polusi noise debris.ppt

AE4001-Aspek Lingkungan Teknik Dirgantara
BAB 2
Pengaruh Aktivitas Kedirgantaraan
Terhadap Lingkungan
2.1 Aircraft Emissions
2.2 Aircraft Noise
2.3 Space Debris

TROPOSPHERE CO2
H2O
NOx
SOx
Sulfur
Soot
Ozone Depletion
Ozone Production
Surface UV-B
Climate Change
Clouds Formation
Contrails
GreenHouse
gases
Production
STRATOSPHERE
EARTH
2.1 Aircraft Emission
Aircraft emit gases and particles directly into the Atmosphere, trigger various
physical and chemical processes.
The common emission of
aircraft (pistons, subsonic,
supersonic) includes:
• CO2 (Carbon Dioxide)
• H20 (Water Vapor)
• NOx (Nitric Oxide/Nitrogen
Dioxide)
• SOx (Sulfur Oxide)
• Sulfur Particles
• Soot Particles
The physical and chemical
processes due to the
emissions depends on the
altitudes / atmospheric
condition
2.1.1 General

2.1.2 Emissions effect in the atmosphere
2.1.2.1 Greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gases are gases that have direct radiative forcing effect, which prevent most
of heat from earth surface to escapes to space. Instead, the heat is kept in the
atmosphere and tends to make the earth surface warmer (greenhouse effect, global
warming).
CO2 are the greenhouse gases emitted by aircraft
CO2 could remains in the atmosphere for a century 
CO2 in the atmosfer today are result since at least 100
years ago
Aircraft CO2 emission are 13% from all CO2
emission from transportation; and 2%
from all CO2 emission emitted by human
activities (1992)

• H2O (Water Vapor) are also greenhouse gas, which removed from
the atmosphere within 1 to 2 weeks.
• NOx is not a greenhouse gas. However, in the upper troposphere,
it can induced O3 (ozone) formation, while ozone is a greenhouse
gas. Ozone lifetime is about 1 month
• NOx can also induce a decrease in lifetime and concentration of
CH4 (Methane), which is a greenhouse gas. The decrease is
preferable (cooling down the Earth’s surface).
2.1.2.1 Greenhouse gases …ctd
Compared to CO2, the
H2O effects are small

2.1.2.2 Ozone Production and Depletion
Ozone or trioxygen (O3) is a triatomic molecule, consisting of three oxygen atoms. It
is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic O2. Ozone in the
upper atmosphere filters ultraviolet light from reaching the Earth’s surface.
Supersonic aircraft (operated in Stratosphere,
about 8 km higher than subsonic) emission act as a
catalyst that decrease the ozone column, deplete the
ozone layer, increase the UV radiation to surface
The development of new supersonic civil aircraft in
the world will tend to deplete the ozone layer even
more
Subsonic aircraft (operated in the upper
throposphere and lower stratosphere) emission,
especially NOx, tends to produced more Ozone gas,
and decrease the UV radiation to the earth surface
However, Ozone in the lower stratosphere are also a
greenhouse gas, which will have direct radiative
forcing, thus also tends to warm the earth surface.

2.1.2.3 Contrails (Condensed Trails)
Contrails (condensed trails) are clouds formed when water vapor condenses and freezes
around small particles (aerosols) that exist in aircraft exhaust.
Estimated covers about 0.1% earth surface
annually, estimated to be 0.5% in 2050
Tends to warm the earth surface  direct
radiative forcing (still not quantified)
always contrails
no contrails
Typical Flight Level
maybe
contrails
PERSISTENT
Appleman Chart (for Tropical Region)
Contrails only form at very high altitudes (usually
above 8 km, upper troposphere) where the air is
extremely cold (less than -40ºC).
The Appleman chart could be used to predict contrail
formation for an area. The chart shows the contrails
formation due to atmospheric properties  Temperature,
Pressure, and Relative Humidity

