project_management_notes_based_on_ioe_syllabus.pdf

PULCHOWK CAMPUS
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
LALITPUR, NEPAL
Project Management
OLD is GOLD Guide
Sayoush Subedi 076BCT075
Subas Adhikari 076BCT083

Pulchowk Campus
Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering
Contents
1 Introduction 3
2 Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) 5
3 Portfolio and Project Management Institute’s Framework 8
4 Project Management 13
5 Project and Organizational structure 16
6 Project Management Process Groups 19
7 Project Integration Management 21
8 Project Time Management) 26
9 Project Cost Management) 28
10 Project quality management 29
11 Project Communication Management 33
12 Project Risk Management 41
13 Project Procurement Management 46
14 Developing Custom Processes for IT projects 49
15 Balanced scorecard and ICT project management 53
16 Miscellaneous 55
Project Management Page 2/59

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1 Introduction
1. What is a project? What are the Characteristics of a Project?
A project is defined as a temporary endeavor with a beginning and an end that creates a unique product,
service, or result. Some characteristics of a project are:
(a) Specific Objective: A project clearly defines objectives, the achievement of which determines its
success. Objectives are the deliverables of a project and the end results. Objectives are predetermined,
and outputs are measurable.
(b) Temporary (Life Span): A project is a temporary endeavor with a defined beginning and end. It
passes through various stages, including formulation, planning, design, construction, operation, and
termination.
(c) Non-routine and Non-repetitive: A project is non-routine and non-repetitive in nature.
(d) Constraints: A project operates within constraints of time, cost, and quality.
(e) Uniqueness: No two projects are exactly similar. Each project involves a complex set of activities
that are unique to its scope.
(f) Flexibility: Projects operate in dynamic environments and require flexibility to respond rapidly to
changing circumstances. Risks and changes are inevitable, necessitating adaptability.
(g) Resource Integration: Every project utilizes resources such as personnel, machinery, finances, and
time. Efficient integration of these resources is necessary.
(h) Team Work: Projects involve diversified personnel specialized in various areas. Effective coordi-
nation among team members is crucial, with a project manager leading the team toward achieving
project goals.
(i) Planning and Control: Each project requires an effective planning and control system to ensure
efficient and effective project completion.
(j) Contracting and Subcontracting: Many projects are contract-based, and their complexity often
necessitates contracting and subcontracting. Contracts can take various forms, including lump-sum
contracts, unit price contracts, negotiated cost-plus-fixed-fee contracts, and turnkey contracts.
(k) Beneficiaries: Every project has specific beneficiary communities who are the ultimate users of the
project outputs.
2. What are the triple constraints of Project?
The triple constraints of a project are cost, time, and scope. These are the three factors that determine
the quality and success of a project. They can be explained as:
(a) Cost: The amount of money that is allocated for the project and how it is spent.
(b) Time: The duration of the project and how it is scheduled and managed.
(c) Scope: The objectives and deliverables of the project and how they are defined and controlled.

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Figure 1: Caption
Interrelationships between the constraints:
• If you reduce the cost of the project, you will either reduce its scope or increase its time.
• If you reduce the time of the project, you will either increase its cost or reduce its scope.
• If you increase the scope of the project, you will either increase its cost or time.
3. What makes a project different from operational work?
• A project is a temporary endeavor with a beginning and an end, while operational work is ongoing
and permanent with repetitive output.
• A project has a specific objective and scope that are agreed upon by the project stakeholders, while
operational work aims to earn a profit and keep the system running.
• A project delivers a unique product, service, or result that is different from any other existing outputs,
while operational work produces the same product or service continuously.
• A project involves solving a problem or seizing an opportunity that requires creativity and innovation,
while operational work is repetitive and routine in nature.
• A project is subject to various risks and uncertainties that may affect its performance and outcome,
while operational work is more stable and predictable.
Project Operational Work
Temporary Permanent
Delivers unique output Delivers the same output continuously
Innovative Repetitive
Exists before a product Exists after a product
Transformational Enhances the performance of normal practice
4. What is role of feasibility study? How do you perfrom feasibility study.

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2 Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK)
1. Define PMBOK
PMBOK stands for Project Management Body of Knowledge, which is a collection of processes and
knowledge areas generally accepted as best practice within the project management discipline. PMBOK
recognizes five process groups and nine knowledge areas for every type of project. PMBOK also includes
general management skills, application area knowledge, understanding of the project environment, and
interpersonal skills that are needed by project managers. PMBOK is based on the standards and guidelines
developed by the Project Management Institute (PMI).
2. What are Project Management Knowledge Area
Project management knowledge areas are nine categories of knowledge that are essential for managing
any type of project. They are:
(a) Project Integration Management: The processes and activities to coordinate and unify the
various elements of a project.
(b) Project Scope Management: The processes and activities to define, control, and verify the work
that needs to be done in a project.
(c) Project Time Management: The processes and activities to plan, schedule, and control the timely
completion of a project.
(d) Project Cost Management: The processes and activities to estimate, budget, and control the
costs of a project.
(e) Project Quality Management: The processes and activities to ensure that the project meets the
quality standards and expectations of the stakeholders.
(f) Project Human Resource Management: The processes and activities to acquire, develop, man-
age, and lead the project team.
(g) Project Communications Management: The processes and activities to plan, collect, distribute,
and manage the information and communication among the project stakeholders.
(h) Project Risk Management: The processes and activities to identify, analyze, respond, and monitor
the risks that may affect the project objectives.
(i) Project Procurement Management: The processes and activities to acquire the goods and ser-
vices needed for the project from external sources.
3. What are the five Process Groups
The five process groups are:
(a) Initiating Process Group: The processes and activities to define and authorize a new project or
a new phase of an existing project.

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(b) Planning Process Group: The processes and activities to establish the scope, objectives, and
course of action for the project.
(c) Executing Process Group: The processes and activities to carry out the work defined in the
project management plan and produce the project deliverables.
(d) Monitoring and Controlling Process Group: The processes and activities to track, review, and
regulate the progress and performance of the project, and identify and implement any changes as
needed.
(e) Closing Process Group: The processes and activities to finalize all activities across all process
groups, formally complete the project or phase, and transfer the project outcomes to the appropriate
parties.
4. What are the essential interpersonal and managerial skills?
The essential interpersonal and managerial skills are:
(a) Energized and Initiators: They have fitness, energy, and the ability to work under pressure and
odd conditions.
(b) Communication: They can express ideas in written and oral form with simplicity, clarity, com-
pleteness, and feedback.
(c) Influencing: They can persuade people to do what they would not otherwise do.
(d) Leadership: They can impart vision, gain consensus, establish direction, inspire, motivate, and be
self-assured.
(e) Motivator: They can energize people to achieve a high level of performance and overcome barriers
to change.
(f) Negotiation: They can resolve conflicts, achieve consensus, and understand the best solution to the
problem.
(g) Problem Solver: They can deal with problems, have a problem-solving attitude, and possess prob-
lem analysis know-how.
(h) Perspective Nature: They can look beyond the team and see how the project and team fit into
the organization.
(i) Result Oriented: They do not just complete work for work’s sake but to achieve the project
objectives.
(j) Global Literacies: They can work in a cross-cultural environment and understand cross-cultural
issues.
(k) What are the environment factors influencing an ICT project?
• Internal Environment
– Located within Project

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– Controllable by the Project
– Strengthen or Weakens Project
∗ Project Objectives
∗ Constraints
∗ Structure
∗ Resources
• Task Environment
– Immediately surrounds Project
– Made up of Stakeholders
– Interest and Impacts are Interrelated
– Affect Project Activities
– Project can Influence Task Environment
∗ Client
∗ Contractor
∗ Consultant
∗ Competitors
∗ Suppliers
∗ Government
∗ Labor Unions
∗ Financers
• External Environment
– Broad Forces in Surroundings
– Affects Climate in which Project Operates
– Located Outside the Project
– Influences the Project
– Can’t be Controlled by the Project
– Pre Assessment of External Environment is done through PESTLE Analysis
∗ Political
∗ Economical
∗ Socio-Cultural
∗ Technological
∗ Legal
∗ Environmental

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3 Portfolio and Project Management Institute’s Framework
1. What is PMI. Elaborate PMI Framework
PMI stands for Project Management Institute, which is a global organization that provides standards,
best practices, certifications, and resources for project management. PMI also has a community of practice
for project management office (PMO), which is a group or department that defines and maintains project
management standards within an organization.
Figure 2: Project Management Institute’s (PMI) Framework
(a) Stakeholders’ Needs and Expectations
• Stakeholders can be anyone involved in, interested in, or affected by a project. For example,
end users who provide input to geospatial system design and analysis would be one example of
stakeholders.
(b) Project Management Knowledge Areas
• Core Knowledge Areas
– Scope management
– Time management
– Cost management
– Quality management
• Facilitating Knowledge Areas
– Human resources management
– Communication management
– Risk management
– Procurement management

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• Integrative Knowledge Areas
– Project integration management
(c) Tools and Techniques
• Tools and techniques can help to increase understanding in any of these knowledge areas but
are most vital in the core knowledge areas. Although project management software packages can
facilitate the use of these tools and techniques, the same techniques have long been used with
pencil and paper.
(d) Project Portfolios
• Project portfolios attempt to integrate individual projects into a larger entity that can be aligned
with an organization’s vision and roadmap to success. The process is similar to investment
portfolios that look at all holdings and attempt to achieve a balance between risk and potential
reward.
2. What is Portfolio Management. Also write are it’s benefits.
Portfolio management is the process of selecting and managing a set of projects or programs that align
with the strategic goals and objectives of an organization. Portfolio management helps to optimize the
use of resources, balance the risks and returns, and ensure the alignment of IT with business needs. Some
of the benefits of portfolio management are:
• Better Decision Making: Enables better decision making based on business value and strategic
alignment.
• Improved Visibility: Improves the visibility and transparency of project performance and status.
• Enhanced Governance: Enhances the governance and accountability of project delivery and out-
comes.
• Waste Reduction: Reduces the waste and inefficiency of redundant or low-priority projects.
• Increased Customer Satisfaction: Increases customer satisfaction and loyalty by delivering projects
that meet their expectations.

