8] On 11 March 1793, a Revolutionary Tribunal was established in
Paris. On 6 April, the nine-member Committee of Public Safety replaced the larger Committee of
General Defense. On 27 July 1793, the Convention elected Robespierre to the Committee,
although he had not sought the position. The Committee of General Security began to manage
the country's internal police.
Though nominally all members of the committee were equal, Robespierre has often been
regarded as the dominant force and, as such, the de facto dictator of the country. He is also seen
as the driving force behind the Reign of Terror—Louis-Sébastien Mercier called him a
8. "Sanguinocrat"—although, after 1794, other participants may have exaggerated his role to
downplay their own contribution.
As an orator, he praised revolutionary government and argued that the Terror was necessary,
laudable and inevitable. It was Robespierre's belief that the Republic and virtue were of necessity
inseparable. He reasoned that the Republic could only be saved by the virtue of its citizens, and
that the Terror was virtuous because it attempted to maintain the Revolution and the Republic.
Therefore, "Robespierre didn’t see the use of terror as a compromise of virtue, but as the
enforcement of it."[12] For example, in his Report on the Principles of Political Morality, given
on 5 February 1794, Robespierre stated:
If virtue be the spring of a popular government in times of peace, the spring of that government
during a revolution is virtue combined with terror: virtue, without which terror is destructive;
terror, without which virtue is impotent. Terror is only justice prompt, severe and inflexible; it is
then an emanation of virtue; it is less a distinct principle than a natural consequence of the
general principle of democracy, applied to the most pressing wants of the country ... The
government in a revolution is the despotism of liberty against tyranny.[13]
Robespierre’s popularity and appeal to the community came out mostly in the way that he spoke.
His speeches were exceptional, and he had the power to change the views of almost any
audience. (This is one of the reasons why he became such a strong force in the Terror.) His
speaking techniques included talk of virtue and morals, and also quite often he had a few
rhetorical questions in his speeches in order to identify with the audience. He would also
gesticulate and use ideas and personal experiences in life to keep the listeners’ attention. And his
final method was to state that he was always prepared to die in order to save the Revolution.
(Ironically, his death would be an end to the Revolution.)[14]
Robespierre believed that the Terror was a time of discovering and revealing the enemy within
Paris, within France, the enemy that hid in the safety of apparent patriotism.[10] Because he
believed that the Revolution was still in progress, and in danger of being sabotaged, he made
every attempt to instill in the populace and Convention the urgency of carrying out the Terror. In
his Report and others, he brought tales and fears of traitors, monarchists, and saboteurs
throughout the Republic and also the Convention itself.
Robespierre expanded the traditional list of the Revolution's enemies to include moderates and
"false revolutionaries". In Robespierre's understanding, these were not only ignorant of the
dangers facing the Republic, but also in many cases disguised themselves as active contributors
to the Revolution, who simply repeated the work of others, or even impeded the progress of the
patriots. Anyone not in step with the decrees of Robespierre's committee is said to have been
eventually purged from the Convention, and thoroughly hunted in the general population. While
it is debated whether Robespierre targeted moderates to accelerate his own agenda, or out of
legitimate concern for France, it is known that his policy led to the execution of many of the
Revolution's original and staunchest advocates.
Robespierre saw no room for mercy in his Terror, stating that "slowness of judgments is equal to
impunity" and "uncertainty of punishment encourages all the guilty". Throughout his Report on
9. the Principles of Political Morality, Robespierre assailed any stalling of action in defense of the
Republic. In his thinking, there was not enough that could be done fast enough in defence against
enemies at home and abroad. A staunch believer in the teachings of Rousseau, Robespierre
believed that it was his duty as a public servant to push the Revolution forward, and that the only
rational way to do that was to defend it on all fronts. The Report did not merely call for blood but
also expounded many of the original ideas of the 1789 Revolution, such as political equality,
suffrage, and abolition of privileges. Despite executing a good number of his fellow
revolutionaries, Robespierre was still one of them in his theory, even if his practice was
questionable.
In the winter of 1793–1794, a majority of the Committee decided that the Hébertist party would
have to perish or its opposition within the Committee would overshadow the other factions due
to its influence in the Commune of Paris. Robespierre also had personal reasons for disliking the
Hébertists for their "atheism" and "bloodthirstiness", which he associated with the old
aristocracy.[9]
"On the 4th of February 1794 under the leadership of Maxmilien Robespierre, the French Convention voted for
the abolition of slavery. The Jacobins had established the idea of liberty, but it was a conception which
favoured the emergent bourgeoisie, and it was this idea of liberty signifying the freedom to trade which took
precedence over the ideas of equality and fraternity. It was this corruption of the French revolution by a
rapacious cabal of the French bourgeoisie that Robespierre fought so fanatically against. In fact, during the
Reign of Terror, Robespierre had huge support among the poor of Paris and he is still revered by the poor of
Haiti today."