2.1.2.3 Contrails (Condensed Trails) …. contd
• Extensive Cirrus Clouds have been observed to develop
after the formation of persistent contrails
• It is estimated the aircraft induced cirrus clouds cover 0
– 0.2% of earth surfaces in 1990s, and 0 – 0.8% in 2050
• However the physics of these aircraft induced cirrus
clouds development are still not well understood
Contrails could be divided into three groups :
Short-lived contrails short white lines following along behind the plane,
lasting only a few minutes or less. (The air that the airplane contain only a
small amount of water vapor available to form a contrail)
Persistent (non-spreading) contrails long white lines that remain
visible after the airplane has disappeared. (The air where the airplane is flying
is quite humid)
Persistent spreading contrails look like long, broad, fuzzy white lines. This
is the type most likely to affect climate because they cover a larger area ( could
be more than 20 km2) and last longer than short-lived or persistent contrails.

2.1.3 Regulation on Aircraft Emissions
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is the
United Nations (UN) specialized agency that has global
responsibility for:
 The establishment of standards,
 Recommended practices, and
 Guidance on various aspects of international civil aviation,
including the environment
The Kyoto Protocol committed countries to work through ICAO in limiting or
reducing emissions of greenhouse gases from aviation bunker fuels. However,
international aviation emissions are not covered by emissions reduction targets in
the Kyoto Protocol.
The Kyoto Protocol is an agreement made under the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC-1997) in Kyoto, Japan, that ratify this
protocol commit to reducing their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other
greenhouse gases (GHG), or engaging in emissions trading if they maintain or
increase emissions of these green house gases.
This was followed with the Bali Roadmap which consists of a number of
forward-looking decisions that represent the various tracks that are essential to
reaching a secure climate future (United Nation Climate Change Conference
(UNCCC-2007) in Bali, Indonesia)

In 1981, ICAO established aircraft engine emission standards for oxides of nitrogen
(NOx). Since then, the NOx standard has been made more stringent (by 20% in 1993).
A further 16% change to newly certified engines after 2003 was recommended in
1998.
Original Standard (1971)
Revised Standard (1993)
CAEP/4 Standard (2003)
Engine Types
However, the current method
of regulating NOx based on
the landing/take-off (LTO)
cycle does not fully address
emissions at altitude.
ICAO is developing a new
parameter for emissions
certification during climb and
at cruise altitude to
complement the existing LTO
cycle-based parameter.

FAR part 34: Fuel venting and exhaust emission requirements for turbine engine
powered airplanes
Subpart A – General Provision
Subpart B – Engine Fuel Venting Emissions (New and In-Use Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines)
Subpart C – Exhaust Emissions (New Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines)
Sec. 34.11 - Standard for fuel venting emissions.
(a) No fuel venting emissions shall be discharged into the atmosphere from any
new or in-use aircraft gas turbine engine subject to the subpart......
Sec. 34.21 - Standards for exhaust emissions.
(a) Exhaust emissions of smoke from each new aircraft gas turbine engine of class
T8 manufactured on or after February 1, 1974, shall not exceed a smoke number
(SN) of 30.
….
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has already put the emission issue in one
of its regulation (FAR). It regulates the standard emission for fuel and engine
exhaust, along with the test procedures, for every types of airplane and engine
…
...

2.1.4 Technological Solution on Aircraft Emissions
2.1.4.1 Aerodynamics Improvement
Historically significant improvements in lift and drag
performance and fuel efficiency have been achieved 
involving the development and use of high fidelity CFD
prediction codes
Other potential aerodynamic improvements which
require further development and investigation
includes:
 Laminar Flow Concept (e.g. BWB concept)
 Advanced passive flow control devices (e.g. vortex
generator)
 Advanced winglet
 Advanced CFD design methodologies
 Advance manufacturing to improved fuselage and wing
surface smoothness
The Blended-Wing Body (BWB) concept
 Reduces the total aerodynamic wetted area of the airplane
 Increase stiffness that allows a higher span to be achieved
 The fuel burn could be reduced significantly relative to
that of conventionally designed large