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3. Portfolio vs Project Management
Portfolio Management Project Management
Selects and manages a set of projects or pro-
grams that align with the strategic goals and
objectives of an organization
Plans, executes, monitors, controls, and closes
a single project
Optimizes the use of resources, balances the
risks and returns, and ensures the alignment
of IT with business needs
Delivers the project scope, schedule, cost,
quality, and benefits within the constraints
and expectations of the stakeholders
Involves business-based decision making based
on the value and impact of each project or
program
Involves technical decision making based on
the requirements and specifications of each
project
Requires a higher level of governance and ac-
countability, as it deals with strategic issues
and multiple dependencies across projects or
programs
Requires a lower level of governance and ac-
countability, as it deals with operational issues
and single dependencies within a project
4. What are the drivers and inhibitors for project and project success.
Drivers of Project Success Inhibitors of Project Success
Top management support Poor communication
Clear goals and objectives Lack of leadership
Client support Unclear expectations
Realistic plan Poor upfront planning
Appropriate resources Inbuilt negative attitude towards IT
Ownership Changing business strategies
Formal methodology Poor top management support
Hardworking, focused staff Conflicts of objectives
Standard and structured ICT support infras-
tructure
Inadequate resources
Effective communication Financial limitations
Experienced Project Manager Lack of historical data
Table 1: Drivers and Inhibitors of Project Success

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5. What are the causes of failure of ICT project.
Some of the causes of failure of ICT project are:
• Improper requirement analysis
• Poor project management
• Lack of executive level support
• No linkage to business strategy
• Wrong team members
• No measures to evaluate project success
• No risk management
• Inability to adapt changes
• Lack of control and visibility
6. What are the Project management practice.
Project Management Practice is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project
activities to meet the project requirements. According to the current web page context, the PMI framework
defines 10 knowledge areas of project management practice, which are:
(a) Project Integration Management: This involves coordinating all the other aspects of the project,
such as scope, time, cost, quality, etc. It also includes developing the project charter, plan, and
direction, as well as monitoring and controlling the project work and changes.
(b) Project Scope Management: This involves defining and managing what is and what is not in-
cluded in the project. It also includes collecting and analyzing the requirements, creating the work
breakdown structure, verifying and controlling the scope.
(c) Project Time Management: This involves estimating, scheduling, and controlling the duration and
sequence of the project activities. It also includes defining and sequencing the activities, estimating
the resources and durations, developing and controlling the schedule.
(d) Project Cost Management: This involves estimating, budgeting, and controlling the costs of the
project. It also includes planning the cost management, estimating the costs, determining the budget,
and controlling the costs.
(e) Project Quality Management: This involves ensuring that the project meets the quality standards
and expectations of the stakeholders. It also includes planning the quality management, performing
quality assurance, and controlling quality.
(f) Project Human Resource Management: This involves acquiring, developing, and managing the
project team. It also includes planning the human resource management, acquiring the project team,
developing and managing the team.

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(g) Project Communication Management: This involves planning, executing, monitoring, and con-
trolling the communication among the project stakeholders. It also includes identifying the stake-
holders, planning the communication management, managing and controlling communications.
(h) Project Risk Management: This involves identifying, analyzing, and responding to the risks that
may affect the project. It also includes planning the risk management, identifying and performing
qualitative and quantitative risk analysis, planning and implementing risk responses, and monitoring
and controlling risks.
(i) Project Procurement Management: This involves acquiring or procuring the products, services,
or results needed from outside the project team. It also includes planning the procurement manage-
ment, conducting procurements, controlling procurements, and closing procurements.
(j) Project Stakeholder Management: This involves identifying and managing the expectations and
interests of the people or groups who are affected by or can influence the project. It also includes
identifying and analyzing stakeholders, planning stakeholder management, managing stakeholder
engagement, and controlling stakeholder engagement.
These are some of the main aspects of project management practice according to PMI.

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4 Project Management
1. Define Project Management
Project management is a term that refers to the process of leading a team to achieve a specific goal
or deliverable within a given timeframe and budget. Project management involves planning, organizing,
executing, monitoring, and controlling the various aspects of a project, such as its scope, quality, resources,
risks, and stakeholders. Project management also requires applying specific knowledge, skills, tools, and
techniques to ensure the project meets its objectives and satisfies the expectations of the people involved.
2. What do you mean by Project Development Life Cycle? Explain describing various parts,
phase, stage & activities of the project development life cycle.
The project development life cycle is a framework that describes the phases and activities involved in
planning, executing, and delivering a project. A project is a temporary endeavor that produces a unique
product, service, or result. The project development life cycle helps to ensure that the project meets its
objectives and satisfies the expectations of the stakeholders.
There are different models of project development life cycles, depending on the nature, scope, and com-
plexity of the project. However, most project development life cycles share some common elements, such
as:
Figure 3: Project Life Cycle
(a) Initiation:
• This is the phase where the project is defined and authorized.
• The project manager and the project sponsor work together to identify the project goals, scope,
deliverables, assumptions, constraints, risks, and stakeholders.
• The project charter is created as a formal document that summarizes the project information
and grants authority to the project manager.

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(b) Planning:
• This is the phase where the project is planned in detail.
• The project manager and the project team develop various plans to guide the project execution
and control.
• Some of the key plans include: scope management plan, schedule management plan, cost man-
agement plan, quality management plan, resource management plan, risk management plan,
communication management plan, procurement management plan, and stakeholder management
plan.
• The project management plan is created as a comprehensive document that integrates all the
subsidiary plans and baselines.
(c) Execution:
• This is the phase where the project deliverables are produced according to the project manage-
ment plan.
• The project manager and the project team perform various tasks to complete the work packages
and achieve the project objectives.
• The project manager also monitors and controls the project performance and quality, manages
changes and issues, communicates with stakeholders, and reports on the project status and
progress.
(d) Closure:
• This is the phase where the project is finalized and closed.
• The project manager and the project team verify that all the project deliverables are completed
and accepted by the customer or sponsor.
• The project manager also conducts a lessons learned session to capture the best practices and
lessons learned from the project.
• The project manager then closes all the contracts, releases all the resources, archives all the
documents, and formally closes the project.
3. What is the role of project management?
The role of project management is to apply knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities
to meet the project requirements. According to the current web page context, some of the roles of project
management are:
• To coordinate all the aspects of the project, such as scope, time, cost, quality, etc.
• To set and maintain standards and policies for the project
• To manage the resources and performance of the project team
• To ensure the satisfaction and expectations of the stakeholders
• To reduce the risk and uncertainty of the project

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• To deliver the project outcomes within the constraints and expectations
4. What are the Role & Responsibilities of key Project members?
The role and responsibilites of key project members are:
(a) Project Sponsor
• Rally Support from Stakeholders & Executive Management for the Team
• Has Power and Authorities to make Decisions & Settle Disputes/Conflicts
• High Involvement during Initiation and Planning
• Possible Candidates:
– Executive Director
– Director Finance
(b) Project Manager
• Overall responsibilities for Project Success
• Keeping Perspective
• Project Planning, Executing & Managing
• Setting & Maintaining Standards & Policies
• Resource Utilization & Performance Management
• Ensuring Win-Win Situation
• Possible Candidates:
– Senior Manager
– General Manager
(c) Project Champion
• Helps focus attention on the project from a technical perspective
• Usually someone with a great deal of technical expertise and industrial knowledge
• Possible Candidate:
– Manager Technical
– CTO (Chief Technical Officer)
– Technical Lead
(d) Functional Manager
• Provide all necessary support services to the project, including purchases
• Managing HR and Administration of the performing organization
• In case of IT Projects, Finance Manager performs duties of Functional Manager

