This document summarizes a study that assessed the National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) in Ghana and examined sustainability challenges. The study was conducted in the Cape Coast Metropolis. Key findings include:
1) The NHIS has increased access to healthcare by reducing out-of-pocket costs and self-medication, but issues like maintaining membership, timely provider payments, and institutional capacity need attention for long-term sustainability.
2) Interviews were conducted with insured and uninsured individuals, pharmacy operators, and NHIS staff to understand impacts and challenges from multiple perspectives.
3) For the NHIS to be sustainable, membership retention and expansion, consistent provider reimbursements, and strong management capacity are critical issues
Evaluation Of Health Insurance Implementation In NigeriaTarry Asoka
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As public resources to finance health care in Nigeria continue to decline, the country has embraced the concept of health insurance as a source of significant alternative funding. And based on experience gathered from the implementation of the National Health Insurance Scheme, there is strong evidence to suggest that this idea is feasible in Nigeria. However, with a very low coverage rate, the health insurance programme in Nigeria is facing many challenges that have slowed down progress. This presentation reflects on these issues and notes that the current system of health insurance in the country is still useful in securing universal financial access to healthcare for all Nigerians. What is required is to: strengthen already existing structures, modify areas that need adjustments, and facilitate rapid programme uptake especially at the State level through creative engagement with stakeholders.
Federal Ministry Of Health PresentationTransformNG
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MID-TERM REPORT OF ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE DR. GOODLUCK EBELE JONATHANâS ADMINISTRATION PRESENTED BY Prof. C. O. Onyebuchi Chukwu Honourable Minister of Health
Institutional Arrangement for Health Financing Reform at the State LevelHFG Project
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Presented during Day Four of the 2016 Nigeria Health Care Financing Training Workshop. Presented by Dr. Nneka Orji-Achugo. More: https://www.hfgproject.org/hcf-training-nigeria
Day 1 Recap - Nigeria Health Care Financing TrainingHFG Project
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Presented during Day Two of the 2016 Nigeria Health Care Financing Training Workshop. Presented by Dr. Ekpenyong Ekanem. More: https://www.hfgproject.org/hcf-training-nigeria
Evaluation Of Health Insurance Implementation In NigeriaTarry Asoka
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As public resources to finance health care in Nigeria continue to decline, the country has embraced the concept of health insurance as a source of significant alternative funding. And based on experience gathered from the implementation of the National Health Insurance Scheme, there is strong evidence to suggest that this idea is feasible in Nigeria. However, with a very low coverage rate, the health insurance programme in Nigeria is facing many challenges that have slowed down progress. This presentation reflects on these issues and notes that the current system of health insurance in the country is still useful in securing universal financial access to healthcare for all Nigerians. What is required is to: strengthen already existing structures, modify areas that need adjustments, and facilitate rapid programme uptake especially at the State level through creative engagement with stakeholders.
Federal Ministry Of Health PresentationTransformNG
Â
MID-TERM REPORT OF ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE DR. GOODLUCK EBELE JONATHANâS ADMINISTRATION PRESENTED BY Prof. C. O. Onyebuchi Chukwu Honourable Minister of Health
Institutional Arrangement for Health Financing Reform at the State LevelHFG Project
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Presented during Day Four of the 2016 Nigeria Health Care Financing Training Workshop. Presented by Dr. Nneka Orji-Achugo. More: https://www.hfgproject.org/hcf-training-nigeria
Day 1 Recap - Nigeria Health Care Financing TrainingHFG Project
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Presented during Day Two of the 2016 Nigeria Health Care Financing Training Workshop. Presented by Dr. Ekpenyong Ekanem. More: https://www.hfgproject.org/hcf-training-nigeria
Making Quality Healthcare Affordable to Low Income GroupsIDS
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This is a presentation on the Hygeia Community Health Plan Model that was given to a meeting hosted by Future Health Systems in Abuja in January 2009 www.futurehealthsystems.org.
Presented at âFinancial Protection and Improved Access to Health Care: Peer-to-Peer Learning Workshop Finding Solutions to Common Challengesâ in Accra, Ghana, February 2016. To learn more, visit: https://www.hfgproject.org/ghana-uhc-workshop
Investing in Nigeria with Homestrings: Healthcare project by Crystal ThorpeHomestrings
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Crystal Thorpe (CT) has issued a privately place 2 year note in conjunction with First National Bank to finance the construction of a general hospital in Lagos. This loan is meant to set the stage for new health care services in Nigeria and take advantage of favorable policies and financing incentives. Afreximbank is a project guarantor and is expected to secure bondholders fixed returns 2 years from the date of issue. Target returns are 12% per annum.
Presented at âFinancial Protection and Improved Access to Health Care: Peer-to-Peer Learning Workshop Finding Solutions to Common Challengesâ in Accra, Ghana, February 2016. To learn more, visit: https://www.hfgproject.org/ghana-uhc-workshop
Options for Developing a Collective Payment System and Co-payment Mechanism f...HFG Project
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What follows is a draft proposal submitted by Health Finance & Governance (HFG) to local partners to present policy options for centralized reimbursement and co-payment. In this way, HFG provides much needed technical support to the Ministry of Health and other government agencies in Vietnam. Furthermore, this proposal illustrates the means by which HFG, through the Sustainable Finance Initiative (SFI), is facilitating domestic revenue generation and strengthening public financial management in support of HIV/AIDS treatment and care.
Universal health coverage as a concept was born in 1883 when Germany introduced health coverage for achieving health status of its young population.India, is still attempting to find a way for providing appropriate, affordable and accessible health care to its population.
Community Health Financing as a Pathway to Universal Health Coverage: Synthes...HFG Project
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Community-based health insurance (CBHI) emerged in West Africa the 1990s as a grassroots response among rural and poor communities to fees charged by private and public clinics and hospitals. Three countries â Ghana, Senegal, and Ethiopia â have leveraged CBHI in different ways to expand publicly funded coverage to the informal sector in rural and urban settings. This paper synthesizes the experiences from these three countries to illustrate the role that CBHI can play in UHC.
