Research methods in developmental psychology

1. RESEARCH
METHODS
in developmental psychology

2. • Lifespan development refers to the pattern of change that human
beings experience across their lifespan, from conception to death.
• Research can be defined as an empirical investigation of a topic of
interest.
• Through research, scholars attempt to investigate a research
question by proving/disproving a hypothesis (a tentative
statement) about that research question.
• Thus, those investigating lifespan development depend on the
methods, designs, and principles of research to further their
understanding of changes that take place as one grows older.
Lifespan Development
and Research

3. Observation

4. • Observation involves the systematic, organized study of behavior as it
occurs.
• Decisions regarding the behavior of interest, method of recoding,
location of recording, etc. must be made in advance.
• The observer must be trained to keep a keen eye out for the behavior of
interest, and should make note of each relevant occurrence.
• We can either engage in time sampling (taking observations after
specific time periods) or event sampling (recording all instances of
behavior).
• Observation takes place in a
controlled setting, and
behavior of interest is
evoked.
• Confounding factors
removed.
• Participants know they are
• Observation takes place in
real-world settings
• Efforts to control various
factors affecting behavior
would be in vain.
Structured Naturalistic

5. • Observer bias: The observer sees
what they want to see.
• Observer influence: The presence
of an observer alters natural
behavior.
• Structured observations:
⚬ Artificial environment can
affect the participants.
• Naturalistic observations:
⚬ Time-consuming.
⚬ No control over confounding
variables.
Advantages and Limitations
Advantages Disadvantages
• Through observation, we are able
to directly analyze a behavior we
want to study.
• Naturalistic observations:
⚬ Accurate account of behavior
as it occurs in the real world.
• Structured observations:
⚬ Ability to control confounding
variables.
⚬ We can elicit behaviors that
may not occur frequently in
real life.

6. Examples
Naturalistic
Belsky (1979) made use of naturalistic observation to investigate
infant preferences for interactions with mothers and fathers, as
well as parental behaviors. 15 month-old infants were observed for
two hours a day at their homes. It was found that maternal and
paternal behavior were largely similar, and parenting was more
active when only one parent was present at a time. Preferences
were based on parental behavior.
An investigation of antisocial behavior in children at high risk for
delinquency (Hinshaw, Simmel, & Heller, 1995) made use of
laboratory observation to study such behavior. The behaviors of
interest were laboratory property destruction, stealing, and
cheating on a worksheet. Counts of these behaviors showed that
covert antisocial behaviors were related to overt aggression in the
participants.
Structured

7. Self-Report

8. • Self-report measures involve eliciting details about
behaviors, thoughts, emotions, etc. directly from the
participants.
• Since they rely on self-reports, socially desirable responses
become a limitation, since respondents may attempt to
portray themselves in a favorable light.
• Questions asked to the respondents must be carefully
worded to avoid causing confusion.
• It must be ensured that informed consent is taken from the
respondents to use their data.
General Information

9. • Interviews entail respondents and researchers directly
interacting verbally to gain information.
• Interviews can be of two broad types:
Interviews
Structured
Interview
• Questions are decided in advance.
• Responses may also be specified
• Allows for efficient data collection.
• Comparisons across respondents
possible
• Not very detailed and can be
inaccurate.
Unstructure
d
Interview
• No specific format followed.
• Large amounts of data gained.
• Accuracy and reliability suffers.
• Probing allows for collection of
specific data.
• Open-ended questions generally
used.
Example: Interviewing children to gather information on their
attachment to their parents (Shmueli-Goetz et al., 2008).

10. • Surveys and questionnaires can be administered to gather
data from a large pool of participants in less time.
• A standard set of questions are presented to multiple people at
once to obtain their views/attitudes towards a topic.
• Special care must be given to the wording of questions.
⚬ Double-barreled questions (ones that ask more than one
question at a time) should be avoided.
⚬ Questions should not be leading.
⚬ Assumptions about the respondent's knowledge must not
be made, and questions should be simple.
• Social desirability becomes a major drawback.
Surveys

11. • Standardized tests are psychometric tools that have uniform
administration and scoring procedures.
• Reliability, validity, and norms are generally reported for such
tests.
⚬ Reliability- Stability of scores over time and across raters.
⚬ Validity- Whether or not the test measures what it claims to
measure.
⚬ Norms- Average performance for a comparison group.
• Many tests allow for comparison of an individual's performance
with others like them- uniform conditions must be maintained.
• Information about individual differences can be obtained.
Standardized Tests
Example: Intelligent quotient tests like the Stanford-Binet test.

12. Psychophysiological
Methods

13. Physiological meaasures allow us to examine the biological basis of emotional,
perceptual, and cognitive responses across the lifespan. Measurements of
automatic processes (heart rate, skin conductance) or brain activity may be
made.
• Electrodes placed on scalp to record electrical activity of the brain.
• Different brain wave patterns related to different neuronal activities.
• Cortical functioning examined; deeper areas of the brain cannot be
examined.
• Event-related potentials may be studied. These are EEG patterns
accompanying particular events.
⚬ Can be used to study processes in pre-verbal children.
⚬ Allows for study of the neurological functioning of at-risk children.
⚬ Identifies the major areas of functioning, but cannot be too specific.
• Example: Field et al.'s (1995) examination of the brain activity of infants of
depressed mother, which found brian activation patterns of the infants to
resemble those of depressed individuals.
Electroencephalogram
EEG

14. FUNCTIONAL
BRAIN IMAGING
• Allow us to obtain three-dimensional images
of brain activity.
• Provide precise information on which brain
regions are associated with which capacity.
• Example: An fMRI study contrasting
executive functioning of children during
cooperation and competition tasks (Decety et
al., 2004).
Functional Magnetic
Resonance Imaging
• fMRI makes use of electromagnetic
waves to examine blood flow and
oxygen metabolism in the brain to map
brain activity.
• Provides detailed images.
• Not useful for children under the age of
6.
• Highly costly.
Positron Emission
Tomography
NIROT
fM
RI
PET
Near-Infrared Optical
Tomography
• A radioactive tracer is used to measure
metabolic changes in the brain as they
occur.
• Resolution lower than that of fMRI.
• Use of radioactive substances limits
applicability.
• Light of the wavelength 650-900 nm
beamed at the brain to measure
oxygenation levels.
• Simple, non-intrusive apparatus makes
this technique useful for younger
children who may be uncomfortable
with more complex apparatuses.

