Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders can involve abnormalities in delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking or speech, grossly abnormal motor behavior, and negative symptoms. Delusions are fixed false beliefs and can include persecutory, referential, grandiose, erotomanic, nihilistic, and somatic delusions. Hallucinations involve perceiving things without external stimuli and are most commonly auditory. Disorganized thinking involves loose associations, tangentiality, and incoherence. Grossly abnormal motor behavior includes catatonia which can involve negativism, stupor, and stereotyped movements. Brief psychotic disorder involves psychotic symptoms for less than 1 month while schizophren

1. Schizophrenia spectrum and
other psychotic disorders
2022

2. Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic
disorders
• Abnormalities in one or more of the following five domains:
1. Delusions,
2. Hallucinations,
3. Disorganized thinking (speech),
4. Grossly disorganized or abnormal motor behavior (including
catatonia),
5. Negative symptoms.

3. Delusions
• Delusions are fixed beliefs that are not amenable to change in light of
conflicting evidence.
• Persecutory delusions (i.e., belief that one is going to be harmed, harassed),
• Referential delusions (i.e., belief that certain gestures, comments,
environmental cues, and so forth are directed at oneself)
• Grandiose delusions (i.e., when an individual believes that he or she has
exceptional abilities, wealth, or fame)
• Erotomanic delusions (i.e., when an individual believes falsely that another
person is in love with him or her)
• Nihilistic delusions involve the conviction that a major catastrophe will occur,
• Somatic delusions focus on preoccupations regarding health and organ
function.

4. Delusions
• Bizarre delusions - thought withdrawal, thought insertion,
delusions of control outside force has removed his or her internal
organs
• Nonbizarre delusion is the belief that one is under surveillance by
the police, despite a lack of convincing evidence.

5. Hallucinations
• Hallucinations are perception-like experiences that occur without
an external stimulus.
• They are vivid and clear, with the full force and impact of normal
perceptions, and not under voluntary control.
• They may occur in any sensory modality
• Auditory hallucinations are the most common in schizophrenia and
related disorders.

6. Disorganized Thinking
formal thought disorder
• Derailment or loose associations - The individual may switch from one
topic to another
• Tangentiality - Answers to questions may be obliquely related or
completely unrelated
• Incoherence or word salad- severely disorganized speech, nearly
incomprehensible and resembles receptive aphasia in its linguistic
disorganization
• Symptom must be severe enough to substantially impair effective
communication.

7. Grossly Disorganized or Abnormal Motor
Behavior
• Childlike "silliness"
• Unpredictable agitation.
Catatonic behavior is a marked decrease in reactivity to the
environment.
• Negativism;
• Stupor and mutism
• Catatonic excitement
• Stereotyped movements, staring, grimacing
• Echoing of speech.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gYwGmWWxY48

8. Catatonia
A. The clinical picture is dominated by three (or more) of the following symptoms:
• 1. Stupor (i.e., no psychomotor activity; not actively relating to environment).
• 2. Catalepsy (i.e., passive induction of a posture held against gravity).
• 3. Waxy flexibility (i.e., slight, even resistance to positioning by examiner).
• 4. Mutism (i.e., no, or very little, verbal response
• 5. Negativism (i.e., opposition or no response to instructions or external stimuli).
• 6. Posturing (i.e., spontaneous and active maintenance of a posture against
gravity).
• 7. Mannerism (i.e., odd, circumstantial caricature of normal actions).
• 8. Stereotypy (i.e., repetitive, abnormally frequent, non-goal-directed
movements).
• 9. Agitation, not influenced by external stimuli.
• 10. Grimacing.
• 11. Echolalia (i.e., mimicking another’s speech).
• 12. Echopraxia (i.e., mimicking another’s movements).

9. Negative Symptoms
• Diminished emotional expression includes reductions in the
expression of emotions in the face, eye contact, intonation of
speech (prosody), and movements of the hand, head, and face that
normally give an emotional emphasis to speech
• Avolition is a decrease in motivated self-initiated purposeful
activities. The individual may sit for long periods of time and show
little interest in participating in work or social activities.

10. Other negative
• Alogia is manifested by diminished speech output.
• Anhedonia is the decreased ability to experience pleasure from
positive stimuli or a degradation in the recollection of pleasure
previously experienced.
• Poverty of content of speech. Although the patient’s replies are long
enough so that speech is adequate in amount, it conveys little
information.

11. Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic
Disorder
• Schizotypal (Personality) Disorder
• Delusional Disorder
• Brief Psychotic Disorder
• Schizophreniform Disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Schizoaffective Disorder
• Substance/Medication-Induced Psychotic Disorder
• Psychotic Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZB28gfSmz1Y

12. Delusional Disorder
• A. The presence of one (or more) delusions with a duration of 1 month or
longer
• B. Criterion A for schizophrenia has never been met
• Hallucinations, if present, are not prominent and are related to the
delusional theme
• C. Apart from the impact of the delusion(s) or its ramifications, functioning
is not markedly impaired, and behavior is not obviously bizarre or odd.

13. Specify whether:
• Erotomaniac type
• Grandiose type
• Jealous type
• Persecutory type
• Somatic type
• With bizarre content

14. Prevalence
• The lifetime prevalence of delusional disorder has been estimated at
around 0.2%
• Most frequent subtype is persecutory delusional disorder
• Jealous type, is more common in males than in females,
• No major gender differences in the overall frequency of delusional
disorder.

15. Differential Diagnosis
• Schizophrenia and schizophreniform disorder
• Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders (obsessive-compulsive
disorder, with absent insight/delusional)
• beliefs specifier
• Depressive and bipolar disorders and schizoaffective disorder

16. Brief Psychotic Disorder
A. Presence of one (or more) of the following symptoms. At least one of these must
be (1), (2), or (3):
1. Delusions
2. Hallucinations
3. Disorganized speech (e.g., frequent derailment or incoherence)
4. Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior
B. Duration of an episode of the disturbance is at least 1 day but less than 1 month,
with eventual full return to premorbid level of functioning.
C. The disturbance is not better explained by other psychotic disorder and is not
attributable to the physiological effects of a substance or another medical condition.

17. Specify if:
• With marked stressor(s)
• Without merited stressor(s)
• With postpartum onset: If onset is during pregnancy or within 4
weeks postpartum
• With catatonia

18. Associated Features Supporting Diagnosis
• Individuals with brief psychotic disorder typically experience
emotional turmoil or overwhelming confusion
• They may have rapid shifts from one intense affect to another
• The level of impairment may be severe, and supervision may be
required
• Increased risk of suicidal behavior, particularly during the acute
episode

19. Prevalence
• In the United States, brief psychotic disorder may account for 9% of
cases of first-onset psychosis.
• Psychotic disturbances that meet Criteria A and C, but not Criterion B,
for brief psychotic disorder (i.e., duration of active symptoms is 1-6
months as opposed to remission within 1 month) are more common
in developing countries than in developed countries
• Brief psychotic disorder is twofold more common in females than in
males.

20. Schizophreniform Disorder
• A. Two (or more) of the following, each present for a significant portion
of time during a 1-month period (or less if successfully treated). At least
one of these must be (1), (2), or (3):
• 1. Delusions.
• 2. Hallucinations.
• 3. Disorganized speech (e.g., frequent derailment or incoherence).
• 4. Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior.
• 5. Negative symptoms (i.e., diminished emotional expression or
avolition).

21. Schizophreniform Disorder
• B. An episode of the disorder lasts at least 1 month but less than 6
months. When the diagnosis must be made without waiting for
recovery, it should be qualified as “provisional.”
• C. Schizoaffective disorder and depressive or bipolar disorder with
psychotic features have been ruled out
• D. The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a
substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical
condition.

22. Development and Course
• The development of schizophreniform disorder is similar to that of
schizophrenia
• About one-third of individuals with an initial diagnosis of schizophreniform
disorder (provisional) recover within the 6-month period and
schizophreniform disorder is their final diagnosis
• The majority of the remaining two-thirds of individuals will eventually
receive a diagnosis of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder.
• Schizophreniform disorder differs in duration from brief psychotic disorder,
which has a duration of less than 1 month.

23. Schizoaffective disorder
• Classified as having schizoaffective disorder, atypical schizophrenia, good-
prognosis schizophrenia, remitting schizophrenia, and cycloid psychosis
• 1970, two sets of data shifted the view of schizoaffective disorder from a
schizophrenic illness to a mood disorder:
1. Lithium
2. 1968 by John Cooper and his colleagues showed that the number of
patients classified as schizophrenic in the United States and in the United
Kingdom resulted from an overemphasis in the United States on the
presence of psychotic symptoms as a diagnostic criterion for
schizophrenia.

24. Schizoaffective disorder
• A. An uninterrupted period of illness during which there is a major
mood episode (major depressive or manic) concurrent with Criterion
A of schizophrenia.
• B. Delusions or hallucinations for 2 or more weeks in the absence of a
major mood episode (depressive or manic) during the lifetime
duration of the illness.
• C. Symptoms that meet criteria for a major mood episode are present
for the majority of the total duration of the active and residual
portions of the illness.
• D. The disturbance is not attributable to the effects of a substance
(e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical condition.