The health of a people to a very large extent determines their productivity and wealth. The 2010
Population and Housing Census indicates that a significant proportion of the Bunkpurugu-Yunyoo District in
Ghana (over 75%) are living below the poverty line of GH¢228.00 per annum (approximately US $120 per
annum). It then implies that approximately the same proportion or even a little above that might not be able to
access health care under the âcash and carryâ system. Inability to access health care will lead to poor health
status of the residents and thus lower their productivity.
Making Quality Healthcare Affordable to Low Income GroupsIDS
Â
This is a presentation on the Hygeia Community Health Plan Model that was given to a meeting hosted by Future Health Systems in Abuja in January 2009 www.futurehealthsystems.org.
Presented at âFinancial Protection and Improved Access to Health Care: Peer-to-Peer Learning Workshop Finding Solutions to Common Challengesâ in Accra, Ghana, February 2016. To learn more, visit: https://www.hfgproject.org/ghana-uhc-workshop
Investing in Nigeria with Homestrings: Healthcare project by Crystal ThorpeHomestrings
Â
Crystal Thorpe (CT) has issued a privately place 2 year note in conjunction with First National Bank to finance the construction of a general hospital in Lagos. This loan is meant to set the stage for new health care services in Nigeria and take advantage of favorable policies and financing incentives. Afreximbank is a project guarantor and is expected to secure bondholders fixed returns 2 years from the date of issue. Target returns are 12% per annum.
Presented at âFinancial Protection and Improved Access to Health Care: Peer-to-Peer Learning Workshop Finding Solutions to Common Challengesâ in Accra, Ghana, February 2016. To learn more, visit: https://www.hfgproject.org/ghana-uhc-workshop
Options for Developing a Collective Payment System and Co-payment Mechanism f...HFG Project
Â
What follows is a draft proposal submitted by Health Finance & Governance (HFG) to local partners to present policy options for centralized reimbursement and co-payment. In this way, HFG provides much needed technical support to the Ministry of Health and other government agencies in Vietnam. Furthermore, this proposal illustrates the means by which HFG, through the Sustainable Finance Initiative (SFI), is facilitating domestic revenue generation and strengthening public financial management in support of HIV/AIDS treatment and care.
Universal health coverage as a concept was born in 1883 when Germany introduced health coverage for achieving health status of its young population.India, is still attempting to find a way for providing appropriate, affordable and accessible health care to its population.
Community Health Financing as a Pathway to Universal Health Coverage: Synthes...HFG Project
Â
Community-based health insurance (CBHI) emerged in West Africa the 1990s as a grassroots response among rural and poor communities to fees charged by private and public clinics and hospitals. Three countries â Ghana, Senegal, and Ethiopia â have leveraged CBHI in different ways to expand publicly funded coverage to the informal sector in rural and urban settings. This paper synthesizes the experiences from these three countries to illustrate the role that CBHI can play in UHC.
The health of a people to a very large extent determines their productivity and wealth. The 2010
Population and Housing Census indicates that a significant proportion of the Bunkpurugu-Yunyoo District in
Ghana (over 75%) are living below the poverty line of GH¢228.00 per annum (approximately US $120 per
annum). It then implies that approximately the same proportion or even a little above that might not be able to
access health care under the âcash and carryâ system. Inability to access health care will lead to poor health
status of the residents and thus lower their productivity.
Purpose: According to the World Health Organisation, 10% to 15% of the population of every developing country lives with disability. This amounts to about 2.4 - 3.6 million Ghanaians with disability. Since their contribution is
important for the development of the country, this study aimed to assess the financial access to healthcare among persons with disabilities in the Kumasi Metropolis of Ghana.
Methods: A cross-sectional study, involving administration of a semi structured questionnaire, was conducted among persons with all kinds of disabilities (physically challenged, hearing and visually impaired) in the Kumasi
Metropolis. Multi-stage sampling was used to randomly select 255 persons with disabilities from 5 clusters of communities - Oforikrom, Subin, Asewase,
Tafo and Asokwa. Data analysis involved descriptive and analytical statistics at 95% CI using SPSS software version 20.
Results: There were more male than female participants, nearly one-third of them had no formal education and 28.6% were unemployed. The average monthly expenditure on healthcare was GHC 21.46 (USD 6.0) which constituted 9.8% of the respondentsâ income. Factors such as age, gender, disability type, education, employment, and whether or not they stayed with family members had significant bearing on the average monthly expenses on healthcare (p<0.05).><0.05). Although about 63.5% of the respondents used the National Health Insurance Scheme as the regular source of payment for healthcare, 94.1% reported that sources of payment did not cover all their expenses and equipment.
Conclusion: Financial access to healthcare remains a major challenge for persons with disabilities. Measures to finance all healthcare expenses of persons with disabilities are urgently needed to improve their acc ess to healthcare.
A new health and development paradigm post-2015: grounded in human rightsLisa Hallgarten
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Marge Berer, Editor of RHM, presentation at meeting
Divided we stand? Universal health coverage and the unfinished agenda of the health MDGs
Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp February 11th 2014
Prompted by the 20th anniversary of the 1993 World Development Report, a Lancet Commission revisited the case for investment in health and developed a new investment frame work to achieve dramatic health gains by 2035. Our report has four key messages, each accompanied by opportunities for action by national governments of low-income and middle-income countries and by the international community.
