American Muslim women face unique challenges with body image and self-esteem when navigating between their cultural traditions and Western culture in the United States. For some, wearing traditional Islamic dress like the veil can increase feelings of religious piety, community, and protection from objectification, thereby boosting self-esteem. However, others experience stereotyping, microaggressions, and pressure to adopt Western beauty standards when veiling, negatively impacting self-image. Counselors must avoid assumptions, actively listen to each woman's perspective, and help reduce internalization of unattainable ideals while respecting her cultural context.

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Body Image and Self-Esteem in American Muslim Women
The United States’ interest in Muslim culture has increased greatly since the terrorist
attacks of September 11, 2001. Many Americans generalize the entire Islamic population as
radical terrorists, especially if they are wearing the traditional Islamic dress. Muslims wearing
turbans or veils are stopped in airports and stared at on the streets because of fear and
stereotypes. Ali (2006) urged both Americans and Muslims to take the courageous step and face
the stereotypes that have developed due to the attacks. Since the attacks there has been
increasing emphasis on the treatment of women within the Muslim culture. Through books and
popular media Americans have developed the impression that Muslim women are oppressed,
beaten, and assaulted. Muslim women experience a history of oppression and counselors need to
be sensitive to this. There is a devastating history of polygyny, forced marriages, violence, and
even honor killings within the Muslim culture (Yuan, 2005). Many Islamic women do
experience tragedies and come to the United States to escape that life. However, once in the
United States they must deal with the new issue of self-image. Americans are obsessed with
image especially when it comes to women. The media flashes pictures of scantily clad women
every day which can be difficult for people of other cultures. With a growing influence of
Western beauty ideals Eastern cultures are starting to have more body dissatisfaction (Dunkel,
Davidson & Qurashi, 2008). In the Muslim culture the standard of beauty is drastically different
and negotiating this new standard of beauty can be difficult. The negotiation process often
revolves around the veil and their new choice to either continue to wear it or succumb to Western
style of dress. To the American, the veil is a symbol of oppression and Americans urge Muslim
women to take off the traditional dress. It is important to start the conversation of how American

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Muslim women negotiate their self-esteem and body image in a drastically different culture,
especially how the veil affects their negotiation.
The Veil
The veil is much more to the Muslim woman then Americans first perceive. Americans
believe it is a symbol of oppression and some even believe it should be banned. It is imperative
that Americans listen to why Muslim women wear the veil instead of making assumptions. For
this cultural conversation to begin, stereotypes of the veil need to be put aside and the truth
should prevail. First it is important to know there are several different types of veils. There are
veils, or head scarfs, that cover the hair and neck like hijabs or chadors, and then there are those
that cover all but the eyes like the najqab (Cole & Ahmadi, 2003). Some Muslim women also
wear long coats like the jupeh, jilbab, or abaya. (Cole & Ahmadi, 2003; Yuan, 2005). The choice
in dress is typically dependent upon the region the woman is from. The hijab is the most
common word for traditional dress used and is usually what is seen in the United States (Cole &
Ahmadi, 2003). Choice of dress can also be dependent on which Islamic view the woman’s
family comes from: traditionalist, feminist, or progressive (Yuan, 2005). The traditionalist view
believes women should be covered completely because they are inferior, and too tempting, to
men. The feminist view considers the veil as perpetuating the history of oppression and women
should no longer wear it. The progressive view believes the choice to wear the veil should be up
to the individual woman. Clearly, there are many reasons why the American Muslim woman
chooses to veil and counselors should be attentive to these reasons.
Why Veil?

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Many Americans cannot understand why a Muslim woman living in the United States
would still wear the veil. Muslim women urge Americans to listen to why they choose to veil
and understand that, to them, it is not always about oppression but can be about freedom. The
main reason Muslim women in the United States continue to veil is religious beliefs. The Qur’an
commands women to dress modestly and many women feel that includes a veil. Reece (1996)
found that Muslim women in the United States expressed strong feelings of guilt if they did not
veil. This feeling of guilt can lead to more psychological issues, including low self-esteem, than
if the women were to veil. Cole & Ahmadi (2003) also found religion a big part of why women
choose to veil. Many women interviewed said the veil shows they have a “good Muslim
identity” or it expresses their “Muslimness.” Ali (2005) found in younger Muslim women that
they felt the veil to be a religious requirement. The participants cited specific passages in the
Qur’an commanding women to wear the veil. Ali (2005) also found that young Muslim women
are finding it more okay to be Muslim and express their identity. The women feel the United
States is becoming a more multiculturalist country and Muslim’s are becoming socio-politically
involved.
Another reason for veiling that women expressed was the sense of community (Read &
Bartkowski, 2000; Droogsma, 2007; Bartkowki & Read, 2003). The women interviewed said
they were able to “fit in” more with the veil, that they are automatically recognized as being
Muslim and have that common bond with other Muslim women. It was also found that women
that don’t veil need to explain themselves more to the community which could cause self-esteem
issues (Bartkowski & Read, 2003). Another finding as to why women veil in the United States is
feeling more comfortable around the opposite sex. Tolaymat & Moradi (2011) studied the links
between objectification theory and the hijab discovering that when women veiled they felt less