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5 Project and Organizational structure
1. Define System View of Project Management
System view of project management is an approach that considers a project as a system that consists
of interacting components that work together to achieve a common goal. A system view of project man-
agement helps project managers to understand how a project relates to the whole organization and its
environment, and to use systems analysis and systems management techniques to plan, execute, monitor,
and control the project. A system view of project management also recognizes that a project is influenced
by various factors, such as complexity, uncertainty, competition, flexibility, and technology, and that these
factors need to be addressed with appropriate tools and techniques.
Benefits of Using a System View
• Helps align project objectives with the strategic goals of the organization.
• Identifies and manages interdependencies and interactions among project components and stakehold-
ers.
• Optimizes resource utilization and minimizes risks and uncertainties.
• Enhances the quality and performance of project deliverables and outcomes.
• Fosters innovation and learning throughout the project life cycle.
2. Explain with 3 parts of the project’s system view of project management.
(a) Systems Philosophy:
• This is the view that things are systems, which are interacting components that work within an
environment to fulfill some purpose.
• Systems philosophy helps to understand how a project relates to the whole organization and its
environment.
(b) Systems Analysis:
• This is the problem-solving approach that involves defining the problem, identifying the alter-
natives, evaluating the alternatives, and choosing the best solution.
• Systems analysis helps to address the needs and requirements of a project with a logical and
analytical method.
(c) Systems Management:
• This is the process of addressing business, technological, and organizational issues before making
changes to systems.
• Systems management helps to identify key stakeholders, manage risks, ensure quality, and opti-
mize the performance of a project.
3 Sphere’s

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Figure 4: 3 sphere’s
3. Define Organizational structure. Explain Matrix Organization
Organizational structure refers to the formal arrangement of roles, responsibilities, communication
pathways, and authority flows within an organization, designed to achieve its goals and objectives while
reflecting its culture, values, and norms through interactions among members and units.
A matrix organization is a type of organizational structure that combines the features of functional
and divisional structures. In a matrix organization, employees report to two or more managers, such as
a functional manager and a project manager. This allows for better coordination and integration of work
across different departments and projects.
Advantages of a Matrix Organization:
• It can improve communication and collaboration among different units and teams.
• It can increase the flexibility and responsiveness of the organization to changing customer needs and
market conditions.
• It can enhance the skills and knowledge of employees by exposing them to different tasks and chal-
lenges.
Disadvantages of a Matrix Organization:
• It can create role ambiguity and conflict for employees who have to deal with multiple managers and
priorities.
• It can increase the complexity and cost of management and coordination.
• It can cause power struggles and political issues among managers who have to share resources and
authority.

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4. Functional vs Matrix Organization
Figure 5: Comparison between Functional vs Matrix Organization

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6 Project Management Process Groups
1. Discuss Project Management Process Group
The Project Management Process Group is a concept that describes how to organize and manage the
activities and tasks involved in a project. According to the Project Management Body of Knowledge
(PMBOK), there are five process groups:
Figure 6: Enter Caption
(a) Initiating:
• Defines a new project or a new phase of an existing project.
• Involves identifying project objectives, stakeholders, scope, and deliverables.
• Develops the project charter and obtains formal approval to start the project.
(b) Planning:
• Establishes the project’s scope and defines the course of action to achieve project objectives.
• Develops the project management plan covering aspects like scope, time, cost, quality, human
resources, communication, risk, and procurement.
• Identifies project activities, dependencies, resources, schedule, budget, quality standards, risks,
and procurement strategies.
(c) Executing:
• Completes the work as specified in the project management plan.
• Involves directing and managing the project work, performing quality assurance, acquiring and
developing the project team, managing communications, conducting procurements, and manag-
ing stakeholder expectations.

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(d) Monitoring and Controlling:
• Tracks, reviews, and regulates the progress and performance of the project.
• Involves monitoring and controlling the project work, validating and controlling the scope, con-
trolling the schedule, controlling the costs, controlling the quality, controlling the risks, controlling
the procurements, and performing integrated change control.
(e) Closing:
• Formally closes the project or a phase.
• Finalizes all activities across all process groups, delivers the final product or service to the
customer or sponsor, releases project resources, obtains formal acceptance of the project or
phase completion, documents the lessons learned, and archives project records.
The Project Management Process Group is a useful framework for understanding and applying the best
practices of project management. By following this framework, project managers can ensure that they
cover all aspects of project management and deliver value to their stakeholders.

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7 Project Integration Management
1. Define Project Integration Management.
Project Integration Management is the process of coordinating all the activities and resources of a project
to ensure that they are aligned with the project objectives and deliverables
2. Define Project Charter.What type of Information should be included while making project
charter?Explain necessary tools & techniques, input and output to develop the project
charter.
A project charter is a document that formally authorizes a project and defines its objectives, scope,
stakeholders, and key roles and responsibilities. It is usually issued by the project sponsor or initiator
and serves as a reference for the project team and other stakeholders throughout the project life cycle. A
project charter should include the following information:
(a) Project purpose or justification
(b) Measurable project objectives and related success criteria
(c) High-level requirements
(d) High-level project description
(e) High-level risks
(f) Summary milestone schedule
(g) Summary budget
(h) Stakeholder list
(i) Project approval requirements (what constitutes success, who decides it, who signs off)
(j) Assigned project manager, responsibility, and authority level
(k) Name and authority of the sponsor or other person(s) authorizing the project charter

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3. Explain necessary tools & techniques, input and output to develop the project charter.
4. Explain Swot Analysis. SWOT Analysis
A SWOT analysis is a technique used to evaluate a company’s competitive position and to develop strategic
planning. SWOT analysis assesses the internal and external factors that may create opportunities or risks
for an organization. SWOT stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats. A SWOT
analysis consists of the following four categories:
• Strengths: These are the internal advantages that an organization has over its competitors, such as
a strong brand, loyal customer base, unique technology, etc.
• Weaknesses: These are the internal disadvantages that an organization faces or the areas where it
needs to improve, such as high costs, low quality, lack of innovation, etc.
• Opportunities: These are the external factors that may create favorable conditions for an organi-
zation to grow or achieve its goals, such as market trends, customer needs, new technologies, etc.
• Threats: These are the external factors that may pose challenges or threats to an organization’s
performance or survival, such as competition, regulation, economic downturn, etc.
A SWOT analysis helps an organization identify its strengths and weaknesses, as well as the opportunities
and threats in its environment. By doing so, it can develop strategies to leverage its strengths, overcome its
weaknesses, exploit its opportunities, and mitigate its threats. A SWOT analysis can be used for various
purposes, such as business planning, product development, marketing, problem-solving, etc.
5. Explain Integrated change control.
Integrated change control is the process of reviewing, approving, and implementing changes to the project
scope, schedule, cost, quality, resources, risks, or other aspects. Integrated change control ensures that
any changes are consistent with the project objectives and aligned with the project management plan.
Integrated change control involves the following steps:
(a) Identify and document the change request: This is the process of capturing the details of a
proposed change, such as the reason, impact, priority, and approval authority.
(b) Evaluate the change request: This is the process of analyzing the benefits and drawbacks of the
change, as well as its feasibility and compatibility with other changes.
(c) Submit the change request to the change control board (CCB): This is the group of stake-
holders who have the authority to approve or reject changes. The CCB reviews the change request
and its evaluation and makes a decision based on predefined criteria and processes.
(d) Communicate the change decision: This is the process of informing the relevant stakeholders of
the outcome of the change request and updating the project documents accordingly.
(e) Implement the approved change: This is the process of executing the change and monitoring its
effects on the project performance and deliverables.

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(f) Update the project baseline: This is the process of adjusting the original scope, schedule, cost,
quality, resources, risks, or other aspects of the project plan to reflect the approved change. The
project baseline serves as a reference point for measuring and controlling future project performance.
6. Explain Project Scope management.
Project scope management is the process of defining, planning, verifying, and controlling the work that
needs to be done to deliver a project successfully.
(a) Scope Planning: Developing a scope management plan that describes how the project scope will
be defined, documented, verified, and controlled
(b) Scope Definition: Creating a detailed project scope statement that describes the project deliver-
ables, requirements, boundaries, assumptions, and constraints.
(c) Create Work Breakdown Structure (WBS): Breaking down the project scope into smaller and
more manageable components called work packages.
(d) Scope Verification: Obtaining formal acceptance of the project deliverables by the stakeholders.
(e) Scope Control: Monitoring and managing changes to the project scope throughout the project life
cycle.
Project scope management is important because it helps to ensure that the project meets the expectations
of the stakeholders and delivers the intended value. Project scope management also helps to avoid scope
creep, which is the uncontrolled addition of features or requirements that can increase the project cost,
time, and risk.
7. Compare Project Scope with Product Scope

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Project scope and product scope are two related but distinct concepts in project management. Project
scope refers to the work that must be done in order to deliver a product, service, or result with the specified
features and functions. Product scope refers to the features and functions that characterize a product,
service, or result. Project scope is measured against the project plan, while product scope is measured
against the product requirements.
Aspect Project Scope Product Scope
Definition Defines what needs to be done Defines what the outcome should be
Components
Includes activities, resources, and deliver-
ables of the project
Includes specifications, characteristics, and
quality standards of the product
Measurement Measured against the project plan
Measured against the product require-
ments
Control
Controlled by the project manager and the
project team
Controlled by the customer and the stake-
holders
Impact of Changes
Changes may affect the cost, time, and
quality of the project
Changes may affect the customer satisfac-
tion and value of the product
Table 2: Comparison of Project Scope and Product Scope
8. Explain Work-Breakdown Structure
• A work-breakdown structure (WBS) is a way of organizing the work involved in a project into smaller
and more manageable components.
• A WBS defines the total scope of the project and helps the project team and stakeholders to have
a common understanding of what products or services will be delivered by the project and what
processes will be used to create them.
• A WBS is usually represented as a hierarchical tree diagram, where each level of the tree represents
a more detailed description of the project work.
• A WBS can be organized by phases, deliverables, or activities.
• A WBS can also include information such as cost, duration, resources, and responsibility for each
work package.
• A work package is a task at the lowest level of the WBS that can be assigned to a single person or
team.