2.1.4.2 Airframe Weight Reduction
The increasing availability of advanced lighter and
stronger materials has also been a major factor in the
achievement of reduced fuel burn. Including:
 New Aluminum Alloys
 Titanium Component
 Composite Materials
Same as in aerodynamic
improvements, the
computerized method like
FEMs are now extensively
used  additional reductions
in structural weight.
A380 composite profile

2.1.4.3 Propulsive Efficiency
Periods ‘60 to ‘70
turbojets and first-generation turbofans (low BPR)
High fuel consumption
Periods ‘70 to the mid-’80s
second-generation turbofan engines (high BPR)
better fuel consumption
Periods mid ’80s – now
 Smaller fuel consumption
Future development of aircraft engines
• Further increases in the pressure ratio of compression systems
• Higher temperature hot sections with reduced (or eliminated) cooling requirements
• Improved component efficiencies
The historical trend shows the impressive progress made
in reducing thrust-specific fuel with time (turbine engine)

2.1.4.4 Aircraft Fuels
Until the recent time, although alternative fuels may offer some emission benefits, the
major disadvantage is the significantly lower energy density compare to the current
fuel (kerosene)
These alternatives fuel include:
Alcohols
Methane
Hydrogen
Methylated esters (vegetable oil)
GTL (Gas to Liquid)
BTL (Biomass to Liquid)
Fuel
Density
(kg/m3)
Specific
Energy
(MJ/kg)
Energy
Density (103
MJ/m3)
Kerosene 783 43.2 33.8
Ethanol 785 21.8 17.1
Methanol 786 19.6 15.4
Methane (liquid) 421 50.0 21.0
Hydrogen (liquid) 70 119.7 8.4
Virgin Atlantic in February
2008, Flown from London to
Amsterdam with Boeing 747
using biofuel (20%) mixed
with kerosene (80%)  First
commercial flight using
biofuel
In 2008, Airbus A380
are flight tested using
GTL (Gas to Liquid)
which use natural gases
instead of crude oil 
less sulfur

2.2 Aircraft Noise
2.2.1 General
• Aircraft noise is defined as sound
produced by any aircraft on run-up,
taxiing, take off, over-flying or
landing.
• Aircraft noise is significant for
approximately 100 square
kilometers surrounding the airports.
• Aircraft noise is the second largest
(after roadway noise) source of
environmental noise.
• Take-off of aircraft may lead to a
sound level of more than 100
decibels at the ground, with
approach and landing creating
lower levels.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Jet Aircraft
Rock Concert
Normal Conversation
Whisper
Heavy Traffic
Industries Workshop
Hearing threshold (young males)
Pain threshold (young males)

2.2.2 Noise Sources in Aircraft
2.2.2.1 Piston Engine and Propeller
• Rotational Noise
Caused by the rotation of the
propeller blade that excite the
surrounding air
Sound propagation directional
pattern  Monopole and Dipole
• Vortex Noise
Caused by the non-stationer
random disturbances behind the
propeller disk
Sound propagation directional
pattern  Monopole and Dipole
Types of Directional pattern of sound propagation from source
Monopole : from one point,
propagate to all direction
Dipole : from one point, propagate
following a line to two
opposite direction
Quadruple : from one point,
propagate following two
line to four direction
Vortex Noise
Rotational Noise

2.2.2.2 Turbine Engine (Jet)
Compressor
Compressor
Burning
Chamber /
Turbine
Jet Burst
Compressor
Burning
Chamber
Turbine Jet Burst
Jet Core
Noise Source in Jet Engine :
• Compressor  Dipole
• Burning Chamber  Dipole
• Turbine  Dipole
• Jet Exhaust/Burst Quadruple
Noise Domination
• At high speed  Jet Burst
• At Low Speed  Compressor

Jet Burst noise have high sensitivity to its speed increment
High frequency noise
shocks
Mixing region
Low frequency noise
Exhaust Jet Core
Increased 20-30 db
each twice increment
Jet Burst Speed
Noise
Level
dB
2.2.2.2 Turbine Engine (Jet) …ctd
Noise
Level
dB
Jet Burst Frequency
10 dB