25. Specify if:
The following course specifiers are only to be used after a 1-year
duration of the disorder
• First episode, currently in acute episode or currently in partial
remission or currently in full remission
• Multiple episodes (after a minimum of two episodes) currently in
acute episode currently in partial remission currently in full remission
• Bipolar type
• Depressive type
• With catatonia

26. Epidemiology
• The lifetime prevalence range of 0.5 to 0.8%
• Approximately equal numbers of men and women have the bipolar
subtype and are more than twofold female to male predominance among
individuals with the depressed subtype
• The depressive type of schizoaffective disorder may be more common in
older persons than in younger persons, and the bipolar type may be more
common in young adults than in older adults.
• The age of onset for women is later than that for men, as in schizophrenia.
• Men with schizoaffective disorder are likely to exhibit antisocial behavior
and to have a markedly flat or inappropriate affect.

27. Schizophrenia
https://www.bbrfoundation.org/healthy-minds-tv

28. Emil Kraepelin
Eugen Bleuler
Kurt Schneider

29. Michelle G. Craske et al. 2017

30. Definition
• Schizophrenia is a chronic, debilitating mental disorder characterized by
periods of loss of touch with reality (psychosis);
• Persistent disturbances of thought, behavior, appearance, and speech;
abnormal affect; and social withdrawal.

31. Epidemiology
• Peak age of onset of schizophrenia is 15–25 years for men and 25–35
years for women.
• Schizophrenia occurs equally in men and women, all cultures, and all
ethnic groups studied.

32. The Complexity of Schizophrenia
• No single defining feature
• Multiple characteristic symptoms
• Symptoms from multiple domains
• Emotion
• Personality
• Cognition
• Motor Activity
• Probably a multisystem disorder

33. Schizophrenia
Diagnostic Criteria 295.90 (F20.9)
A. Two (or more) of the following, each present for a significant portion of time during a
1 -month period (or less if successfully treated). At least one of these must be (1 ), (2), or (3):
1. Delusions.
2. Hallucinations.
3. Disorganized speech (e.g., frequent derailment or incoherence).
4. Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior.
5. Negative symptoms (i.e., diminished emotional expression or avolition).
B. For a significant portion of the time since the onset of the disturbance, level of functioning
in one or more major areas, such as work, interpersonal relations, or self-care, is
markedly below the level achieved prior to the onset (or when the onset is in childhood
or adolescence, there is failure to achieve expected level of interpersonal, academic, or
occupational functioning).

34. Schizophrenia
Diagnostic Criteria 295.90 (F20.9)
C. Continuous signs of the disturbance persist for at least 6 months. This 6-month period
must include at least 1 month of symptoms (or less if successfully treated) that meet Criterion
A (i.e., active-phase symptoms) and may include periods of prodromal or residual
symptoms. During these prodromal or residual periods, the signs of the disturbance may
be manifested by only negative symptoms or by two or more symptoms listed in Criterion
A present in an attenuated form (e.g., odd beliefs, unusual perceptual experiences).
D. Schizoaffective disorder and depressive or bipolar disorder with psychotic features
have been ruled out because either 1 ) no major depressive or manic episodes have
occurred concurrently with the active-phase symptoms, or 2) if mood episodes have
occurred during active-phase symptoms, they have been present for a minority of the
total duration of the active and residual periods of the illness.

35. Simplifying the Complexity of
Schizophrenia
• Division of symptoms into two broad groups
• Positive: distortions or exaggerations of normal
functions
• Negative: diminution of normal functions

36. Symptoms of schizophrenia
Positive
• Delusions,
• Hallucinations,
• Agitation,
• Disorganization
• Catatonia
Negative
• Lack o motivation,
• Social withdrawal,
• Flattened affect,
• Poor grooming,
• Poor (i.e., impoverished) speech
content.