4. BODY IMAGE AND SELF-ESTEEM 4
objectified by the opposite sex. Not only did American Muslim women feel less objectified but
they felt they were able to save their beauty for their husband (Droogsma, 2007). Read and
Bartkowski (2000) also found that women believed they should save their beauty for their
husbands because it is precious gift only for the husband. This view of being precious gave the
women self-esteem because they had something rare that the men so highly desired. According
to these studies, American Muslim women who veil, overall, seem to have an increased self-
esteem because they believe the veil forces the opposite sex to get to know them based on their
intellect and not their looks.
Stereotypes and Microaggressions
American Muslim women not only have to contend with the unrealistic Western standard
of beauty but when they veil they deal with stereotypes and microaggressions every day. These
forms of aversive and inaversive racism can have a huge impact on self-esteem and body image.
Cole and Ahmadi (2003) interviewed young Muslim women on college campuses to see what
their experiences were like wearing the veil and if they continued to veil. All of the women
expressed experiencing some form of oppression through stereotypes and microaggressions
while in college. The women were told by peers, and faculty, that the veil showed women’s
inferiority to men and, because of this, all women are oppressed through the practice of veiling.
The women believed their peers thought the veil was more of a cultural adornment rather than a
religious practice. The women dealt with microaggressions such as walking into a classroom
and having everyone stare or not wanting to sit next to them. Many of the women interviewed
wished people would just talk to them about the veil; they wanted to help people become more
aware of their culture and religion. Some of the women did eventually unveil because of these
experiences with peers and faculty. They felt alienated from society and lacked self-esteem

5. BODY IMAGE AND SELF-ESTEEM 5
because of their treatment. Other women, however, felt that defying those stereotypes and
breaking free gave them empowerment, and in turn self-esteem (Droogsma, 2007). The women
interviewed in this study said they enjoyed shocking people by performing tasks Americans
think Muslim women are banned from doing. The women wished to break stereotypes and when
they did they felt empowered and strong.
Body Image and Self Esteem
Autonomy and Freedom
Many American Muslim women feel when moving to the United States they have
freedom and autonomy which produces high body image and self-esteem. In America they felt
the freedom to express their religion in whatever way they choose. As explained previously,
there are a multitude of reasons as to why American Muslim women continue to veil. Many
Muslims see veiling as an opportunity to express autonomy. This expression can include what
type of veil they choose to wear or even what color. Reece (1996) interviewed a woman from
Saudi Arabia that negotiated her religious beliefs and fitting into American culture through her
dress. Her compromise was to go against the traditional black and wear colorful, embroidered
dressings. She states that this compromise allows her to still do what she believes is a religious
requirement but gives her a feeling of autonomy and higher self-esteem. Many of the women
interviewed felt that staying with traditional Islamic dress, by their own discretion, gave them a
sense of autonomy and even protection from American standards (Reece, 1996). Some
American Muslim women felt that Western dress is a sign of patriarchal domination and it is
freeing to break away from that standard (Droogsma, 2007).

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Other women felt that veiling allowed them to prosper in both the Islamic world and the
American world (Williams & Vashi, 2007; Mule & Barthel, 1992). They expressed that the veil
gave them a feeling of equality and independence. Williams & Vashi (2007) found that the
college-aged women they interviewed thought veiling allowed them to carve out an autonomous
self from an over individualized American culture. The women felt that the hijab allowed them
walk the thin line between two cultures and be seen as they wished—young Americans and good
Muslims. Mule and Barthel (1992) found that the veil was seen as a coping strategy to help
women navigate self-esteem and autonomy. They highlighted the importance in the increasing
opportunities for Muslim women including education and jobs. This sense of accomplishment
and empowerment of the individual self helps to increase American Muslim women’s self-
esteem.
Acculturation and Internalization
Studies of American Muslim women have found that their body image negatively
correlates with the amount of acculturation and internalization of the Western standards of
beauty (Dunkel et al., 2008; Tolaymat & Moradi, 2011; Mussap, 2009). Dunkel et al. (2008)
found that Muslim women wearing non-Western clothing and a head veil were significantly less
likely to feel the pressure to obtain the thin-ideal of beauty. The two other dress categories were
Western dress and non-Western dress without a head veil. The women that fell under these
categories of dress showed more of a desire to achieve the thin ideal and had less body
satisfaction. They attributed much of these findings to the amount of acculturation the Muslim
women have into the American culture. The young women who wore Western style of clothing
were the most susceptible to body image problems. The amount that a Muslim woman has