2.2.2.3 Aircraft Airframe (Aerodynamic Noise)
Aerodynamic Noise is excited from the friction between the airflow with the outer
structure of the aircraft. The noise excited from the boundary layer on the airframe
surface
10 dB
Frequency
Speed m/s
Tingkat
Kebisingan
dB V 6
Noise
Level
dB
Frequency
Noise
Level
dB
Speed m/s
Noise
Level
dB
V5
● Propeller Engine
● Jet Engine

2.2.3 Noise Propagations in the Atmosphere
Noise Propagations in the air are affected by the atmosphere layer
characteristics  different propagations in different atmosphere layer
Stratosphere
Troposphere
Tropopause
Temperatur . O K
Ketinggian
.
Km
0
11
20
200 240 280 300
Speed of Sound in the air, a, defined by:
a = [γ R T ] ½
where : γ = the ratio of specific heat at constant
pressure with its volume (for air = 1.4)
R = Specific Gas Constant
T = Absolute Temperatures, oK
ISA model, Troposphere
T = To + λ H
where : To = Absolute Temperature at sea level, =
288.15oK
λ = Lapse rate in Throposhere, = -0.0065
oK/m

Noise Propagation Anatomy
Sumber suara
Celah Berlubang
Lintas rambat
suara
Muka
gelombang
suara
Sumber
Suara
Sumber suara
baru
Median 2
Median 1
a1
a2
δi
a1
δt
δr
Snellius Law
δi = δr
2.2.3 Noise Propagations in the Atmosphere …ctd

2.2.3.1 Atmosphere Properties Effect on Noise Propagations
Noise (or Sound) Propagation are affected by two factors of atmosphere properties
Wind
Gradient of Temperatures,
Sound
Shadow
Wind
Source
Altitude
Wind velocity
Wind Effects
Lintas rambat
suara
Muka
gelombang
suara
Sumber
Suara
Normal sound propagation
in atmosphere
Sound Propagation in atmosphere with horizontal wind,
(Vw)

Temperature gradients effects
Lintas rambat
suara
Muka
gelombang
suara
Sumber
Suara
Normal sound propagation in
atmosphere with uniform temperature
Sound
shadow
Sound
Shadow
source
Altitude
Temperatures
Sound Propagation in atmosphere temperature
decreased when altitude increased
2.2.3.1 Atmosphere Properties Effect on Noise Propagations

R = dr /dδ
= - [ a / cosδ ] / (da/dz)
R δ
Pusat lengkungan
lintas rambat
Lintas perambatan
suara
x
sumber
z
Elemen gelombang
suara
a
a sinδ
δ
a cos δ
r
2.2.3.2 Sound Propagations Path Geometry in Troposphere
In the troposphere layer, the temperature tends to get colder with the altitude 
The speed of sound will get lower with the altitude
Due to this difference of speed in the
troposphere, the sound propagation path
geometry will be a curve
For the troposphere layer:
a / cosδ = constant (Snellius)
da/dz = λtrop = constant
The curve radius :
Therefore the radius of the curve (R) will be
constant along the propagation path  the
path of sound propagation will form segments
of circles

2.2.3.2 Sound Propagations Path Geometry in Troposphere …ctd
The propagation path in troposphere accounting the effect of temperature gradients
thus can be drawn as curves of waves as follows:
δ1  vectors angle of sound
speed at source = the
angle of the propagation
path asymptote with the X
axis, from the source point
Sound shadow zone
 a zone where the
propagation path do not
crossed  No sound from
source can be heard
Source
H1
x
z
L
a1 / ( da/dz)
Wave propagation
path
δ1
δ1 δ1
δ1
Sound
Shadow
zone