Policy Brief: What Steps Are Countries Taking To Implement Pro-Poor Universal...HFG Project
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Universal health coverage (UHC)âensuring that everyone has access to quality, affordable health services when neededâcan be a vehicle for improved equity, health, financial well-being, and economic development. In its 2013 report, Global Health 2035: A World Converging within a Generation, the Commission on Investing in Health made the case that pro-poor pathways towards UHC, which target the poor from the outset, are the most efficient way to achieve both improved health outcomes and increased financial protection (FP). Countries worldwide are now embarking on health system changes to move closer to achieving UHC, often with a clear pro-poor intent.
Much has been written about what steps countries have taken and are currently taking to: (1) set and expand guaranteed services, (2) develop health financing systems to fund guaranteed services and ensure FP, (3) ensure high-quality service availability and delivery, (4) improve governance and management of the health sector, and (5) strengthen other aspects of health systems to move closer to UHC. As background for a meeting on UHC implementation, held at the Rockefeller Foundationâs Bellagio Center, Italy, from 7â9 July 2015, we reviewed this body of literature, and conducted interviews with global UHC implementers and researchers. In this short policy brief, we synthesize the key messages from the literature and interviews.
Poonawalla Fincorp and IndusInd Bank Introduce New Co-Branded Credit Cardnickysharmasucks
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The unveiling of the IndusInd Bank Poonawalla Fincorp eLITE RuPay Platinum Credit Card marks a notable milestone in the Indian financial landscape, showcasing a successful partnership between two leading institutions, Poonawalla Fincorp and IndusInd Bank. This co-branded credit card not only offers users a plethora of benefits but also reflects a commitment to innovation and adaptation. With a focus on providing value-driven and customer-centric solutions, this launch represents more than just a new productâit signifies a step towards redefining the banking experience for millions. Promising convenience, rewards, and a touch of luxury in everyday financial transactions, this collaboration aims to cater to the evolving needs of customers and set new standards in the industry.
If you are looking for a pi coin investor. Then look no further because I have the right one he is a pi vendor (he buy and resell to whales in China). I met him on a crypto conference and ever since I and my friends have sold more than 10k pi coins to him And he bought all and still want more. I will drop his telegram handle below just send him a message.
@Pi_vendor_247
What website can I sell pi coins securely.DOT TECH
Â
Currently there are no website or exchange that allow buying or selling of pi coins..
But you can still easily sell pi coins, by reselling it to exchanges/crypto whales interested in holding thousands of pi coins before the mainnet launch.
Who is a pi merchant?
A pi merchant is someone who buys pi coins from miners and resell to these crypto whales and holders of pi..
This is because pi network is not doing any pre-sale. The only way exchanges can get pi is by buying from miners and pi merchants stands in between the miners and the exchanges.
How can I sell my pi coins?
Selling pi coins is really easy, but first you need to migrate to mainnet wallet before you can do that. I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade with.
Tele-gram.
@Pi_vendor_247
Resume
⢠Real GDP growth slowed down due to problems with access to electricity caused by the destruction of manoeuvrable electricity generation by Russian drones and missiles.
⢠Exports and imports continued growing due to better logistics through the Ukrainian sea corridor and road. Polish farmers and drivers stopped blocking borders at the end of April.
⢠In April, both the Tax and Customs Services over-executed the revenue plan. Moreover, the NBU transferred twice the planned profit to the budget.
⢠The European side approved the Ukraine Plan, which the government adopted to determine indicators for the Ukraine Facility. That approval will allow Ukraine to receive a EUR 1.9 bn loan from the EU in May. At the same time, the EU provided Ukraine with a EUR 1.5 bn loan in April, as the government fulfilled five indicators under the Ukraine Plan.
⢠The USA has finally approved an aid package for Ukraine, which includes USD 7.8 bn of budget support; however, the conditions and timing of the assistance are still unknown.
⢠As in March, annual consumer inflation amounted to 3.2% yoy in April.
⢠At the April monetary policy meeting, the NBU again reduced the key policy rate from 14.5% to 13.5% per annum.
⢠Over the past four weeks, the hryvnia exchange rate has stabilized in the UAH 39-40 per USD range.
how to sell pi coins on Bitmart crypto exchangeDOT TECH
Â
Yes. Pi network coins can be exchanged but not on bitmart exchange. Because pi network is still in the enclosed mainnet. The only way pioneers are able to trade pi coins is by reselling the pi coins to pi verified merchants.
A verified merchant is someone who buys pi network coins and resell it to exchanges looking forward to hold till mainnet launch.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade with.
@Pi_vendor_247
Latino Buying Power - May 2024 Presentation for Latino CaucusDanay Escanaverino
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Unlock the potential of Latino Buying Power with this in-depth SlideShare presentation. Explore how the Latino consumer market is transforming the American economy, driven by their significant buying power, entrepreneurial contributions, and growing influence across various sectors.
**Key Sections Covered:**
1. **Economic Impact:** Understand the profound economic impact of Latino consumers on the U.S. economy. Discover how their increasing purchasing power is fueling growth in key industries and contributing to national economic prosperity.
2. **Buying Power:** Dive into detailed analyses of Latino buying power, including its growth trends, key drivers, and projections for the future. Learn how this influential groupâs spending habits are shaping market dynamics and creating opportunities for businesses.
3. **Entrepreneurial Contributions:** Explore the entrepreneurial spirit within the Latino community. Examine how Latino-owned businesses are thriving and contributing to job creation, innovation, and economic diversification.
4. **Workforce Statistics:** Gain insights into the role of Latino workers in the American labor market. Review statistics on employment rates, occupational distribution, and the economic contributions of Latino professionals across various industries.
5. **Media Consumption:** Understand the media consumption habits of Latino audiences. Discover their preferences for digital platforms, television, radio, and social media. Learn how these consumption patterns are influencing advertising strategies and media content.
6. **Education:** Examine the educational achievements and challenges within the Latino community. Review statistics on enrollment, graduation rates, and fields of study. Understand the implications of education on economic mobility and workforce readiness.