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9. Explain Responsibility Assignment Matrix
A responsibility assignment matrix (RAM) is a tool that shows the roles and responsibilities of different
project team members for each project activity or deliverable. A RAM can help to clarify the expectations
and accountabilities of each team member and avoid confusion or conflicts. A common type of RAM is
the RACI chart, which stands for Responsible, Accountable, Consulted, and Informed.

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8 Project Time Management)
1. Write about importance of activity sequencing and different diagrams
Activity sequencing is the process of identifying and documenting the logical relationships among project
activities1
. It is important because it helps to determine the order of work, the dependencies between
tasks, and the optimal sequence for completing the project. Different diagrams can be used to illustrate
activity sequencing, such as:
• Network diagrams: These are graphical representations of the project activities and their interde-
pendencies. They show the logical flow of work and the critical path of the project. There are two
main types of network diagrams: precedence diagramming method (PDM) and arrow diagramming
method (ADM).
• Gantt charts: These are bar charts that show the start and finish dates of each activity and the
progress of the project. They also show the milestones, which are significant events or deliverables in
the project2
. Gantt charts are useful for communicating the schedule to stakeholders and monitoring
the project status3
.
• Milestone charts: These are similar to Gantt charts, but they only show the milestones and their
expected dates. They are useful for highlighting the major achievements and goals of the project.
2. Write about critical chain scheduling
Critical chain scheduling is a technique that helps you plan and manage projects that depend on the
availability and constraints of resources. It is based on the theory of constraints, which identifies the main
bottleneck or limiting factor that prevents a project from being completed faster. Some features of critical
chain scheduling are:
• It uses network diagrams to show the logical relationships and dependencies between project activities
and resources.
• It adds buffers or contingencies to protect the project from delays and uncertainties caused by resource
conflicts or variability in task durations.
• It monitors the project progress and health by tracking the consumption rate of the buffers rather
than individual task performance to schedule.
• It prioritizes the tasks and resources that are on the critical chain, which is the longest path of
dependent tasks and resources in the network diagram.
Critical chain scheduling aims to reduce project duration and improve resource utilization by eliminating
wasteful practices such as multitasking, student syndrome, Parkinson’s law, and poor integration.
3. Write about Arrow Diagramming Method
Arrow Diagramming Method (ADM) is a technique for showing the logical relationships and sequencing
of project activities. It is also called activity-on-arrow (AOA) network diagram. Some features of ADM
are:

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(a) Activities are represented by arrows that point from the start node to the end node.
(b) Nodes or circles are the starting and ending points of activities. They also show the order and
dependency of activities.
(c) ADM can only show finish-to-start dependencies, which means an activity can only start after its
predecessor activity finishes.
(d) ADM requires the use of dummy activities, which are shown as dashed arrows, to represent logical
relationships that are not obvious or clear. Dummy activities have no duration or resources.
Figure 7: Enter Caption
NUMERICALS

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9 Project Cost Management)
1. Define Earned Value Management
Earned Value Management (EVM) is a method of measuring the performance and progress of a project
by comparing the actual cost and schedule of the work done with the planned cost and schedule. EVM
helps to identify deviations from the baseline and take corrective actions if needed. EVM uses three key
metrics:
• Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled (BCWS): The planned cost of the work to be done in a given
period.
• Budgeted Cost of Work Performed (BCWP): The planned cost of the work that has been completed
in a given period, also called Earned Value (EV).
• Actual Cost of Work Performed (ACWP): The actual cost of the work that has been completed in a
given period.
Using these metrics, EVM can calculate the following indicators:
• Cost Variance (CV): CV = BCWP − ACWP (Shows whether the project is over or under budget).
• Schedule Variance (SV): SV = BCWP − BCWS (Shows whether the project is ahead or behind
schedule).
• Cost Performance Index (CPI): CPI = BCW P
ACW P (Shows how efficiently the project is using its re-
sources).
• Schedule Performance Index (SPI): SPI = BCW P
BCW S (Shows how fast the project is progressing com-
pared to the plan).
NUMERICALS

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10 Project quality management
1. How quality assurance & quality control are implemented in order to deliver a successful
project?
Quality assurance and quality control are two important aspects of project management that aim to ensure
the quality of the project deliverables and processes. According to the current web page context, some
examples of how quality assurance and quality control are implemented in order to deliver a successful
project are:
Quality assurance:
• Developing a quality management plan that defines the quality objectives, standards, criteria, roles,
responsibilities, and procedures for the project.
• Conducting regular quality audits and reviews to evaluate the effectiveness and compliance of the
quality processes and activities.
• Implementing continuous improvement processes to identify and address quality issues and opportu-
nities for enhancement.
Quality control:
• Performing quality tests and measurements on the project deliverables and processes using various
tools and techniques such as checklists, statistical sampling, inspection, etc.
• Comparing the results of the quality tests and measurements with the predefined quality standards
and criteria to identify any deviations or defects.
• Taking corrective actions to fix or prevent any quality problems and documenting the results and
lessons learned.
2. What are the possible steps to improve quality of IT project
Some possible steps to improve the quality of IT projects are:
• Define clear and measurable quality objectives and requirements for the project deliverables and
processes.
• Adopt appropriate quality standards, methodologies, and best practices for the project scope, sched-
ule, cost, and risk management.
• Implement effective quality assurance and quality control activities throughout the project life cycle,
such as planning, auditing, testing, inspecting, measuring, and correcting.
• Use various tools and techniques to perform quality analysis and evaluation, such as checklists,
statistical sampling, parametric modeling, project management software, etc.
• Document and communicate the quality results and lessons learned to the project stakeholders and
team members.

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• Seek feedback and suggestions from the customers, users, and experts to identify and address quality
issues and opportunities for improvement.
3. Explain Quality control.
Quality control is the process of checking and testing the quality of products or services to ensure they
meet the specified standards and requirements. Quality control involves activities such as inspection,
measurement, testing, and corrective actions. Quality control aims to prevent defects, errors, and failures
in the final output. Quality control is part of quality management, which also includes quality planning
and quality assurance. Quality control charts, histograms, Pareto charts, and other statistical tools are
used to monitor and analyze the quality of processes and products.
Figure 8: Quality Control
4. Explain about Total Quality Management.
Total quality management (TQM) is a philosophy and approach to managing an organization that focuses
on continuous improvement of processes, products, and services to meet or exceed customer expectations.
TQM involves the following principles:

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(a) Customer orientation: TQM aims to understand and satisfy the needs and expectations of both
internal and external customers.
(b) Leadership commitment: TQM requires top management to provide clear vision, direction, and sup-
port for quality improvement initiatives.
(c) Employee involvement: TQM encourages the participation and empowerment of all employees in
identifying and solving quality problems.
(d) Process improvement: TQM uses various tools and techniques to analyze, measure, and optimize the
processes that deliver value to customers.
(e) Quality measurement: TQM uses quantitative data and indicators to monitor and evaluate the per-
formance and outcomes of quality efforts.
(f) Continuous learning: TQM fosters a culture of learning from mistakes, best practices, and innovations
to enhance organizational capabilities and competitiveness.
5. Tradeoff between quality and Productivity The tradeoff between quality and productivity is a
common dilemma in many service and manufacturing industries. Quality refers to the degree of excellence
or conformance to specifications of a product or service, while productivity refers to the amount of output
per unit of input. Achieving high quality and high productivity simultaneously can be challenging, as they
often require different strategies and resources.
Some possible tradeoffs between quality and productivity are:
• Investing more time and money in quality improvement activities may reduce the speed and efficiency
of production, leading to lower productivity.

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• Increasing the output or reducing the input of a process may compromise the quality standards or
customer satisfaction, leading to lower quality.
• Focusing on one aspect of quality, such as reliability or functionality, may neglect other aspects, such
as aesthetics or usability, leading to lower overall quality.
• Adopting new technologies or methods to enhance productivity may introduce new risks or errors,
leading to lower quality.
To balance the tradeoff between quality and productivity, managers need to consider the following factors:
• The customer’s expectations and requirements for quality and delivery time.
• The competitive advantage and differentiation of the product or service in the market.
• The cost-benefit analysis of quality improvement and productivity enhancement initiatives.
• The availability and allocation of resources, such as human capital, equipment, materials, and infor-
mation.
• The measurement and evaluation of quality and productivity performance using appropriate indica-
tors and tools.
By using a systematic approach to identify, analyze, prioritize, implement, and monitor the tradeoff
between quality and productivity, managers can optimize the value and efficiency of their processes and
products.