37. Positive Symptoms
Symptom
Hallucinations
Delusions
Disorganized Speech
Bizarre Behavior
Function Distorted
Perception
Inferential thinking
Thought/Language
Behavioral monitoring

38. Negative Symptoms
Symptom
Alogia
Affective blunting
Avolition
Anhedonia
Function Diminished
Fluency of
speech/thought
Emotional expression
Volition and drive
Hedonic capacity

39. The Importance of Negative Symptoms
• Impair ability to function in daily life
• Holding a job
• Attending school
• Forming friendships
• Having intimate family relationships

40. Subdivision of Symptoms into Three
Dimensions
Psychotic
Delusions
Hallucinations
Disorganized
Disorganized speech
Disorganized behavior
Inappropriate affect
Negative
Poverty of speech
Avolition
Affective Blunting
Anhedonia

41. DSM-5 Criteria for Schizophrenia: The
Basics
• Characteristic symptoms for one month
• Social/Occupational Dysfunction
• Overall Duration > 6 months
• Not attributable to mood disorder
• Not attributable to substance use or general medical
condition

42. Form of thought
• Circumstantiality
Inclusion of too much detail When asked about her health, the patient
explains everything that she did since getting up that day before getting
to the subject of her health
• Loose associations
Shift of ideas from one subject to another in an unrelated way. The
patient begins to answer a question about her health and then
shifts to a statement about baseball

43. Form of thought
• Neologisms
Inventing new words The patient refers to her doctor as a “medocrat”
• Perseveration
Repeating words or phrases The patient says, “I’m evil, I’m evil, I’m evil”
• Tangentiality
Getting further away from the point as speaking continues. The patient
begins to answer a question about her health and ends up talking about her
sister’s abortion; she never gets back to the subject of her health

44. Thought processes
• Impaired abstraction ability
Problems discerning the essential qualities of objects or relationships.
When asked what brought her to the emergency room, the patient
says, “An ambulance”
• Magical thinking
Belief that thoughts affect the course of events. Knocking on wood to
prevent something bad from happening

45. DSM-5 Dimensions of Psychotic Symptom Severity in Schizophrenia (rated
over the past 7 days as 0 = not present; 1 = equivocal; 2 = present but mild;
3 = present and moderate; or 4 = present and severe)
Hallucinations Severe pressure to respond to auditory
hallucinations (voices) or is very upset by the
voices
Delusions Severe pressure to act upon the delusions
(false beliefs) or is very upset by the false
beliefs
Disorganized speech Speech is almost impossible to follow
Abnormal psychomotor
behavior
Severe abnormal or bizarre motor behavior or
almost constant catatonia (stupor with lack of
coherent speech)
Negative symptoms Severe decrease in facial expressivity,
gestures, or self-initiated behavior

46. Course
• Prodromal signs and symptoms occur prior to the first psychotic
episode and include avoidance of social activities; physical
complaints; and new interest in religion, the occult, or philosophy.
• Active phase, the patient loses touch with reality. Disorders o
perception, thought content, thought processes, and form o thought
occur during an acute psychotic episode.
• Residual phase (time period between psychotic episodes), the patient
is in touch with reality but does not behave normally. This phase is
characterized by negative symptoms.

47. Prognosis
• Schizophrenia usually involves repeated psychotic episodes and a
chronic, downhill course over years.
• Suicide is common in patients with schizophrenia. More than 50%
attempt suicide and 10% of those die in the attempt.

48. Poor Outcome: Predictors
• Prominent negative symptoms
• Early age of onset
• Insidious onset
• Poor premorbid adjustment
• Low educational achievement
• Low parental social class
• Male gender

49. “Good Prognosis Schizophrenia”
• Prominent affective symptoms and family history of
affective disorder
• Acute onset
• Few negative symptoms and few relapses
• Good premorbid function
• Good social support
• Presence of insight
• Female gender
• The patient is older at onset of illness

50. The Genetics of Schizophrenia

51. Etiology
• Genetic factors
• Certain chromosomal markers have been associated with schizophrenia
Other factors
a. The season of birth is related to the occurrence o schizophrenia.
b. No social or environmental factor causes schizophrenia. However, because
patients with schizophrenia tend to drift down the socioeconomic scale as a
result of their social deficits (the “downward drift” hypothesis), they are
often found in lower socioeconomic groups (e.g., homeless people).

52. Schizophrenia
• Lifetime prevalence of 0.6 to 1 .9 percent
• Equally prevalent in men and women
• The peak ages of onset are 1 0 to 25 years for men and 25 to 35 years
for women
• Approximately 3 to 1 0 percent of women with schizophrenia present
with disease onset after age 40 years

53. Mortality rate
• Persons with schizophrenia have a higher mortality rate from
accidents and natural causes than the general population
• Several studies have shown that up to 80 percent of all schizophrenia
patients have significant concurrent medical illnesses
• 50 percent of these conditions may be undiagnosed

54. Infection and Birth Season
• More likely to have been born in the winter and early spring
• Season specific risk factors, such as a virus or a seasonal change in
diet, may be operative.
• Gestational and birth complications, exposure to influenza epidemics,
maternal starvation during pregnancy, rhesus factor incompatibility