L , km
H , m
16
12
20
8
4
0
200 400 600 800 1000
λ = - 0.0065 oK/m
(troposphere)
Vw , m/s
5.
3.
1.
0
This ‘L’ value could be
used in defining the
location of a new
airport
2.2.3.3 Sound Shadow Zone
The horizontal distance between the sound shadow zone with the source, L, can
be described as the function of the source altitude and the wind velocity, as
follows:
 The higher the altitude,
the bigger L will be
 The higher the wind
velocity, the smaller the
L will be

V.t1
Sound sensors
aircraft flight
path
ro
V.t1
ro
ro
(a) Subsonic Velocity, V < a
On a subsonic flight, the
sound wave will always be
ahead of the aircraft
2.2.3.4 Aircraft Speed Effect on Noise Propagations
The sound sensors could be
located anywhere

ro
V.t1
ro
V.t1
shock wave
(b) Supersonic velocity, V > a
ro
Noise cannot be heard in
front of the shock wave
Noise could be heard
Behind the shock wave
The sound sensor only
works inside the shock
cone
2.2.3.4 Aircraft Speed Effect on Noise Propagations
On supersonic flight, the sound
wave always left behind the aircraft

2.2.3.5 Noise Footprint
By measuring the sound intensity on the earth surface with microphone (sound
sensors) on some certain location around a aircraft flight path, a contour of sound
intensity could be developed  Noise Footprint
noise footprint
Noise footprint could also be
developed using advanced
numerical computation
Unit used in noise
footprint is EPNdB
(effective perceived
noise decibel)  the
intensity of sound that
can be received and
percept by receiver

2.2.4 Regulations on Aircraft Noise
FAR part 36: Noise standard: Aircraft type and airworthiness certification
Subpart A – General
Subpart B – Transport category Large Airplanes and Jet Airplanes
Subpart C – Noise Limit for Supersonic Transport Category Airplanes
Sec. 36.101 – Noise Measurement and Evaluation
…
Sec. 36.103 – Noise Limit
(a) For subsonic transport category large airplanes and subsonic jet airplanes compliance with this section must be
shown with noise levels measured and evaluated as prescribed in appendix A of this part, and demonstrated at
the measuring points, and in accordance with the test procedures under section B36.8 (or an approved
equivalent procedure), stated under appendix B of this part.
(b) Type certification applications for subsonic transport category large airplanes and all subsonic jet airplanes
must show that the noise levels of the airplane are no greater than the Stage 3 noise limits stated in section
B36.5(c) of appendix B of this part.
Sec. 36.301 – Noise Limit: Concorde
(a) General. For the Concorde airplane, compliance with this subpart must be shown with noise levels
measured and evaluated as prescribed in Subpart B of this part, and demonstrated at the measuring points
prescribed in appendix B of this part.
(b) …
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) have already put the noise issue since 1975 (part 36).
The points of regulation changes from time to time in order to repressed the noise production even
more. In 2006, the fourth stage (Chapter 4 rule of ICAO) have been effective, lowering the
cumulative noise intensity by 10 EPNdB.
…
...

2.2.4 Regulations on Aircraft Noise …ctd
 Cumulative Noise Margin of Large Subsonic Transports Airplane

2.2.5 Technological Solutions on Aircraft Noise
Noise level requirement for airliners enforced all engine on airplane manufactured
before 1985 to use the Noise Suppression System
2.2.5.1 Noise Suppression System
Noise level for jet/turbine engine could be reduce using Noise Suppression System.
This system reduce the noise from jet burst by enlarging the surface of the nozzle
exhaust
Relative
noise
level
dB
By-pass ratio
without Noise Suppressor
with Noise Suppressor
Corrugated Nozzle
Lube type

2.2.5.2 Composite Nacelle
Noise from the engine (at
compressor and burning
chamber) can be repressed by
using composite material for the
engine Nacelle. The composite
material used can absorbed the
noise vibration.
Example:
Composite or Aluminum-lithium
forming a honeycomb structure to
absorbed the noise from engine.