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11 Project Communication Management
1. Why documentation & reporting system is required in a project.
Documentation and reporting system is required in a project for several reasons, such as:
• To provide clear and accurate information about the project’s objectives, scope, schedule, budget,
quality, risks, and deliverables.
• To communicate the project’s progress, status, issues, and changes to the stakeholders and team
members.
• To document the project’s lessons learned, best practices, and improvement opportunities for future
projects.
• To ensure compliance with the project’s standards, policies, and regulations.
• To facilitate the project’s audit, review, and evaluation.
2. Explain Hazard of communication error in project
A communication error in a project is a mistake or misunderstanding that occurs during the exchange of
information between two or more parties involved in a project. Communication errors can have serious
consequences for the quality, scope, schedule, and budget of a project, as well as the satisfaction and trust
of the project stakeholders. Some of the hazards of communication errors in a project are:
Consequences of Communication Errors in a Project:
• Misunderstanding Project Fundamentals: Failure to comprehend project requirements, scope, objec-
tives, or deliverables.
• Stakeholder Discontent: Inability to meet stakeholder expectations and needs effectively.
• Resource Wastage: Expenditure of time, money, and resources on unnecessary or incorrect tasks.
• Team Conflicts: Potential creation of conflicts, confusion, or mistrust within the project team and
with other involved parties.
• Project Disruptions: Missing deadlines, exceeding budget, compromising quality, or heightening risks.
• Reputation Damage: Harm to the reputation, credibility, or satisfaction of the project organization.
Steps to Avoid Communication Errors in a Project:
• Plan and document the communication management process.
• Identify and analyze the communication needs and preferences of the stakeholders.
• Use appropriate communication methods, channels, and tools.
• Ensure clarity, accuracy, timeliness, and completeness of information.
• Provide feedback and confirmation of understanding.
• Monitor and control the communication performance and outcomes.

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• Resolve any communication issues or barriers promptly and effectively.
3. Write about importance of communication management.
Communication management is the process of planning, executing, and monitoring the exchange of infor-
mation among project stakeholders. It is important for the following reasons:
• Clarity of Project Information: Communication management ensures that everyone involved in
the project has a clear understanding of the project goals, scope, requirements, risks, and status.
• Promotion of Collaboration: Effective communication fosters collaboration and teamwork among
project team members and other stakeholders.
• Stakeholder Satisfaction and Trust: Communication management enhances stakeholder satis-
faction and trust by providing timely, accurate, and relevant information.
• Support for Decision Making: It enables effective decision making and problem solving by pro-
viding feedback and input from various sources.
• Change Management and Conflict Resolution: Communication management facilitates change
management and conflict resolution by communicating the rationale and impact of changes and
addressing issues and concerns.
4. Describe Communication Management Plan.
Figure 9: Communication Plan
Communication requirement analysis : The analysis of communication needs in project management
involves assessing the sum of information needs of project stakeholders. Several factors are considered,
including:

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• Consideration of Communication Channels: The number of potential communication channels
or paths serves as an indicator of the complexity of a project’s communication. The total number of
channels can be calculated using the formula:
Total number of channels =
n(n − 1)
2
where n represents the number of stakeholders or individuals involved in the project.
• Information Required to Determine Communication Requirements: To determine commu-
nication requirements effectively, various pieces of information are essential. These include:
– Organizational charts
– Project organization and stakeholders’ responsibility relationships
– Disciplines, departments, and specialties involved in the project
– Logistics and personnel information
– Internal and external information needs
– Stakeholders’ information, including their roles and expectations
– Project scope details
– Project management plans and strategies
Effective analysis of these factors helps project managers and teams establish a communication plan that
meets the needs of stakeholders and ensures the successful execution of the project.
5. Effective Meeting Conduction Process
An effective meeting is one that achieves its purpose and goals in a timely and productive manner. To
conduct an effective meeting, you need to follow some basic steps before, during and after the meeting.
Here are some of the main steps:
• Before the meeting, you should:
– Define the purpose and intended outcome of the meeting.
– Identify and invite the relevant participants.
– Prepare and distribute an agenda and any necessary materials.
– Arrange the logistics and technical support for the meeting.
• During the meeting, you should:
– Start and end on time.
– Review the agenda and ground rules.
– Facilitate the discussion and participation of all attendees.
– Keep track of time and progress.
– Record the key decisions, actions, and responsibilities.

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• After the meeting, you should:
– Send a summary of the meeting and a follow-up plan to all participants.
– Monitor and support the implementation of the agreed actions.
– Evaluate the meeting process and outcomes.
– Plan for the next meeting if needed.
6. Importance of Reporting System
In project management, a reporting system plays a crucial role in collecting, storing, and presenting
project-related information. It serves as a valuable tool for tracking the project’s status, monitoring
progress, evaluating performance, and addressing issues. A well-implemented reporting system benefits
both the project manager and stakeholders by facilitating informed decision-making and enabling timely
corrective actions. Furthermore, it fosters effective communication and collaboration among the project
team and other project participants.
An integrated reporting system offers several advantages that contribute to the success of project man-
agement:
• Time and Resource Savings: Automation of data collection and analysis processes reduces the
effort and resources required for reporting.
• Consistency and Standardization: It provides a consistent and standardized reporting format,
ensuring uniformity across various projects and organizations.
• Enhanced Data Quality: By minimizing errors and inconsistencies, an integrated reporting system
improves the accuracy and reliability of project information.
• Improved Visibility and Transparency: Easy access to relevant and up-to-date information
enhances project visibility and transparency.

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7. Formal vs Informal Communication
Aspect Formal Communication Informal Communication
Communication
Style
Follows established protocols,
procedures, and hierarchy within
the organization.
Typically occurs outside estab-
lished channels and structures.
Medium Uses official documents, reports,
and memos for communication.
Often relies on verbal communi-
cation, such as casual conversa-
tions, meetings, or emails.
Nature Is planned, structured, and doc-
umented.
Tends to be spontaneous and un-
structured.
Content Focuses on project-related mat-
ters, policies, and official up-
dates.
May include personal topics, so-
cial interactions, and unofficial
discussions.
Purpose Generally used for sharing crit-
ical project information, formal
approvals, and official announce-
ments.
Used for building relationships,
informal feedback, and sharing
non-critical information.
Clarity Less room for misinterpretation
due to clear documentation and
adherence to procedures.
More prone to miscommunica-
tion and misinterpretation, as
context may not be clearly de-
fined.
Examples Project progress reports, change
requests, and formal meetings.
Water cooler conversations, chat
groups, and hallway discussions.
Response Time Typically slower in response time
as it follows formal channels.
Offers quicker responses and may
lead to faster problem resolution.
Requirement Often mandatory and ensures
compliance with organizational
policies.
Voluntary and driven by per-
sonal relationships and team dy-
namics.
Table 3: Formal vs. Informal Communication in Project Management

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8. Status Report vs Progress Report
Aspect Status Report Progress Report
Focus Focuses on the current state
of the project, highlighting key
metrics, accomplishments, and
issues.
Provides an overview of the
project’s evolution over a spe-
cific period, emphasizing mile-
stones achieved and future goals.
Frequency Generated at regular intervals
(e.g., weekly or monthly).
Generated periodically (e.g.,
monthly or quarterly).
Content Contains information on bud-
get, schedule adherence, resource
allocation, and overall project
health.
Contains detailed information
about completed tasks, deliver-
ables, and changes to the project
plan.
Time Perspec-
tive
Emphasizes the present, high-
lighting current project status.
Focuses on the past (completed
tasks) and future (upcoming
goals and plans).
Audience Typically shared with project
stakeholders, including senior
management and sponsors.
Has a broader audience, includ-
ing project team members, stake-
holders, and external parties.
Purpose Informs stakeholders about the
project’s health and any devia-
tions from the plan.
Assesses project performance,
tracks progress toward objec-
tives, and adjusts plans based on
past achievements.
Table 4: Status Report vs. Progress Report

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Aspect Communication
Skill
Communication
Management
Definition Refers to an individ-
ual’s ability to convey
information effectively
and receive feedback.
Involves the strategic
planning, execution,
and monitoring of
communication within
an organization or
project.
Focus Focuses on an individ-
ual’s proficiency in ver-
bal, written, and non-
verbal communication.
Concentrates on defin-
ing communication
goals, channels, and
strategies to achieve
project objectives.
Nature Varies from person to
person and may be a
natural talent or devel-
oped skill.
Requires structured
processes and frame-
works to ensure
consistent and orga-
nized communication.
Scope Primarily personal and
behavioral, involving
listening, speaking,
and writing skills.
Concerned with estab-
lishing communication
plans, protocols, and
procedures.
Application Can be applied at both
personal and profes-
sional levels.
Primarily applied at
the organizational or
project management
level.
Table 5: Communication Skill vs. Communication Management
9. Communication plan for ICT project
A communication plan for an ICT project is a document that describes how information will be shared
among the project stakeholders, such as the project team, the client, the sponsor, and the end users. A
communication plan typically includes the following elements:
(a) Communication objectives: The purpose and expected outcomes of the communication activities,
such as informing, persuading, motivating, or resolving conflicts.
(b) Communication methods: The tools and techniques that will be used to deliver the information,
such as emails, reports, meetings, presentations, or social media.
(c) Communication channels: The mediums through which the information will be transmitted, such