15. Case Study

16. A case study is an in-depth look at a single
individual.
A complete picture of an individual's (usually a child in
developmental research) psychological functioning is
sought.
All content pertaining to a case is
elicited.
Integration of multiple methods like
observations, interviews, etc. to
formulate a comprehensive case.

17. • Vast amounts of detail obtained.
• Can be used to study phenomenon not otherwise
accessible (eg, development of children affected
by floods).
Advantages
• Generalizations cannot be made.
• Unsystematic and subjective and, thus, not very
reliable.
Limitations
Dawson, Osterling, Meltzoff, & Kuhl (2000) reported a
case of the development of an infant with autism.
Through observations and tests, they noted the
progression of the disorder as the child grew in age.
Example

18. Ethnographic Study

19. • Ethnography is a method used to study the impact of
culture on development.
• An ethnic group is a group of people who share
common cultural beliefs.
• Of particular interest to ethnographic researchers are
the similarities (as well as the differences) across
different cultures, regions, etc.
• Ethnography is a descriptive, qualitative technique that
allows researchers to uncover the cultural meanings
associated with different behaviors.
• Close contact with an ethnic group is maintained.
• Extensive field notes, observations, interviews, etc. are
conducted to gain a comprehensive understanding of
the culture of the group being investigated.
• Advantage: Comprehensive and culture-sensitive.
• Limitation: Cultural values of investigator may
interfere; generalization not possible.

20. Example
Lieber, Fung, & Leung (2006) examined child-rearing beliefs in the
Chinese context, which they used to develop a culture-sensitive
assessment scale. They found four main dimensions that played a
role:
• Training, which was close to Western ideas of authoritarian
parenting.
• Shame, which was found to play a role in developing social
sensibilities in children.
• Autonomy, which is limited, with a focus on safety being more
prevalent.
• Authoritativeness, which involves an awareness and respect for

21. IMPORTANT
CONSIDERATIONS

22. Reliability
• Validity refers to the degree to
which measurements reflect the
characteristic they claim to
measure.
• Internal validity indicates that
the conditions of the study allow
for testing of the concept under
investigation (eg, choosing an
appropriate sample).
• External validity indicates the
generalizability of a study.
Validity
• Reliability refers to the
consistency of a measure.
• Inter-rater reliability
indicates the consistency of
scores when measurements
are made by different raters.
• Test-retest reliability
indicates consistency of
scores over a period of time.
Reliability
Efforts must be made to maximize the reliability and validity of a
study.

23. SUMMARY

24. Researc
h
Methods Physiologica
l
Case Study
Naturalisti
c
Observation
Structure
d
Self-Report
Interview
s
Questionnair
es
Test
s
Life History
Record
Ethnographi
c
EEG
Functional
Neuroimagin
g
fMRI
PET
NIROT

25. REFERENCES
• Belsky, J. (1979). Mother–father–infant interaction: A naturalistic observational study. Developmental Psychology, 15(6),
601–607. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.15.6.601
• Berk, L. E. (2007). Child Development (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
• Dawson, G., Osterling, J., Meltzoff, A. N., & Kuhl, P. (2000). Case Study of the Development of an Infant with Autism
from Birth to Two Years of Age. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 21(3), 299–313.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0193-3973(99)00042-8
• Decety, J., Jackson, P. L., Sommerville, J. A., Chaminade, T., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2004). The neural bases of cooperation
and competition: an fMRI investigation. NeuroImage, 23(2), 744–751.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.05.025
• Field, T., Fox, N. A., Pickens, J., & Nawrocki, T. (1995). Relative right frontal EEG activation in 3- to 6-month-old infants
of “depressed” mothers. Developmental Psychology, 31(3), 358–363. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.31.3.358
• Hinshaw, S. P., Simmel, C., & Heller, T. L. (1995). Multimethod assessment of covert antisocial behavior in children:
Laboratory observations, adult ratings, and child self-report. Psychological Assessment, 7(2), 209–219.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.2.209
• Lieber, E., Fung, H., & Leung, P. W. L. (2006). Chinese child-rearing beliefs: Key dimensions and contributions to the
development of culture-appropriate assessment. Asian Journal Of Social Psychology, 9(2), 140–147.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839x.2006.00191.x
• Linder, S., & Charbon, E. (n.d.). Near-infrared optical tomography (NIROT). Retrieved from
https://www.epfl.ch/labs/aqua/research/pet/page-157819-en-html/
• Neuman, W. (2013). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (Seventh 7th Edition). Boston,
MA: Pearson.
• Santrock, J. W. (2010). Life-Span Development (13th ed.). New York City, NY: McGraw-Hill.
• Shmueli-Goetz, Y., Target, M., Fonagy, P., & Datta, A. (2008). The Child Attachment Interview: A psychometric study of
reliability and discriminant validity. Developmental Psychology, 44(4), 939–956. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-
1649.44.4.939