2.2.5.3 Noise-Reduction Engine Technology
In order to fulfill the noise requirements,
new engines have been design and
developed using advanced methods and
technology (i.e. computational aero-
acoustics, new material, advanced gears
etc) to further reduce the noise.
Ex. the GP7000 (engine for A380)

2.3 Space Debris
2.3.1 General
Space debris or orbital debris, also called space junk and space waste, are the objects
in orbit around Earth created by humans, that no longer serve any useful purpose.
 Spent rocket stages
 Defunct satellites
 Explosion fragments
 Paint flakes
 Coolant (released by RORSAT
nuclear powered satellites)
 Needles
 and other small particles
A schematic showing the locations (not the size) of known
debris in Earth orbit. Note the heavy concentrations in low-
Earth orbit and geostationary orbit
There are millions orbiting earth,
about 9.000 (catalogued) of these
are smaller than a tennis ball,
some travels below 2000 km
altitude at approximately 36000
km/h.

Space debris has become a growing concern in recent years
 Collisions can damage satellites
 Produce Kessler Syndrome
 Endangered Astronauts on EVAs
 Could be missed perception by radars as hostile missile
2.3.1 General …ctd
1 mm
A 1 mm metal chip could do as
much damage as a .22-caliber
long rifle bullet
A pea-sized ball is as dangerous
as a 200-kg piano travelling at
100 kmh
A metal sphere the size of a
tennis ball is as lethal as 25
sticks of dynamite

Kessler Syndrome
A scenario proposed by NASA consultant
Donald J. Kessler
Volume of space debris in Low Earth Orbit
Objects in orbit are frequently struck by debris
Creating even more debris and a greater risk of
further impacts.
Render space exploration and eliminate the use
of satellites
It seems exaggerated  at low earth orbit, the
present of air drag could help clearing debris.
However, the creation rate of debris has
outpaced the removal rate, leading to a net
growth of approximately 5% per year.

The debris lifetime are also an issue  the higher the orbit altitude, the
longer the orbital debris will typically remain in Earth orbit.
 < 600 km  normally fall back to Earth within several years.
 +800 km  the time for orbital decay is often measured in decades.
 > 1,000 km  will normally continue circling the Earth for a century or more
Debris orbit eccentricity also affects its lifetime. The following figures show the
lifetime (in years) for a specific orbit; for low (left) and high (right) eccentricity

2.3.2 Debris Sources
2.3.2.1 Astronauts Lost Items and Garbages
Many astronauts stuff are lost during the EVAs. This includes:
Glove; Ed White of Gemini 4 (1st american space-walk)
This glove stayed in orbit at speed of 28000 kmh for a month (1965) 
the most dangerous garment in history
Camera; Michael Collins of Gemini 10
Wrench and Toothbrush from Soviet Mir Cosmonauts
Camera; Sunita Williams of STS-116
Pliers; STS-120
Nuts and Bolts; when constructing International Space Station
(ISS)
Some stuff are deliberately jettisoned to throw the garbage
out  The Mir has procedures to jettisonned garbage bags
to space. Even paint flakes could be a debris
Most of those unusual objects have re-entered the
atmosphere of the Earth within weeks

2.3.2.2 Unused Satellite and Satellite Fragmentation
Until recently, there are more than 2500 satellite which are not service any purposes, but
still orbiting the earth, 1335 of them are from the former Soviet Union, and 741 from the
US government. Indonesia also contribute 10 unused PALAPAs.
The oldest debris still in orbit is the second US
satellite, the Vanguard I, launched on 17th of
March 1958, thus 50 years old. It worked only
for 6 years.
165 mm
Since 1976, Indonesia’s
satellite has been orbiting the
earth, the PALAPAs. The
current operating PALAPA is
the PALAPA Telkom-2, launch
in 2005. In 2009, another
PALAPA (D series) will be
launched to replace the
current one
China has launched
polar orbit and
geosynchronous orbit
meteorological
satellites since 1988
labeled Fengyuns.
from the 9 satellites, 4
operational, 4 unused,
and 1 destroyed