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as online platforms, phone calls, face-to-face interactions, or print media.
(d) Communication frequency: The schedule and timing of the communication activities, such as
daily, weekly, monthly, or on-demand.
(e) Communication roles and responsibilities: The identification of who will communicate what to
whom and how, as well as who will provide feedback and approval for the communication products.
(f) Communication risks and issues: The potential challenges and problems that may affect the
communication process, such as language barriers, cultural differences, technical difficulties, or stake-
holder resistance.
(g) Communication metrics and evaluation: The measures and indicators that will be used to assess
the effectiveness and efficiency of the communication activities, such as satisfaction surveys, feedback
forms, or analytics reports.
10. Information Distribution tools and Techniques and it’s necessities
(a) Project Status Reports: Provide updates on progress, risks, and achievements.
(b) Meetings and Presentations: Facilitate direct communication and discussions.
(c) Email Communication: Send updates, notifications, and documents.
(d) Collaboration Software: Enable real-time sharing of project data.
(e) Dashboards and Data Visualization: Display key performance indicators.
(f) Document Repositories: Store project documents for easy access.
(g) Social Media and Intranet: Share news, updates, and engage stakeholders.
(h) Mobile Apps: Provide real-time project updates on mobile devices.
(i) Webinars and Training: Educate stakeholders on project topics.
(j) Surveys and Feedback: Collect stakeholder input for improvement.

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12 Project Risk Management
1. Explain Delphi Technique
The Delphi technique is a method of gathering information from experts and reaching a consensus on a
topic. It is a type of information gathering technique mentioned in the current web page context. According
to the page, the Delphi technique involves the following steps:
(a) A facilitator sends a questionnaire to a panel of experts on a topic.
(b) The experts answer the questionnaire anonymously and independently.
(c) The facilitator collects and summarizes the responses and sends them back to the experts.
(d) The experts review the summary and revise their answers if needed.
(e) The process is repeated until a consensus is reached or a predefined criterion is met.
2. Why is risks response planning important in project.
Risk response planning is important in project management because it helps to:
• Enhance the opportunities and reduce the threats to the project objectives.
• Prepare for the potential risks and their consequences in advance.
• Develop appropriate strategies and actions to deal with the risks.
• Allocate the necessary resources and budget for risk management.
• Improve the project performance and quality by minimizing the negative impacts of risks.
• Increase the confidence and satisfaction of the stakeholders by demonstrating the project’s readiness
for risks.
3. SHORT NOTES
(a) Decision Tree Analysis:
• Decision tree analysis is a tool for evaluating choices and outcomes under uncertainty.
• It uses a tree-like diagram with nodes to represent decisions, events, and their associated prob-
abilities.
• Helps in assessing the best course of action by calculating expected values.
• Useful for complex decision-making in project scenarios with multiple possible paths.
• Supports visual representation of decisions and uncertainties.
• Can aid in optimizing project strategies and resource allocation.
(b) Decision Tree Analysis:
• Decision tree analysis is a decision-making tool that helps evaluate various choices and their
outcomes in uncertain situations.

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• It employs a tree-like diagram with nodes representing decisions, events, and associated proba-
bilities.
• This technique assists in assessing the expected value of different choices and their impact on
project outcomes.
• Decision tree analysis is valuable for complex decision scenarios with multiple variables and
potential paths.
• It aids project managers in making informed choices by quantifying risks and rewards.
• Decision trees are particularly useful when dealing with sequential decisions or scenarios with
significant uncertainty.
(c) Process Risk and Risk Audit:
• Process risk pertains to risks arising from the methods, procedures, or methodologies used in
project execution.
• Risk audit is a process that involves examining and documenting the effectiveness of risk re-
sponses and overall risk management practices.
• Identifying process risks is essential to mitigate potential issues related to project workflows and
methodologies.
• Risk audits assess the adequacy of risk response strategies and their impact on project outcomes.
• These practices help ensure that project processes align with risk management objectives and
contribute to project success.
• Effective risk audits enhance transparency and accountability in risk management.
(d) Qualitative Risk Analysis vs Quantitative Risk Analysis:
• Qualitative risk analysis evaluates risks based on subjective factors, such as impact and likelihood,
without precise numerical values.
• Quantitative risk analysis involves assigning numerical values to assess risks’ probability and
impact on project objectives.
• Qualitative analysis provides a high-level understanding of risks, helping prioritize them for
further analysis.
• Quantitative analysis provides a precise, numeric assessment of risks’ potential consequences and
their likelihood.
• Qualitative analysis is subjective and relies on expert judgment, while quantitative analysis offers
more objective data.
• Both approaches complement each other in comprehensive risk assessment, with qualitative anal-
ysis informing the need for quantitative analysis.
(e) Decision Tree Technique vs Simulation Technique:
• Decision tree technique is a deterministic model that uses single values for variables to calculate
expected outcomes.

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• Simulation technique is probabilistic and employs multiple variable values to generate a range of
possible outcomes and their probabilities.
• Decision tree analysis is simpler and suitable for straightforward decision-making scenarios.
• Simulation modeling is more complex but captures a broader range of potential outcomes and
their associated probabilities.
• Decision trees are effective for discrete decisions with clear alternatives.
• Simulation techniques excel in modeling complex systems and situations with numerous variables
and uncertainty.
(f) Tornado Analysis:
• Tornado analysis is a sensitivity analysis technique used to assess the impact of varying individual
variables on a specific outcome.
• It involves creating a bar chart that visually displays how changes in each variable influence the
outcome.
• Tornado analysis helps identify which variables have the most significant impact on the project
or decision.
• Project managers use tornado analysis to prioritize risk factors and allocate resources effectively.
• By focusing on critical variables, it aids in risk mitigation and decision-making in uncertain
environments.
• Tornado diagrams are particularly useful when limited resources necessitate a focused risk man-
agement approach.
(g) Risk Register:
• A risk register is a structured document that contains information about identified risks in a
project.
• It includes details such as risk descriptions, potential consequences, likelihood assessments, and
risk owners.
• The risk register serves as a central repository for all project-related risks.
• It helps project teams track, prioritize, and manage risks throughout the project lifecycle.
• Regularly updating the risk register ensures that new risks are identified and mitigated promptly.
• Effective use of the risk register contributes to improved risk management and project success.
(h) Quantitative Analysis Process:
• The quantitative analysis process involves the use of numerical data and statistical methods to
assess project risks.
• It includes techniques like Monte Carlo simulation, sensitivity analysis, and expected monetary
value analysis.
• Quantitative analysis quantifies the probability and impact of risks on project objectives.
• Project managers utilize this process to make data-driven decisions and prioritize risk responses.

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• It provides a more objective and accurate assessment of risks compared to qualitative analysis.
• The quantitative analysis process aids in resource allocation, scheduling, and contingency plan-
ning.
(i) Response Strategies for Negative Risk:
• Response strategies for negative risks, also known as threats, aim to minimize their impact on
project objectives.
• Common strategies include risk avoidance, where steps are taken to eliminate or reduce the risk’s
likelihood or impact.
• Risk mitigation involves proactive measures to reduce the risk’s severity or probability.
• Risk transference shifts the risk’s responsibility to a third party, such as through insurance or
outsourcing.
• Risk acceptance acknowledges the risk but proceeds with the project as planned, often with
contingency plans.
• Response strategies are selected based on risk assessment and the organization’s risk tolerance.
4. Risk Identification Technique
(a) Reviewing Project Documents: This involves reviewing project documents such as the project
plan, scope, and other relevant documentation to identify potential risks.
(b) Brainstorming: Brainstorming sessions with the project team can help generate ideas and identify
risks collectively.
(c) Interviewing: Conducting interviews with subject matter experts, technology experts, and project
stakeholders can provide insights into potential risks.
(d) Delphi Technique:
• Involves gathering relevant people, even if they do not know each other or are not located in the
same place.
• It is a forecasting method that relies on a number of independent experts.
• Experts are given a questionnaire related to project risks, and they answer anonymously.
• Results are analyzed, and then the questionnaire is recirculated for more rounds of discussions.
(e) SWOT Analysis: SWOT stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats. This anal-
ysis helps in identifying both internal and external factors that could pose risks to the project.
(f) Diagramming Techniques: Various diagramming techniques can be used to visually represent
potential risks, relationships, and dependencies in the project.
5. Categories of Risk
(a) Project Risks: Risks that affect the project schedule, resources, or cost.
(b) Process Risks: Risks that affect the formation, processes, or methodologies of the project.