— Centre for Research on Globalization[15]
In early 1794, he broke with Danton who had more moderate views on the Terror and had
Camille Desmoulins protest against it in the third issue of Le Vieux Cordelier. Robespierre
considered an end of the Terror as meaning the loss of political power he hoped to use to create
the Republic of Virtue. Subsequently, he joined in attacks on the Dantonists and the Hébertists.[5]
Robespierre charged his opponents with complicity with foreign powers.
From 13 February to 13 March 1794, Robespierre withdrew from active business on the
Committee due to illness. On 15 March, he reappeared in the Convention. Hébert and nineteen of
his followers were arrested on 19 March and guillotined on 24 March. Danton, Desmoulins and
their friends were arrested on 30 March and guillotined on 5 April.
After Danton's execution, Robespierre worked to develop his own policies and hoped that the
Convention would pass whatever measures he might dictate. He used his influence over the
Jacobin Club to dominate the Commune of Paris through his followers. Two of them, Jean-
Baptiste Fleuriot-Lescot and Claude-François de Payan, were elected mayor and procurator of
the Commune respectively. Robespierre tried to influence the army through his follower Louis
de Saint-Just, whom he sent on a mission to the frontier.
In Paris, Robespierre increased the activity of the Terror. To secure his aims, another ally on the
Committee, Georges Couthon, introduced and carried on 10 June the drastic Law of 22 Prairial.
10. Under this law, the Tribunal became a simple court of condemnation without need of witnesses.
The result of this was that until Robespierre's death, 1,285 victims were guillotined in Paris.
[edit] Cult of the Supreme Being
Robespierre's desire for revolutionary change was not limited to the political realm. He sought to
instill a spiritual resurgence in the French nation based on his Deist beliefs. Accordingly, on 7
May 1794, Robespierre had a decree passed by the Convention that established an official
religion, the Cult of the Supreme Being. The notion of the Supreme Being was based on ideas
that Jean-Jacques Rousseau had outlined in The Social Contract. A nationwide "Festival of the
Supreme Being" was held on 8 June (which was also the Christian holiday of Pentecost). The
festivities in Paris were held in the Champ de Mars, which was renamed the Champ de la
Réunion ("Field of Reunion") for that day. This was most likely in honor of the Champ de Mars
Massacre where the Republicans first rallied against the power of the Crown.[16] Robespierre, as
President of the Convention, walked first in the festival procession and delivered a speech in
which he emphasised his concept of a Supreme Being:
Is it not He whose immortal hand, engraving on the heart of man the code of justice and equality,
has written there the death sentence of tyrants? Is it not He who, from the beginning of time,
decreed for all the ages and for all peoples liberty, good faith, and justice? He did not create
kings to devour the human race. He did not create priests to harness us, like vile animals, to the
chariots of kings and to give to the world examples of baseness, pride, perfidy, avarice,
debauchery and falsehood. He created the universe to proclaim His power. He created men to
help each other, to love each other mutually, and to attain to happiness by the way of virtue.[17]
Throughout the "Festival of the Supreme Being", Robespierre was beaming with joy; not even
the negativity of his colleagues could disrupt his delight. He was able to speak of the things
about which he was truly passionate, including Virtue and Nature, typical deist beliefs, and, of
course, his disagreements with atheism. Everything was arranged to the exact specifications that
had been previously set before the ceremony; the ominous and symbolic guillotine had been
moved to the original standing place of the Bastille, all of the people were placed in the
appropriate area designated to them, and everyone was dressed accordingly.[18] Not only was
everything going smoothly, but the Festival was also Robespierre’s first appearance in the public
eye as an actual leader for the people, and also, as President of the Convention to which he had
been elected only four days earlier.[18]
While for some it was an excitement to see him at his finest, many other leaders involved in the
Festival agreed that Robespierre had taken things a bit too far. Multiple sources state that
Robespierre came down the mountain in a way that resembled Moses as the leader of the people,
and one of his colleagues, Jacques-Alexis Thuriot, was heard saying, ―Look at the bugger; it’s
not enough for him to be master, he has to be God.‖ While these words may have been a simple
release of resentment at the time, this same idea would come back in an attempt to remove
Robespierre from his high and lofty position in the very near future.
Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier was not one of Robespierre’s devotees, and was actually
attempting to find something that Robespierre had done wrong. Vadier was on a mission to
11. attack Robespierre and his faith, and was also trying to bring down Robespierre’s political
stature as well. This is when he found Catherine Théot, who was a seventy-eight-year old, self
declared ―prophetess‖ who had, at one point, been imprisoned in the Bastille.[19] By Théot stating
that he was the ―herald of the Last Days, prophet of the New Dawn,‖[20] (because his Festival had
fallen on the Pentecost, which she claimed would be the day revealing a ―divine manifestation‖)
Catherine Théot made it seem as though Robespierre had made these claims himself to her.
Many of her followers were supporters or friends of Robespierre as well, which made it seem as
though he was attempting to create a new religion with himself as its god. While Robespierre had
nothing to do with Catherine Théot or her followers, many assumed that he was on his way to
dictatorship, and it sent a current of fear throughout the Convention, which led to his downfall
the following July.
[edit] Downfall
Main article: Thermidorian Reaction
The execution of Robespierre
On 25 May, only two days after the attempted assassination of Collot d’Herbois, Robespierre’s
life was also in danger as a young woman by the name of Cécile Renault approached him with
two small knives in an attempt to murder him. At this point, the decree of 22 Prairial (also known
as law of 22 Prairial) was introduced to the public without the consultation from the Committee
of General Security, which in turn doubled the number of executions permitted by the
Committee of Public Safety.[21]
This law permitted executions to be carried out even under simple suspicion of citizens thought
to be counter-revolutionaries without extensive trials. When Robespierre allowed this law to be
passed, the people of France began to question him and the Committee because they were
executing people for seemingly meaningless reasons, and also because they had passed a law
without the help of the Committee of General Security. This was part of the beginning of
Robespierre’s downfall.[22]
Reports were coming into Paris about excesses committed by the envoys sent en-mission to the
provinces particularly Jean-Lambert Tallien in Bordeaux and Joseph Fouché in Lyons.
Robespierre had them recalled to Paris to account for their actions and expelled from the
Jacobins club. However they evaded arrest. Fouché spent the evenings moving house to house
with a spurious whispering campaign among members of the Convention warning them that
Robespierre was after them and set about organising a coup d'état.[23]
Robespierre appeared at the Convention on 26 July (8th Thermidor, year II, according to the
Revolutionary calendar), and delivered a two-hour-long speech. He defended himself against
charges of dictatorship and tyranny, and then proceeded to warn of a conspiracy against the
Republic. Robespierre implied that members of the Convention were a part of this conspiracy,
though when pressed he refused to provide any names. The speech however alarmed members
particularly given Fouché's warnings. These members who felt that Robespierre was alluding to
them tried to prevent the speech from being printed, and a bitter debate ensued until Bertrand
12. Barère forced an end to it. Later that evening, Robespierre delivered the same speech again at the
Jacobin Club, where it was very well received.[24]
The next day, Saint-Just began to give a speech in support of Robespierre. However, those who
had seen him working on his speech the night before expected accusations to arise from it. He
only had time to give a small part of his speech before Jean-Lambert Tallien interrupted him.
While the accusations began to pile up, Saint-Just remained uncharacteristically silent.
Robespierre then attempted to secure the tribune to speak but his voice was shouted down.
Robespierre soon found himself at a loss for words after one deputy called for his arrest and
another, Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier, gave a mocking impression of him. When one deputy
realised Robespierre's inability to respond, the man shouted, "The blood of Danton chokes
him!"[25]
The Convention ordered the arrest of Robespierre, his brother Augustin, Couthon, Saint-Just,
François Hanriot and Le Bas. Troops from the Commune, under General Coffinhal, arrived to
free the prisoners and then marched against the Convention itself. The Convention responded by
ordering troops of its own under Barras to be called out. When the Commune's troops heard the
news of this, order began to break down, and Hanriot ordered his remaining troops to withdraw
to the Hôtel de Ville, where Robespierre and his supporters also gathered. The Convention
declared them to be outlaws, meaning that upon verification the fugitives could be executed
within twenty-four hours without a trial. As the night went on, the forces of the Commune
deserted the Hôtel de Ville and, at around two in the morning, those of the Convention under the
command of Barras arrived there. In order to avoid capture, Augustin Robespierre threw himself
out of a window; Couthon was found lying at the bottom of a staircase; Le Bas committed
suicide; another radical jumped out of the window, only to break both of his legs; yet another
shot himself in the head. Robespierre tried to kill himself with a pistol but only managed to
shatter his lower jaw,[26] although some eye-witnesses[27] claimed that Robespierre was shot by
Charles-André Merda.