7. **Home Ownership:** Explore trends in Latino home ownership. Understand the factors driving home buying decisions, the challenges faced by Latino homeowners, and the impact of home ownership on community stability and economic growth.
This SlideShare provides valuable insights for marketers, business owners, policymakers, and anyone interested in the economic influence of the Latino community. By understanding the various facets of Latino buying power, you can effectively engage with this dynamic and growing market segment.
Equip yourself with the knowledge to leverage Latino buying power, tap into their entrepreneurial spirit, and connect with their unique cultural and consumer preferences. Drive your business success by embracing the economic potential of Latino consumers.
**Keywords:** Latino buying power, economic impact, entrepreneurial contributions, workforce statistics, media consumption, education, home ownership, Latino market, Hispanic buying power, Latino purchasing power.
NO1 Uk Rohani Baba In Karachi Bangali Baba Karachi Online Amil Baba WorldWide...Amil baba
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Contact with Dawood Bhai Just call on +92322-6382012 and we'll help you. We'll solve all your problems within 12 to 24 hours and with 101% guarantee and with astrology systematic. If you want to take any personal or professional advice then also you can call us on +92322-6382012 , ONLINE LOVE PROBLEM & Other all types of Daily Life Problem's.Then CALL or WHATSAPP us on +92322-6382012 and Get all these problems solutions here by Amil Baba DAWOOD BANGALI
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how to sell pi coins in all Africa Countries.DOT TECH
Â
Yes. You can sell your pi network for other cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, usdt , Ethereum and other currencies And this is done easily with the help from a pi merchant.
What is a pi merchant ?
Since pi is not launched yet in any exchange. The only way you can sell right now is through merchants.
A verified Pi merchant is someone who buys pi network coins from miners and resell them to investors looking forward to hold massive quantities of pi coins before mainnet launch in 2026.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade with.
@Pi_vendor_247
how can i use my minded pi coins I need some funds.DOT TECH
Â
If you are interested in selling your pi coins, i have a verified pi merchant, who buys pi coins and resell them to exchanges looking forward to hold till mainnet launch.
Because the core team has announced that pi network will not be doing any pre-sale. The only way exchanges like huobi, bitmart and hotbit can get pi is by buying from miners.
Now a merchant stands in between these exchanges and the miners. As a link to make transactions smooth. Because right now in the enclosed mainnet you can't sell pi coins your self. You need the help of a merchant,
i will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant below. đ I and my friends has traded more than 3000pi coins with him successfully.
@Pi_vendor_247
Even tho Pi network is not listed on any exchange yet.
Buying/Selling or investing in pi network coins is highly possible through the help of vendors. You can buy from vendors[ buy directly from the pi network miners and resell it]. I will leave the telegram contact of my personal vendor.
@Pi_vendor_247
when will pi network coin be available on crypto exchange.DOT TECH
Â
There is no set date for when Pi coins will enter the market.
However, the developers are working hard to get them released as soon as possible.
Once they are available, users will be able to exchange other cryptocurrencies for Pi coins on designated exchanges.
But for now the only way to sell your pi coins is through verified pi vendor.
Here is the telegram contact of my personal pi vendor
@Pi_vendor_247
Empowering the Unbanked: The Vital Role of NBFCs in Promoting Financial Inclu...Vighnesh Shashtri
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In India, financial inclusion remains a critical challenge, with a significant portion of the population still unbanked. Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) have emerged as key players in bridging this gap by providing financial services to those often overlooked by traditional banking institutions. This article delves into how NBFCs are fostering financial inclusion and empowering the unbanked.
The European Unemployment Puzzle: implications from population agingGRAPE
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We study the link between the evolving age structure of the working population and unemployment. We build a large new Keynesian OLG model with a realistic age structure, labor market frictions, sticky prices, and aggregate shocks. Once calibrated to the European economy, we quantify the extent to which demographic changes over the last three decades have contributed to the decline of the unemployment rate. Our findings yield important implications for the future evolution of unemployment given the anticipated further aging of the working population in Europe. We also quantify the implications for optimal monetary policy: lowering inflation volatility becomes less costly in terms of GDP and unemployment volatility, which hints that optimal monetary policy may be more hawkish in an aging society. Finally, our results also propose a partial reversal of the European-US unemployment puzzle due to the fact that the share of young workers is expected to remain robust in the US.
NO1 Uk Black Magic Specialist Expert In Sahiwal, Okara, Hafizabad, Mandi Bah...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
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#vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore#blackmagicformarriage #aamilbaba #kalajadu #kalailam #taweez #wazifaexpert #jadumantar #vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore #blackmagicforlove #blackmagicformarriage #aamilbaba #kalajadu #kalailam #taweez #wazifaexpert #jadumantar #vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore #Amilbabainuk #amilbabainspain #amilbabaindubai #Amilbabainnorway #amilbabainkrachi #amilbabainlahore #amilbabaingujranwalan #amilbabainislamabad
NO1 Uk Black Magic Specialist Expert In Sahiwal, Okara, Hafizabad, Mandi Bah...
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Prospects and challenges of implementing a sustainable national health insurance scheme the case of the cape coast metropolis, ghana
1. Developing Country Studies
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol.3, No.12, 2013
www.iiste.org
Prospects and Challenges of Implementing a Sustainable National
Health Insurance Scheme: The Case of the Cape Coast
Metropolis, Ghana
Kwabena Koforobour Agyemang (Corresponding author)
Department of Geography and Regional Planning, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Cape Coast,
Cape Coast, Ghana
Tel: 233-24-3351267 E-mail: kagyemang@ucc.edu.gh;
Addae Boateng Adu-Gyamfi
Department of Population and Health, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast,
Ghana; and
Martha Afrakoma
Department of Geography and Regional Planning, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Cape Coast,
Cape Coast, Ghana.