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(c) Product Risks: Risks that affect the quality, performance, or implementation of the product.
(d) Business Risks: Risks that affect the organization developing or procuring the software.
(e) Market Risks: Risks that affect the demand or acceptance of the product.
(f) Strategic Risks: Risks that affect the alignment of the product with the business strategy.
(g) Sales Risks: Risks that affect the ability to sell the product.
(h) Management Risks: Risks that affect the support or commitment of the management.
(i) Budget Risks: Risks that affect the funding or allocation of resources for the project.
6. Risk Management Model with block digaram A risk management model is a framework or process
that helps to identify, analyze, plan, monitor and control the risks involved in a project.
Figure 10: risk management model
(a) Risk Identification: Finding and documenting the possible risks that may affect the project ob-
jectives, using techniques such as document review, information gathering, checklists, assumptions
analysis, and diagramming techniques.
(b) Risk Analysis: Assessing the probability and impact of the identified risks, using qualitative or
quantitative methods, such as probability-impact matrix, expected monetary value, sensitivity anal-
ysis, and Monte Carlo simulation.
(c) Risk Planning: Developing strategies and actions to enhance opportunities and reduce threats to
the project objectives, such as risk avoidance, transference, mitigation, exploitation, enhancement,
sharing, and acceptance.
(d) Risk Monitoring and Control: Tracking the status of the identified risks and the effectiveness of
the risk responses, using techniques such as risk reassessment, risk audit, variance and trend analysis,
technical performance measurement, and reserve analysis.

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13 Project Procurement Management
1. Define Project Procurement Management.
Project Procurement Management is the process of acquiring the products, services, goods or results
needed from outside of the project team to perform the work. It involves planning, contracting, requesting,
selecting, administering and closing the procurements. It also considers the type of contract, the evaluation
criteria, the risk management and the legal aspects of procurement.
2. Explain the Procurement Management Process flow.
The procurement management process flow is the sequence of steps that are involved in acquiring the
products, services, goods or results needed from outside of the project team1. According to the current
web page context, the process flow consists of six main steps:
Figure 11: Procurement Management Process Flow
(a) Procurement Planning:
• Identify what to acquire, how much to acquire, how to do so, and when to acquire.
• Make buy or make decisions and select the type of contract to be used.
(b) Contract Planning:

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• Prepare documents needed to support the request for seller responses and select seller processes.
• Develop the contract statement of work, procurement documents, and evaluation criteria.
(c) Request Seller Responses:
• Obtain responses from prospective sellers on how project requirements can be met.
• Use methods like bidder conferences, advertising, and developing a qualified seller list.
(d) Select Sellers:
• Evaluate proposals from sellers and select one or more qualified and acceptable sellers.
• Use tools and techniques like weighting systems, independent estimates, screening systems, con-
tract negotiation, seller rating systems, expert judgment, and proposal evaluation techniques.
(e) Contract Administration:
• Ensure that the seller’s performance meets contractual requirements.
• Ensure that the buyer performs according to the terms of the contract.
• Use various processes, including contract change control, buyer-conducted performance reviews,
inspections and audits, performance reporting, payment systems, claims administration, record
management systems, and IT.
(f) Contract Closure:
• Perform formal project closing activities.
• Verify that all work has been completed and update records to reflect final results.
• Conduct procurement audits and provide formal written notice that the contract has been com-
pleted.
3. Explain Contract Closure Process.
The contract closure process is the last step in the procurement management process. It involves the
following activities:
Figure 12: contract closure process

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4. Explain seller selection criteria
Seller selection criteria are the factors that a buyer considers when choosing a supplier or vendor for a
product or service.
5. Tender Vs Quotation
Tender and quotation are two terms that are related to the procurement process of goods or services from
external suppliers.
• Tender is a formal and competitive process that invites potential suppliers to submit their bids for
the required goods or services, based on the specifications and criteria of the buyer.
• Quotation is a fixed price offer that is given by the supplier to the buyer as a response to the tender
or request for quotation. It includes the details of the cost, quality, delivery, and terms and conditions
of the contract.

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14 Developing Custom Processes for IT projects
1. Explain IT Project Management Methodology.
Project Initiation:
• Recognizing and starting a new project or project phase.
• Key outputs include:
– Assigning the project manager.
– Identifying the key stakeholders.
– Completing a business case.
– Completing the project charter and getting a signature on it.
• Key Documents:
– Project Initiation Documents.
– Business Case Study.
– Project Charter.
– Stakeholder Analysis.
Project Planning:
• The main purpose of planning is to guide execution.
• Key outputs include:
– A team contract.
– A scope statement.
– A work breakdown structure (WBS).
– Project Schedule (Gantt chart, etc.).
– A list of prioritized risks.
• Key Documents:
– Project Planning Documents.
– Project Executing.
– Project Controlling.
– Project Closing.
– Post-project follow-up.
Many organizations develop their project management methodologies, especially for IT projects.
A Customized SDLC Model for IT Projects:
(a) To design and develop a "customized + tailored + tuned" project management methodology - A
"multi-pass model."

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(b) The multi-pass model need not be a full-fledged development methodology; instead, it encompasses
both the "iterative & incremental model" and the agile model in a "merge and fit" manner.
(c) Key logical phases of the multi-pass model are:
• Outline initial requirements, focus on mission-critical issues, and develop a proof of concept -
Agile way.
• Sort out major requirements, prioritize according to business need, and develop an initial stable
solution - Iterative & Incremental way.
• Increase the client’s involvement, develop a more functional and relatively more sensible solution
- Agile way.
• Finalize requirements, enhance design, develop a complete solution, test rigorously - Iterative &
Incremental way.
2. Explain Project Management Maturity Model.
Project Management Maturity Model is a framework that describes the level of maturity and capability
of an organization in managing its projects. It consists of five levels, each with a set of best practices and
processes that help improve project performance and outcomes. The five levels are:
(a) Level 1 – Adhoc:
• No formal, consistent process to execute a project.
• Many, incomplete, informal approaches – each project handled differently.
• Highly dependent on Project Manager.
• Project outcomes unpredictable.
• Little organizational support for project management.
• Lessons learned are not gathered and passed on to other projects.
(b) Level 2 – Foundation:
• Consistent, basic approach to project execution is adopted.
• Managed support for project management.
• Repeatable processes are applied to basic project management steps.
• Project outcomes are more predictable.
• Use of common tools and techniques for key project management processes.
(c) Level 3 – Managed:
• Consistent, comprehensive approach to project execution.
• Senior management support for project management.
• Organization can efficiently plan, manage, integrate, and control single projects.
• Repository of previous project experience is maintained and utilized.
• Team members and project managers trained in project management.

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• Consistent use of tools and techniques for project management processes.
(d) Level 4 – Integrated:
• Project portfolio management is institutionalized and integrated into the organization’s business
planning process.
• Active senior management support for integration of business planning and project execution.
• Organization can efficiently plan, manage, integrate, and control multiple projects.
• Database of previous project data is maintained and utilized.
(e) Level 5 – Optimization:
• Project management environment improvement is actively encouraged.
• Flexible, project-centered organization structure.
• Career program for project managers.
• Project management training is a key component in staff development.
3. Future trend of ICT project
(a) Team diversity: This refers to the inclusion of people from different backgrounds, cultures, skills, and
perspectives in a project team. Team diversity can enhance creativity, innovation, problem-solving,
and decision-making in ICT projects.
(b) Virtual work: This refers to the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) to enable
collaboration and coordination among geographically dispersed project team members. Virtual work
can reduce costs, increase flexibility, and improve productivity in ICT projects.
(c) Sustainability: This refers to the consideration of environmental, social, and economic impacts of
ICT projects on present and future generations. Sustainability can improve the quality, efficiency,
and effectiveness of ICT projects and contribute to the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals.
(d) Innovation: This refers to the creation and implementation of new or improved products, services,
processes, or methods in ICT projects. Innovation can increase the value, competitiveness, and perfor-
mance of ICT projects and meet the changing needs and expectations of customers and stakeholders.
(e) Portfolio management: This refers to the centralized management of one or more portfolios of ICT
projects to achieve strategic objectives. Portfolio management can optimize the allocation of re-
sources, balance risks and benefits, and align ICT projects with organizational vision and mission.
4. Explain Code of Ethics.
Code of Ethics
The Project Management Institute (PMI) establishes ethical standards that professionals must adhere to
while performing their duties. These standards include the following principles:

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• Responsibility: Professionals are responsible for their actions and should consider the impact of
their decisions on the community.
• Respect: Ethical conduct involves respecting the relationships between employers and clients, en-
suring trust and fairness.
• Fairness: Professionals should maintain fairness in their work performance, treating all parties eq-
uitably.
• Honesty: Personal performance should be characterized by honesty and integrity.
How to Create a Code of Ethics
Creating a Code of Ethics involves several steps:
(a) Determine Purpose: Identify why you are developing the Code of Ethics. Is it to inspire employees
or to define expected behavior?
(b) Introduction: Begin with an introduction explaining the purpose of the Code of Ethics and what
you aim to achieve through its implementation.
(c) Content Inclusion: Include items in your Code of Ethics that cover various aspects, such as interper-
sonal relationships, expected behavior with customers and clients, and other specific considerations
relevant to your company or industry.
(d) Implementation Plan: Decide on the methods and procedures for implementing and enforcing the
Code of Ethics within your organization.