For the remainder of the night, Robespierre was moved to a table in the room of the Committee
of Public Safety where he awaited execution. He lay on the table bleeding abundantly until a
doctor was brought in to fix up his jaw. Although Robespierre was known for his speeches, the
last words that have been recorded of him saying are, ―Merci, monsieur,‖ to a man that had
kindly given him a handkerchief to sop up some of the blood from his face and his clothing.[28]
Later, Robespierre was held in the same containment chamber where Marie Antoinette, the wife
of King Louis XVI, had been held.
The next day, 28 July 1794, Robespierre was guillotined without trial in the Place de la
Révolution. His brother Augustin, Couthon, Saint-Just, Hanriot and twelve other followers,
among them the cobbler Simon, were also executed. Only Robespierre was guillotined face-
up.[citation needed] When clearing Robespierre's neck the executioner tore off the bandage that was
holding his shattered jaw in place, producing an agonised scream until the fall of the blade
silenced him.[29] Together with those executed with him, he was buried in a common grave at the
newly opened Errancis cemetery (cimetière des Errancis) (March 1794-April 1797)[30] (now the
Place de Goubeaux). Between 1844 and 1859 (probably in 1848), the remains of all those buried
there were moved to the Catacombs of Paris.
13. [edit] Legacy
Maximillien Robespierre remains a controversial figure to this day. Apart from one Metro station
in Paris, there are no memorials or monuments to him in France. He was a bourgeois who
championed the cause of the poor city workers, the sans-culottes.[citation needed] By making himself
their spokesman, he took control of the Revolution in its most radical and bloody phase - the
Jacobin republic. His goal in the Terror was to use the guillotine to create what he called a
'republic of virtue', wherein terror and virtue, his principles, would be imposed. He argued,
"Terror is nothing more than speedy, severe and inflexible justice; it is thus an emanation of
virtue; it is less a principle in itself, than a consequence of the general principle of democracy,
applied to the most pressing needs of the patrie.[31]
In terms of historiography, he has a few defenders, who agree on the use of terror to purify
society. Marxist historian Albert Soboul viewed most of the measures of the Committee for
Public Safety necessary for the defense of the Revolution and mainly regretted the destruction of
the Hébertists and other enragés.
Robespierre’s main ideal was to ensure the virtue and sovereignty of the people. He disapproved
of any acts which could be seen as exposing the nation to counter-revolutionaries and traitors,
and became increasingly fearful of the defeat of the Revolution. He instigated the Terror and the
deaths of his peers as a measure of ensuring a Republic of Virtue; but his ideals went beyond the
needs and wants of the people of France. He became a threat to what he had wanted to ensure
and the result was his downfall.[5]
The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica sums up Robespierre as a bright young theorist but out of his
depth in the matter of experience:
At Paris he wasn't understood till he met with his audience of fellow disciples of Rousseau at the
Jacobin Club. His fanaticism won him supporters; his singularly sweet and sympathetic voice
gained him hearers; and his upright life attracted the admiration of all. As matters approached
nearer and nearer to the terrible crisis, he failed, except in the two instances of the question of
war and of the king's trial, to show himself a statesman, for he had not the liberal views and
practical instincts which made Mirabeau and Danton great men. His admission to the Committee
of Public Safety gave him power, which he hoped to use for the establishment of his favourite
theories, and for the same purpose he acquiesced in and even heightened the horrors of the Reign
of Terror ... Robespierre's private life was always respectable: he was always emphatically a
gentleman and man of culture, and even a little bit of a dandy, scrupulously honest, truthful and
charitable. In his habits and manner of life he was simple and laborious; he was not a man gifted
with flashes of genius, but one who had to think much before he could come to a decision, and
he worked hard all his life.
[edit] Gallery
14. 19th Century engraving of Robespierre.
Robespierre by Boilly Louis Léopold (1761-1845)
The arrest of Robespierre.
The arrest of Robespierre on the night of 9 Thermidor, 27 July 1794 (Jean-Joseph-
François Tassaert)
15. Robespierre and his Followers on their Way to the Scaffold on 28 July 1794.
[edit]