 Since 1961, more than 190 man-made objects in Earth orbit (satellites) have
undergone moderate to serious breakups (fragmentation).
 Another 50 have undergone less energetic debris-producing events.
 The debris from these fragmentations now account for over 45% of all cataloged
satellites (typically larger than 10 cm in diameter) still in orbit.
 Cause of fragmentation 
• Accidental collisions
• Explosions involving residual
propellants or pressurants,
• Battery malfunctions,
• Self-destruction charges (deliberate)
• Space defense activities (deliberate)
• Unknown
Satellite Fragmentation
2.3.2.2 Unused Satellite and Satellite Fragmentation ...ctd

2.3.2.3 Impact, Collision, Explossion
Explosion events (accidental or deliberate) are a major contribution to the space debris
problem. About 100 tons of fragments generated during approximately 200 such events
are still in orbit. These event may caused by accidental collision, deliberated collision
(anti satellite missile) or self destruction.
FY-1C, one of the Fengyuns (Chinnese weather
satellite) is destroyed for a Chinnese anti-
satellite missile testing in January 11th, 2007 
contribute to the formation of orbital space
debris which remain in orbit for many years. 
the largest recorded debris creation event
(2317 trackable new debris piece)
Known orbit planes of Fengyun-1C
debris one month after its
disintegration by the Chinese ASAT

2.3.2.3 Impact, Collision, Explossion ..ctd
Briz-M, a Russian orbit
insertion booster stage
exploded in february 2007, a
year after its failure launch
into an unusable orbit,
producing over 1000 trackable
debris
The Briz-M upper stage
explodes over Australia
Cerise, a France military
recognaisance (spy) satellite has
been hited by a catalogued debris
which is segment of Ariane rocket.
The collision tore of 4.2 m of its
gravity-gradient stability boom 
still orbiting earth as debris

2.3.3 Orbital Debris Measurements
Measurements of near-Earth orbital debris are accomplished by conducting
ground-based and space-based observations of the orbital debris environment.
Data is acquired using :
Ground-based radars
Ground-based optical telescopes
Space-based telescopes
Analysis of spacecraft surfaces returned from space
Haystack X-Band Radar –
MIT Lincoln Laboratory
Located in Tyngsboro, Massachusets. These
radars collect 600 hrs of orbital debris data
each per year. They are NASA's primary
source of data on centimeter sized orbital
debris.

2.3.3 Orbital Debris Measurements ...ctd
Located outside of La Serena, Chile at the Cerro Tololo Inter-
American Observatory. The telescope is a 0.61/0.91 m f/3.5
Schmidt of classical design and is used for observations of
the geosynchronous orbit regime. Observations are taken in
two-week segments surrounding the new moon.
The Michigan Orbital Debris Survey Telescope
(MODEST)
Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF)
Is a cylindrical space experiment (a bus sized) rack which
exposed various material samples on it surface. It was left
in low Earth orbit (LEO) for 5.7 years until 1990. The LDEF
measurements (from the surface condition) have provided
NASA scientists important information (form over 2000
debris impact) not only on the micrometeoroid and orbital
debris populations, but their orbital distributions as well
Various materials

2.3.4 Debris Regulations
Until recently, there is no International treaty on issues of orbital debris. However, the
leading space agencies of the world have formed the Inter-Agency Space Debris
Coordination Committee (IADC) to address orbital debris issues and to encourage
operations in Earth orbit which limit the growth of orbital debris.
The IADC includes 
ASI (Agenzia Spaziale Italiana)
BNSC (British National Space Centre)
CNES (Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales)
CNSA (China National Space Administration)
DLR (German Aerospace Center)
ESA (European Space Agency)
ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation)
JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency)
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
NSAU (National Space Agency of Ukraine)
ROSCOSMOS (Russian Federal Space Agency)
In US, since 1988 the official policy has been to minimized the creation of new orbital debris.
NASA and the Department of Defense issued requirements governing the design and operation of
spacecraft and upper stages.
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the
Federal Communications Commission considers orbital debris issues in the licensing process for spacecraft
and upper stages under their auspices

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