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15 Balanced scorecard and ICT project management
1. Explain Balance Scorecard
Balanced Scorecard (BSC)
The Balanced Scorecard is a strategic performance measurement framework used by organizations to
assess and manage various aspects of their operations. It provides a balanced view of an organization’s
performance by considering multiple dimensions beyond just financial metrics. The BSC typically includes
the following key perspectives:
(a) Financial Perspective: This perspective focuses on financial objectives and measures, such as
revenue growth, profitability, and cost control, to ensure sustainable financial success.
(b) Customer Perspective: It emphasizes customer-related objectives and metrics, including customer
satisfaction, loyalty, and retention, to gauge the organization’s value to customers.
(c) Internal Process Perspective: This perspective assesses the efficiency and effectiveness of internal
processes, aiming to streamline operations, reduce costs, and improve quality.
(d) Learning and Growth Perspective: It concentrates on human capital and organizational capacity
development, measuring factors like employee skills, innovation, and knowledge management.
By using the Balanced Scorecard, organizations can align their strategic goals and objectives across these
four perspectives, enabling a comprehensive evaluation of performance and helping in decision-making to
achieve long-term success.
Figure 13: Balanced Scorecard
2. Write short notes on COCOCMO.
COCOMO, or Constructive Cost Model, is a software estimation model created by Dr. Barry Boehm in
the late 1970s. It’s used to estimate the effort, time, and cost needed for software development projects.
COCOMO operates on the principle that development effort is proportional to project size and complexity.
There are three COCOMO variants:

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(a) Basic COCOMO: Offers a rough effort estimate based on lines of code, factoring in project com-
plexity, environment, and personnel experience.
(b) Intermediate COCOMO: Builds on Basic COCOMO by including factors like software reliability
and database complexity for more accurate estimates.
(c) Detailed COCOMO: The most comprehensive version, breaking down development into detailed
steps, considering scheduling, documentation, and personnel capabilities.
Key components of COCOMO include project size (measured in code lines or function points), cost
drivers (factors affecting effort), effort estimation (typically in person-months), schedule prediction, and
cost estimation.
While COCOMO aids project managers in resource allocation, scheduling, and budgeting, it should com-
plement expert judgment and historical data for precise planning.
In essence, COCOMO is a valuable software estimation model for predicting effort, time, and cost in
software development projects, enhancing decision-making for project managers and organizations.

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16 Miscellaneous
1. Expert Judgment
• Involves seeking advice and insights from experienced individuals or subject matter experts.
• Helps in decision-making, risk assessment, and problem-solving by tapping into their knowledge.
• Experts may come from various domains, including technical, financial, or industry-specific areas.
• Provides a valuable external perspective on project-related issues and challenges.
• Often used in risk analysis, cost estimation, and quality control processes.
• Requires careful selection of experts based on their relevance to the project’s needs.
2. Project Stakeholders
• Refers to individuals, groups, or organizations with a vested interest in the project’s outcome.
• Can include internal stakeholders (e.g., project team, management) and external stakeholders (e.g.,
clients, suppliers, regulatory bodies).
• Stakeholders have varying expectations, needs, and influence levels on the project.
• Effective stakeholder management is crucial for project success and involves identifying, engaging,
and addressing their concerns.
• Stakeholder analysis helps categorize stakeholders, assess their impact, and develop appropriate com-
munication and engagement strategies.
• Continual stakeholder communication and relationship-building are essential to ensure alignment
with project goals and minimize conflicts.
3. Detail Project Report vs Request for Proposal
Aspect of Comparison Detailed Project Report (DPR) Request for Proposal (RFP)
Purpose Provides a comprehensive and detailed
overview of a project, including its ob-
jectives, scope, feasibility, and technical
aspects.
A formal document used to solicit pro-
posals from potential vendors or con-
tractors, outlining the project’s require-
ments and expectations.
Contents Includes project description, technical
details, financial estimates, and feasibil-
ity analysis.
Specifies the project’s objectives, scope
of work, evaluation criteria, and con-
tractual terms.
Initiator Typically prepared by the project team
or organization planning the project.
Created by the organization seeking
proposals or bids from external parties.
Audience Primarily for internal use, serves as a
blueprint for project implementation.
Distributed to potential vendors or con-
tractors, seeking their proposals and so-
lutions.
Table 6: DPR vs. RFP

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4. Outsourcing vs offshoring
Aspect of Comparison Outsourcing Offshoring
Purpose Involves contracting work or services
to external third-party organizations or
vendors.
A specific form of outsourcing where
work or services are contracted to orga-
nizations or service providers in a dif-
ferent country.
Location Can be local or international, depend-
ing on the proximity of the service
provider.
Inherently global, often to countries
with lower labor costs.
Cost Consideration May or may not result in significant
cost savings, chosen for various reasons.
Primarily chosen for its potential to
achieve cost savings due to lower labor
and operational costs in the offshore lo-
cation.
Table 7: Outsourcing vs. Offshoring
5. Sensitivity analysis vs Swot analysis
Aspect of Comparison Sensitivity Analysis SWOT Analysis
Purpose Assesses how changes in input variables
affect the output or outcome of a spe-
cific model or system, often in quanti-
tative terms.
A strategic planning tool used to iden-
tify an organization’s internal strengths
and weaknesses and external opportu-
nities and threats.
Application Common in financial modeling, engi-
neering, and risk assessment.
Widely used in business and strategic
planning.
Table 8: Sensitivity Analysis vs. SWOT Analysis
6. Box plot vs Scatter Plot
Aspect of Comparison Box Plot Scatter Plot
Use Used for summarizing and comparing
distributions among different categories
or groups.
Helps visualize the strength and direc-
tion of the relationship between two
variables, often used in regression anal-
ysis.
Outliers Explicitly highlight potential outliers in
the data.
May show outliers but primarily focus
on exploring overall relationships be-
tween variables.
Table 9: Box Plot vs. Scatter Plot

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7. Traceability vs Adaptability
Aspect of Comparison Traceability Adaptability
Definition The ability to trace and document
changes or requirements throughout the
project lifecycle.
The capacity to adjust and modify
project plans or processes in response
to changing circumstances or require-
ments.
Use Ensures that project deliverables align
with initial requirements and objec-
tives.
Allows a project to respond to new in-
formation, risks, or stakeholder needs,
often during execution.
Timing Mostly implemented during the plan-
ning and monitoring phases.
Primarily relevant during the execution
and monitoring phases.
Benefit Enhances accountability and helps in
tracking project progress.
Increases a project’s flexibility and re-
silience, adapting to evolving condi-
tions.
Table 10: Traceability vs. Adaptability
8. Horizontal vs Vertical
Aspect of Comparison Horizontal Vertical
Hierarchy Emphasizes collaboration across differ-
ent functional areas, with less focus on
rigid hierarchical structures.
Prioritizes a clear vertical hierarchy,
with distinct levels of authority and re-
sponsibility.
Communication Encourages cross-functional communi-
cation and teamwork.
Communication flows primarily
through established vertical channels.
Decision-Making Decisions often involve input and con-
sensus from various departments or
teams.
Decision-making authority typically re-
sides with higher-ranking individuals or
management.
Flexibility Offers flexibility to adapt to changing
conditions and promotes innovation.
Tends to be more stable and consistent
but may be slower to adapt to change.
Table 11: Horizontal vs. Vertical
9. Cause and effect diagram
• Also known as a Fishbone Diagram or Ishikawa Diagram.
• Used for identifying and visualizing the potential causes of a specific problem or effect.
• Typically structured with a central problem statement or effect and branches representing various
categories of potential causes.
• Encourages brainstorming and root cause analysis.
• Helpful in problem-solving and quality improvement processes.

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• Originally developed by Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa.
10. Control Chart
• A statistical tool used to monitor and control processes over time.
• Displays data points with upper and lower control limits to identify variations in a process.
• Helps distinguish between common cause variation (inherent to the process) and special cause vari-
ation (due to external factors).
• Commonly used in quality control and manufacturing.
• Enables process stability and continuous improvement.
• Developed by Walter A. Shewhart and later popularized by W. Edwards Deming.
11. Pareto Chart
• A bar chart that prioritizes and displays categories of data in descending order of frequency or impact.
• Based on the Pareto Principle, also known as the 80/20 rule, which suggests that a significant portion
of effects results from a small number of causes.
• Useful for identifying and focusing on the most critical issues or factors in a process.
• Helps allocate resources effectively by addressing the most influential problems first.
• Widely used in quality management and process improvement methodologies such as Six Sigma.
• Typically consists of vertical bars, with the leftmost bar representing the most significant category
or cause.
• The cumulative percentage line on the chart helps visualize the cumulative impact of addressing
specific categories.
• Encourages data-driven decision-making by highlighting areas where improvement efforts will have
the greatest effect.
12. Six Sigma
• A data-driven methodology and set of tools used to improve processes by reducing defects and
variations.
• Aims for achieving near-perfect performance by targeting a process capability of 6 standard deviations
between the mean and the nearest specification limit.
• Emphasizes measuring and analyzing process data to identify and eliminate sources of variation.
• Comprises several roles and levels, including Green Belts, Black Belts, and Master Black Belts, who
lead improvement projects.
• Originally developed by Motorola in the 1980s and popularized by General Electric.

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