Abstract
Accessibility to health services is a major development problem facing sub-Saharan African countries. The
prevalence of poverty and unemployment is a major hindrance to making health services accessible to the
population especially the poor. Many development theories have been on how to make basic services affordable
and accessible to the poor. The World Development Report 2004 focuses on making services work for the poor.
The government of Ghana introduced nationwide National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) with the aim of
providing health insurance and making health services accessible and affordable to the average Ghanaian. The
âcash and carry systemâ that existed before the introduction of the National Health Insurance Scheme made
health services quite inaccessible to the poor. The âcash and carry systemâ compelled patients to pay for the cost
of health services before they were given the desired medication. The poor resorted to self-medication with its
accompanied complications and problems. The overall objective of the study was to assess the contribution of
the NHIS to health care delivery in the country and examine the sustainability challenges of the scheme. The
study revealed that the NHIS has assisted in increasing Out-Patients-Department (OPD) attendance, reduction of
self medication and made health services more assessable to the poor. It was however, observed that for a
sustainable national health insurance scheme to be achieved, issues such as maintaining and expanding the client
base, regular payment of the services providers and ensuring the requisite institutional capacity should be given
the deserved attention.
Keywords: Affordable, Cape Coast, Ghana, Health Insurance, premium, sustainable
1. Introduction
The relationship between health and living standards has achieved significant importance in recent development
literature. Good health is seen as one of the crucial indicators of well-being. The growing emphasis on health
promotion could be seen from the highlight of health issues in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Goals 4, 5 and 6 specifically touch on health issues. The World Health Organisation [WHO] (2005) explains that
this is in recognition of the pivotal role of health to the global ambition of reducing poverty as well as an
important ingredient in well-being. Health is also seen as a prerequisite for the attainment of the other MDGs
including eradication of poverty, hunger, illiteracy and promotion of gender equality.
Financing health services has been a major challenge to the governments of developing countries. The African
region has appreciated the need for greater public sector contribution to health services financing. The Abuja
Declaration by the heads of state of African countries in 2001 advocated for an allocation of 15 percent of public
sector budget to the health sector. A similar commitment was made by the heads of state in Abuja towards access
to HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria services by 2010 (WHO, 2010).
The World Bank (2013), introduces the idea of Universal Health Coverage (UHC) as very important in achieving
the health development goals of a country. The institution further explains that out-of-pocket expenditures
constitute a major barrier to accessibility of health services. Universal Health Coverage is therefore enhanced in
situations where there is pre-payment and risk pooling. It can be deduced that health insurance is a policy that
encourages pre-payment and risk pooling and the corollary is enhanced Universal Health Coverage (UHC).
140
2. Developing Country Studies
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol.3, No.12, 2013
www.iiste.org
The introduction of National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) by countries in the developing world is expected
to improve upon accessibility of health services to the poor and the general public. It must however be
emphasised that issues related to sustainability of the financing and maintaining of service provision should be
given the deserved attention.
2.
Theoretical/Conceptual Overview
2.1 Health Insurance
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, p.26) defines health insurance as âa
way to distribute the financial risk associated with the variation of individualâs health care expenditure by
pooling lost over time (pre-payment) and over different individuals (pooling)â. Out-of-pocket payment is
distinguished from health insurance on the basis that there is no risk pooling or pre-payment of health care
services. Marcinko (2006) also defined health insurance as âcoverage that provides for the payment of benefits
as a result of sickness or injury. Includes insurance for losses from accident, medical expenses, disability or
accidental death and dismembermentâ.
In an attempt to categorise health insurance schemes, DeNavas, Proctor and Lee (2006, p.20) distinguished
between private and government health insurance plans. The authors defined private health insurance as âa plan
provided through an employer or a union or purchased by an individual from a private companyâ. Similarly,
government health insurance is explained to mean all government based health insurance policies at different
levels of government, military health care, individual state health plans, and insurance for specialised groups
such as the State Childrenâs Health Insurance in the United States.
One form of health insurance that is popular in OECD countries, some Latin American countries, and Egypt and
Senegal in Africa is Social Health Insurance (SHI). There is an element of compulsion in joining the SHI. Some
categories of workers are by law required to be members of the SHI in these countries. The amount of premium
paid is a proportion of the income of the individualâs income (Oxfam, 2008). Although social health insurance
originally developed as work based intervention in the developed world, it has now been extended to cover other
non-working segments of the population in the developing world (Acharya et al, 2013).
National Health Insurance Schemes have lately been popular in a number of developing countries. Kooijman
(1999, p.6) explains National Health Insurance to mean when âstate functions as a single-player intermediary
between health care provider and health care consumerâ.
2.2 Health Insurance and Social Inclusion
The World Development Report (2004) notes that efficient health services contribute to greater self-reliance and
a recipe for social inclusion of the poor (The International Development Bank/World Bank, 2003). An efficient
and affordable insurance scheme will increase accessibility of the poor and the vulnerable to health services. A
study in Kenya revealed that the poor are most often overburdened by out-of-pocket (OOP) health expenditures.
It was further explained that such costs represent a sizeable proportion on income of the poor (German Technical
Cooperation [GTZ], 2010). Health insurance is therefore seen as an avenue for social inclusion of the poor in
health care services.
In Bangladesh, accessibility of health services to the very poor who are under the Grameen Micro Credit scheme
improved appreciably with the introduction of the Micro Health Insurance in the late 1990s. Saddled with the
problem of lack of a functional social insurance scheme to address the needs of the poor in the formal sector and
the governmentâs inability to meet the health care needs and challenges of the poor; the Micro Health Insurance
scheme is seen as a great relief to the very poor. It has afforded the poor under the Grameen Micro Credit scheme
the opportunity to be included in the provision orthodox health services (Hamid, Roberts, & Mosley, 2010).