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acculturated into the Western society could create an internalization of the Western ideal of
beauty.
This internalization of Western ideal of beauty leading to worsened body image was seen
in Tolaymat & Moradi (2011) as well. These researchers measured the hijab’s link to
objectification theory. They defined objectification theory as occurring, “whenever a woman’s
body, body parts, or sexual functions are separated out from her person, reduced to the status of
mere instruments, or regarded as if they were capable of representing her” (Tolaymat & Moradi,
2011, p. 383). They found American Muslim women who wear the hijab are less likely to
experience sexual objectification, which lead to better body image and self-esteem. They found
that the U.S. Muslim women who experienced objectification were more likely to internalize the
Western ideal of beauty. These women that internalized experienced more body surveillance,
body shame, and eating disorder symptoms. Mussap (2009) found similar results but also
connected body image with the Muslim women’s strength of religion. The other studies did not
look at how strength of religion, in general, affected their body image. Mussap (2009) observed
that either being Muslim or non-Muslim didn’t show any significant changes in body image,
meaning being Muslim itself is not detrimental or helpful for the women’s body image.
However, effects were observed with the strength of faith in Islam and body satisfaction. The
researcher found that women with higher faith were less likely to have media influence and
internalize the Western ideal of beauty. It was also observed that Muslim women that continued
to wear traditional Islamic dress had more body satisfaction and less media influence.
The results of these studies might greatly surprise American women, and counselors that
are not culturally competent. Americans have the stereotype that traditional Muslim ways, like
dress, oppress women and in turn negatively affect their body image. However, these studies

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and other ones highlighted throughout show the exact opposite. The American Muslim women
that have the most trouble with body image and self-esteem are those that acculturated more into
American culture and internalized the Western ideal for beauty. These are important factors that
need to be noted for counselors and the American public in general.
Considerations for Counseling
In almost all of the research American Muslim women simply wanted their voice to be
heard and an understanding to be met. By telling them how they should dress or act may
actually be oppressing them more. Droogsma (2007) urged listeners, whether it is counselors or
peers, to have a “double emic approach” in which each viewpoint is heard and respected.
Counselors need to first and foremost step back, put assumptions aside, and hear why these
women choose to veil. Counselors shouldn’t pressure American Muslim women to take off their
veils in assumption that veils are oppressing or causing low body image. Tolaymat & Moradi
(2011) highlight the importance of helping these women reduce their internalization of the
Western ideal of beauty. They also stress that even though the data shows American Muslim
women who wear the hijab may have less body image problems they are not immune. For
American Muslim women that wear the hijab many of their body image issues could also stem
from experiences with peers and family, every case is unique and different.
To be culturally competent with American Muslim women counselors not only have to
consider potential self-esteem and body image problems, but they must consider aspects of
Muslim culture in general. Ali (2006) discusses the importance in knowing Islam is a culture of
shame and group identity. Muslim people are brought up to share things with family members
and not strangers. This culture of group identity may cause clients to seem withdrawn or

9. BODY IMAGE AND SELF-ESTEEM 9
uncooperative. Ali (2006) explains that this culture of honor and shame can have great impact
on the woman. A woman in Islam is supposed to save herself for her husband and be loyal to
him; if she is not she can bring shame onto the family. If a Muslim woman has this ideal
entrenched she may come to a counselor with self-esteem issues stemming from not being a
virgin and not being able to find a husband. In America it is common to have sexual relations
before marriage and if counselors are not culturally competent this important issue may be
underemphasized or overlooked.
In conclusion there are many things a counselor must take into consideration when seeing
an American Muslim woman. Body image and self-esteem issues that American Muslim women
may face can stem from multiple points. Counselors must put aside the assumption that
traditional Islamic dress may affect her self-esteem or body image and listen to why they wear it.
It is also important to make the women aware that the Western ideal of beauty is unattainable
and not to internalize this standard. Counselors must also be sensitive to the Muslim culture of
shame and group identity. A woman may struggle with self-esteem if she feels she has shamed
her family in some way. But most importantly, counselors must listen. American Muslim
women are from a different culture entirely and each case is unique. Counselors must allow
American Muslim women to speak freely and they must provide an ear of understanding, not
stereotyping.

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Brooke Harrison