55. Substance abuse
• The lifetime prevalence of any drug abuse (other than tobacco) is
often greater than 50%
• Those reporting high levels of cannabis use (more than 50 occasions)
were at six fold increased risk of schizophrenia compared with
nonusers
• ifetime prevalence of alcohol within schizophrenia was 40 percent

56. Psychoanalytic Theories
• Sigmund Freud - Ego disintegration in schizophrenia represents a return to the time
when the ego was not yet developed or had just begun to be established
• Margaret Mahler - distortions in the reciprocal relationship between the infant and the
mother. The child is unable to separate from, and progress beyond, the closeness and
complete dependence that characterize the mother-child relationship in the oral phase
of development. As a result, the person's identity never becomes secure
• "schizophrenogenic mother" - This term designates a mother who is not capable of
drawing a clear boundary between herself and her child. The double-bind concept
• Learning Theories - children who later have schizophrenia learn irrational reactions and
ways of thinking by imitating parents who have their own significant emotional problems

57. Family
• Schisms and Skewed Families - one parent is overly close to a child of
the opposite gender. In the other family type, a skewed relationship
between a child and one parent involves a power struggle between
the parents and the resulting dominance of one parent.
• Pseudomutual and Pseudohostile - Families. As described by Lyman
Wynne, some families suppress emotional expression by consistently
using pseudomutual or pseudohostile verbal communication. In such
families, a unique verbal communication develops, and when a child
leaves home and must relate to other persons, problems may arise.
• Expressed Emotion - Parents or other caregivers may behave with
overt criticism, hostility, and overinvolvement toward a person with
schizophrenia.

58. Brain Abnormalities
• Abnormalities of the frontal lobes, as evidenced by decreased use of
glucose in the frontal lobes on positron emission tomography (PET)
scans
• Lateral and third ventricle enlargement, abnormal cerebral symmetry,
and changes in brain density also may be present.
• Decreased volume of limbic structures (e.g., amygdala, hippocampus)
is also seen.

59. 1% to 3% in the temporal lobe, the frontal lobe, and the parietal lobe. Thompson et al, 2001

60. Loss of brain volume associated with schizophrenia is clearly shown by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans
comparing the size of ventricles (butterfly shaped, fluid-filled spaces in the midbrain) of identical twins, one of whom has
schizophrenia (right). The ventricles of the twin with schizophrenia are larger. This suggests structural brain changes
associated with the illness. Note that such MRI scans cannot be used to diagnose schizophrenia in the general population,
due to normal genetic variation in ventricle size -- many unaffected people have large ventricles.
Source: Daniel Weinberger, M.D. NIMH Clinical Brain Disorders Branch

61. Black et al

62. Neurotransmitter abnormalities
• Schizophrenia Dopamine (↑), serotonin (↑), glutamate (↑ or ↓)

65. Management
• Pharmacologic management traditional antipsychotics (dopamine- 2
[D2]-receptor antagonists) and atypical antipsychotic agents. Long-
acting injectable “depot” forms.
• Psychological management, including individual, family, and group
psychotherapy

66. Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders
• Brief psychotic disorder <1 month
• Schizophreniform disorder 1–6 months
• Schizoaffective disorder
• Schizophrenia at least 6 months
• Delusional disorder
• Delusional disorder in partner of individual with delusional disorder

67. Substance/Medication-Induced Psychotic Disorder
A. Presence of one or both of the following symptoms:
1. Delusions.
2. Hallucinations.
B. There is evidence from the history, physical examination, or
laboratory findings of both
(1)and (2):
1. The symptoms in Criterion A developed during or soon after
substance intoxication or withdrawal or after exposure to a medication.
2. The involved substance/medication is capable of producing the
symptoms in Criterion A.

68. Substance/Medication-Induced psychotic
disorder
• C. The disturbance is not better explained by a psychotic disorder that
is not substance/ medication-induced. Such evidence of an
independent psychotic disorder could include the following: The
symptoms preceded the onset of the substance/medication use; the
symptoms persist for a substantial period of time (e.g., about 1
month) after the cessation of acute withdrawal or severe intoxication
• D. The disturbance does not occur exclusively during the course of a
delirium.

70. Specify if
• With onset during intoxication: If the criteria are met for intoxication
with the substance and the symptoms develop during intoxication.
• With onset during withdrawal: If the criteria are met for withdrawal
from the substance and the symptoms develop during, or shortly
after, withdrawal.