In discussing the role of health insurance in providing social inclusion, attention could be
focused on the role
of health insurance schemes in reducing the vulnerability of the poor against sudden illness of members of the
household. With health insurance the poor is guaranteed access to affordable health services. The assurance of
health services in the event of sickness in itself is a guarantee of social security and a reduction of the
vulnerability context of the poor. In the explanation of the vulnerability context, Department for International
Development [DFID] (1999) explains that peopleâs livelihoods and assets are affected by trends, seasonality and
shocks. Human health shock is identified as one of the shocks that affect the vulnerability context. Health
insurance is hence, an avenue for protection of the poor against shocks and for ensuring social inclusion.
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2.3 Health Insurance in Developing Countries
Health insurance has in recent times been very popular in some developing countries. This could be attributed to
the overarching need to pull resources together for pre-payment of health services and for risk pooling. In the
British Virgin Islands, the NHIS is managed by the Social Security Board (SSB). As part of the health reforms of
the country, the government also embarked upon infrastructural development, particularly a conscious effort to
upgrade community health clinics and the construction of new hospitals. Premiums paid by the beneficiaries of
the NHIS are based on ability to pay and not on the health status of the individual. The Social Security Board
allocates a portion of the contribution of members of the scheme to a special fund, reserved to supplement
premiums paid by contributors of the NHIS. What is interesting about the NHIS in the British Virgin Islands is
the establishment of Medical Review Committee (MRC) with the responsibility of setting out the modalities and
processes for approving bills from health care of members generated from abroad. In effect, there is an insurance
cover for beneficiaries of the NHIS travelling outside the country (HUE, Centre for Health Economics of the
University of West Indies, 2012).
A number of public health insurance schemes have been introduced in India. The International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank (2012) identified one central government sponsored and five
state insurance schemes in 2010. The objective of the government sponsored schemes in India is to provide
financial support against catastrophic health shocks which are determined in terms of the in-patient stay. The
schemes are fully subsidised, mass coverage in nature, and are targeted towards the poor (International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 2012). In an effort to classify health insurance schemes in
India, Vellakkal (2007) identified three main categories. Public (Social) Health Insurance Schemes are mainly for
the salaried class in the formal sectors of the economy. The second category, Micro Health Insurance (MHI)
Schemes, targets the under-privileged and socially excluded in the society, operating under the basis of the nonfor-profit principle. The third category, Private Health Insurance (PHI) Schemes, is often operated by insurance
companies and it is open to all with enrolment into the scheme not restricted by legislation.
Columbia operates a dual system of health insurance. One is a contributory monthly regime that targets workers
with monthly income levels of US$170 or above and a government subsidised health insurance scheme for the
poor. In Ethiopia, a pilot community health insurance scheme by a Dutch Non-Governmental Organisation
(NGO) charges US $0.60 per month. It has been analysed that although this amount may seem very minimal, if
universal coverage of the scheme is assumed in Ethiopia, it will generate about 631 million Birr (equivalent to
US $75million) per annum from the countryâs 1.57 million urban households and the 9.5 million rural
households (International Food Policy Research Institute [IFPRI], 2007). This provides the basis to argue that in
situations where people make little meaningful contribution to health insurance, the benefits are quite broad and
sustainable.
Some researchers have observed that a number of countries operating national health insurance in low-income
and the developing world face a number challenges. The International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development/The World Bank (2007; p.3,4) identified three major challenges
that are associated with
health care including: collection of revenue, financial risk management, and spending of resources on service
providers. Other challenges identified were weak institutional capacity for effective management, ineffective or
unenforced regulatory mechanisms, rigid administrative procedures, and entrenched customs and practices that
are difficult to change.
2.4 Historical Context of Health Care in Ghana
Ghana enjoyed improved health conditions during the early post independence era. Appreciable improvement
was achieved in fighting communicable diseases such as measles, poloimylitis and diphtheria, and infant
mortality. The progress made could be attributed to the adoption of science and technology and improvement in
medicine (Ministry of Health, 2007). In the 1970s and 1980s, Ghanaâs economy witnessed deterioration which
affected gains in health indicators and infrastructure and services negatively. To overcome the challenges that
were associated with health delivery in the country, the government of Ghana introduced the cash-and-carry
system of financing health services delivery in the country.
The cash-andâcarry system that was introduced in the 1980s as part of Ghanaâs structural reforms compelled
patients to make up-front out-of-pocket payment for health services. Oppong (2001; cited in Mensah et al, 2010)
explains that the cashâand-carry system compromised accessibility to health services. It resulted in low-income
households in the country postponing attendance to medical facilities for treatment. Self medication, traditional
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medicine and faith healers became popular although such services were quite unregulated.
Ghana passed the National Health Insurance Act in 2003, paving way for establishment district-wide Mutual
Health Organisations (MHOs) or district-wide insurance schemes. Enrolment of an individual with a MHO
became the most important determinant of affordability and accessibility of health services. It also curtailed the
tendency for an individual to be detained in a hospital for non-payment of medical bills. To help finance the
National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) the government introduced the National Health Insurance levy on
specified goods and services (Sulzbach, Garshong & Owusu-Banahene, 2005). The government also channelled
2.5 percent of the 17.5 percent social security contribution of formal sector employees to support the NHIS. With
this arrangement, the NHIS automatically covered the formal sector employees and their dependents. The
informal sector was categorised based on income status and premiums charged to reflect income levels
(Government of Ghana 2004; cited in Sulzbach et al, 2005).
3.0 Study Area, Data and Methods
The study area, Cape Coast Metropolis, is the capital of Central Region in Ghana and located at the southern
portion of the country. It shares boundary with the Gulf of Guinea to the south; Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abirem
Municipality to the west; Abura-Asebu-Kwamankese District to the east; and Twifo-Hemang-Lower Denkyira to
the north (Ref. Figure 1). It is the smallest metropolis in the country (Ghana Districts, 2013). According to
Ghana Statistical Service, the Metropolis had a population of 169,894 in 2010 with a female percentage ratio
48.7:51.3 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2012).
Cape Coast became a good ground for investigation into the operation of National Health Insurance Scheme
because the city boasts of a fair array of health services. The city has a regional hospital, metropolitan hospital,
health centres, clinics, pharmacies and Community Health Planning and Services (CHIPS) compound. The
health services providing institutions could also be classified into government and private entities. The Central
Region has also been witnessing a reduction in poverty levels. Poverty level in the region reduced from 31.0
percent below the poverty line in 1998/1999 to 9.7 percent below the poverty line in 2005/2006 (NDPC, 2010).
It therefore became important to examine how the NHIS programme has been contributing towards the reduction
of social exclusion by getting all segments of the population access to health services, especially the poor.
Figure 1: Cape Coast Metropolis in Regional and National Context
Source: Department of Geography and Regional Planning, UCC (2011)
The main objective of the study was to assess the sustainability challenges of the National Health Insurance
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Scheme. There was therefore the need to target individuals, scheme managers and services providers. The
research employed both primary and secondary sources of data. Primary data was obtained from 130 individuals
being: 75 insured persons; 25 uninsured persons; 5 pharmaceutical operators; and 5 staff of the Cape Coast
Metropolitan Mutual Health Scheme (Oguaman Mutual Health Insurance Scheme) office. Additionally, 10 health
workers each (nurses and doctors) were interviewed from private and government health institutions (as
indicated in Table 1).
Table 1. Respondents of the Survey
Category
Number of Respondents
Insured Persons
75
Uninsured Persons
25
Pharmaceutical Operators
5
Doctors/Nurses (Government Hospitals)
10
Doctors/ Nurses (Private Hospitals)
10
Staff of Cape Coast Mutual Health Insurance
5
TOTAL
130
Source: Field Survey (2011)
Officials from the various institutions were purposively selected based on their level of influence over the
national health insurance programme. The research design was mainly qualitative combined with quantitative
approach. Interview schedule was used in gathering information from the subscribers and non-subscribers who in
most cases had poor reading and writing skills or were not willing to fill a questionnaire. Interview guide and
questionnaire was used in gathering information from officials of the relevant stakeholder institutions who had
the requisite educational level to go through questionnaire administration. Secondary information was obtained
from the review of annual and quarterly reports and other documents mainly from stakeholder institutions.
3.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Analysis of socio-economic characteristics of respondents is restricted to respondents from the general public but
not respondents of the stakeholder institutions. This would assist in distinguishing the socio-economic
characteristics of the insured and the uninsured as well as between different groups and occupations. Forty-seven
(62.7%) of the 75 insured respondents were female while 28 (37.3%) constituted males. Whereas there were 16
(64%) males who responded as uninsured, 9 (36%) women responded as uninsured. This therefore shows a
domination of female insured over their male counterparts in the study. It is also a reflection of studies by
Sapienza, Zingales, and Maestripien (2009) and Booth, Sosa and Nolen (2011) that indicated that women are
generally more risk averse than men. It can be appreciated that women would be prepared to take measures that
will reduce their vulnerability to falling sick without a means of securing health care. With regards to the age
distribution of respondents, majority of the insured were in the age groups; 19 years and below, accounting for
20 (27%), and 20 to 29 years being 25 (33%). The least insured age group was 60 to 69 years (constituting 1
percent) as indicated in Table 2.
Table 2: Age Distribution of Respondents
Age Group
Insured
Uninsured
⤠19
20 (27.0%)
4(16.0 %)
20-29
25 (33.0%)
5(20.0%)
30-39
15 (20.0%)
6(24.0%)
40-49
9 (12.0%)
4(16.0%)
50-59
3 (4.0%)
2 (8.0%)
60-69
1(1.0%)
2(8.0%)
70+
2(3.0%)
2(8.0%)
Total
75 (100)
25 (100%)
Source: Field Survey (2011)
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3.2 General Operations of the Scheme
The daily operations of the Cape Coast Mutual Health Insurance scheme is handled by the management team
which is appointed by the board of trustees. The management team is made up of: the scheme manager, an
accountant, Management Information System (MIS) manager, claims manager, publicity and marketing manager,
and data entry operator. There were other 8 support staff and 13 persons on post-tertiary National Service duty.
The number of registered members of the Cape Coast Mutual Health Insurance scheme stood at 150,903 in May,
2011.
The aged above 70 years, the physically challenged as well as the core poor enjoyed free registration. All others
within the private, the university and informal sector paid between Gh¢ 7.20 (US $3.60) and Gh¢ 48.00 (US
$ 25.30) as annual premium. The contribution by workers from the formal sector was by the outright deduction
of 2.5 percent of their 17.5 percent social security contribution. This was similar to what pertained in the British
Virgin Islands, in the operation of the National Health Insurance System (NHIS). The Social Security Board, the
management institution of the NHIS in the British Virgin Islands, allocates a portion of the contribution of
members of the scheme to a special fund, reserved to supplement premiums paid by contributors of the NHIS
(HUE, Centre for Health Economics of the University of West Indies, 2012).
After a registered member of the scheme has utilised a health care facility, the bill is forwarded to the claims
office for vetting. A bill for claim may be rejected on the account of over-billing or prescription of drugs or
medical treatment outside the approved NHIS drugs list or medical treatment list. Payment is made to the health
care service provider within a period of between one month and three months after the submission of the forms.
3.3 Successes of the NHIS
Successes of the scheme are discussed in relation to the main objective which is to provide accessible and
affordable health care to all segments of the society, including the poor and the vulnerable. When respondents
were asked about whether in their opinion, the introduction of the NHIS has brought improved health care
accessibility to the poor and the vulnerable; the responses were quite encouraging. Forty percent (40%) of the 75
insured respondents very strongly accepted that the NHIS has made health care more accessible with 52 percent
strongly accepting the statement. Only 8 percent did not believe that health care has not been more accessible
with the introduction of the NHIS.
There was the need to compare the perception about accessibility of health facilities with empirical evidence
from some health services providers. Out-Patients-Department (OPD) attendance for both the insured and
uninsured for 2009, 2010 and the first quarter of 2011 was reviewed from two major hospitals (the Central
Regional Hospital and the Cape Coast Metropolitan Hospital).
Table 3: OPD Attendance in Selected Hospitals
YEAR
OPD ATTENDANCE
CENTRAL REGIONAL HOSPITAL
METROPOLITAN HOSPITAL
INSURED
UNINSURED
INSURED
UNINSURED
2009
66,458
40,911
37,062
18,553
2010
76,963
26,395
40,643
14,795
2011 (First Quarter)
17,783
9,160
9,487
3,934
TOTAL
161,204
76,466
87,192
37,282
Source: Field survey (2011)
From Table 3 whereas the OPD attendance for the insured was 66,458, the number of uninsured that attended the
Central Regional Hospital in 2009 was 40,911. Similarly, 37,062 insured persons attended the Metropolitan
Hospital as against 18,553 uninsured persons. The same pattern of results are presented in 2010 and the first
quarter of 2011. This observation is in consonance with the findings of Hamid, Roberts and Mosley (2010) that
the accessibility of health services by the poor under the Grameen Micro Credit scheme in Bangladesh improved
appreciably with the introduction of Micro Health Insurance.
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Figure 2: Level of Satisfaction with Healthcare Services
Source: Field Survey (2011)
Enquiries were also made about the level of satisfaction of health services by the insured persons. From Figure 2,
20 percent were very satisfied with 52 percent satisfied. However, 17 percent responded as not satisfied. In the
main, the confidence in the level of satisfaction with services provision assisted in the increase in use of health
care facilities by the insured.
3.4 Sustainability of the Scheme
The introduction of the NHIS has brought relief to many Ghanaians and reduced self medication and incidence
of quack medical professionals providing services to the very poor who cannot afford services provided by
hospitals and health centres. These challenges were characteristics of the period before the introduction of the
NHIS as noted by Oppong (2001; sited in Mensah et al, 2010). It is therefore crucial to examine the
sustainability challenges of the scheme. Sustainability of the NHIS could be examined with regards to different
elements such as adequate logistics, regular payments of premium, broad membership base, adequate and regular
payment of services providers. Other issues of interest include financial sustainability and institutional capacity
of the scheme to deliver efficient services.
3.5 Premium Affordability
The study sought to investigate whether the premium paid by subscribers was within their means. Whereas 41
percent saw the premium paid as affordable 59 described premium paid as not within their means. This implies
that any increase in premium paid should be weighed carefully as it may have impact on the ability of many
subscribers to renew annual premium payment and hence threaten the sustainability of the scheme.
3.6 Relationship with Service Provider
The ability of service providers to remain with the scheme to provide excellent services to the insured and help
attract the uninsured to join the scheme depends on the relationship between the scheme and service providers.
The service providers recognise that there has been appreciable increase in the number of clients patronising
their respective services because of the NHIS scheme as expressed by one pharmaceutical shop owner:
âthese days most of our drugs are not in stock for more than three months unlike when we had not joined the
scheme where drugs could be in stock for more than six monthsâ.
One cardinal element that service providers consider is the early repayment of services rendered to subscribers of
the scheme. On the average, the minimum duration for the repayment of claims to service providers is six weeks
and twelve weeks as the maximum. However, service providers particularly the private hospitals and
pharmaceutical operators expressed worry about excessive bureaucracy and delay in the repayment of bills
submitted to the scheme secretariat. Linked to this is the rejection of some bills due to reasons such as the bills
not having OPD numbers. When owners of five pharmaceutical shops were asked if they were frustrated by the
delay in the repayment of bills and have intentions to renounce service to the scheme; three (3) responded in the
affirmative. The implication is that the sustainability of the scheme will partly dwell on the ability of the scheme
to pay service providers regularly.
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Figure 3: Challenges of the Scheme
Source : Field Survey (2011)
In examining the sustainability challenges of the scheme, there was the need to enquire from the service
providers whether the challenges could actually be dealt with. Although all the challenges were viewed as
formidable, respondents described some to be more alarming as shown by the responses in Figure 3. The major
challenges identified by the respondents included inadequate human resource (27.7%) delay in reimbursement of
claims (11.5%) and adverse selection (11.5%). Corruption accounted for 17.7 percent which should be an issue
of great concern. Perception of corruption could be very dangerous to instilling trust among the subscribers and
the service providers. Measures that would ensure transparency and effective reporting and accountability should
be encouraged.
4.0 Conclusion and Policy Implications
The paper has highlighted the important contribution of NHIS in the provision of health services to the poor and
hence its contribution to social inclusion. Sustaining the NHIS will be in the interest of all, especially the very
poor. It was also revealed that there are a number sustainability challenges that require attention by the necessary
stakeholders. It could be inferred that the ability of the scheme to continue enjoying the trust of subscribers and
service providers will depend on the capacity of the scheme to deliver. Effort should therefore be made at
promoting the NHIS to get many people to join the scheme in their own long term interest. This will ensure
regular premium payment and enable the scheme to maintain levels of premium charged to make it affordable to
the poor.
Weak institutional capacity is identified by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/the
World Bank (2007) as a major challenge to healthcare financing. It is therefore recommended that organisational
capacity development for the scheme should be given the necessary attention. The recruitment and training as
well as re-training of staff should be given the deserved support. Capacity development in the procurement laws
of the country, accounting and the development of an organisational culture that puts premium on client
satisfaction should be of great concern to the scheme managers and service providers.
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